UNIT I - AMPLITUDE MODULATION SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Communication is the process of conveying or transferring messages from one point to another.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A GENERAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

Information Destination
Transmitter Channel Receiver
source

Transmitting Section Receiving Section

Noise and
Distortion

Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a General Communication System.

Information Source:

 The source or information signal can be analog or digital such as the human voice or music or
in binary coded numbers.
 The source generates the message to be transmitted.

Transmitter:

The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and circuits designed to convert

the information into a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium.

Communication Channel:

 The channel is the medium by which the electrical signal sent from one place to another. The
channel can be of many forms like co-axial cable, microwave links or an optical fiber.
 Depending on the type of communication channel two types of communication will exist.

(i) Wire Communication or Line Communication:

It uses the communication medium like the simple wires or cables or optical fiber.
Here message transmission capability can be limited.

(ii) Wireless Communication or Radio Communication:

 Here the information signal is transmitted through free space by electromagnetic
waves called radio waves. Radio waves are radiated from the transmitter in open
space through a device called antenna.
  A receiving antenna intercepts the radio waves at the receiver.
 Wireless communication is mostly used for long distant communication as well as
wide coverage area. Example: TV or Radio broadcasting, Satellite communication.

Receiver:

The main functions of the receiver are

(i) Receive the message signal from channel.

(ii) Reproduce the signal in electrical form from the distorted received signal from the
channel.

REVIEW OF SPECTRAL CHARACTERESTICS OF PERIODIC

AND NON-PERIODIC SIGNALS:

Periodic Signal:

A periodic signal is one which repeats itself after every time interval T0.

where T0 is Time period of the signal.

Mathematically a function g(t) is said to be periodic when it satisfies the condition.

g(t) = g(t+T0)

Non-Periodic Signal:

Signals which do not satisfy the above condition are called non-periodic or aperiodic signals.

0 t

-T 0 T

Figure 1.2 (a) Periodic signal (b) Aperiodic signal.

Spectral Characteristics of Periodic Signal:

The spectral characteristics of periodic signals can be studied with the help of Fourier series.

 Fourier series used to analyse periodic signal.

 Fourier series provides frequency- domain model for periodic signal that is useful
for analysing their frequency content.
 Signals having finite energy over a finite interval and signals that are periodic with
finite energy within each period can both be represented by the Fourier series.
 Periodic signal x(t) with period T can be represented by exponential Fourier Series
of the form
 ( )=∑ ( )

Where ( )= ∫ ( ) dt
( ) = Fourier series coefficients; wo = 2 / T.

Properties of Fourier series:

1. Linearity:

If x(t) FS X(K) and y(t) FS Y(K)

This property is used to analyse signals which are represented as linear

combination of other signals.
2. Time Shift or Translation:

If x(t) FS X(K) then

Z(t) = x(t-to) FS Z(k) = X(k).

3. Frequency Shift:

If x(t) FS X(K) then

Z(t) = x(k) FS Z(k) = X(k-ko)

4. Scaling:

If x(t) FS X(K) then

Z(t) = x(at) FS Z(k) = X(k)

Fourier coefficients of x(t) and x(at) are same, but spacing between frequency
components change from wo to awo .

5. Time differentiation:

If x(t) FS X(K) then

dx(t) / dt FS jkwo X(k).

6. Convolution in Time:

If x(t) FS X(K) and y(t) FS Y(K) then

Z(t) = x(t) * y(t) FS Z(k) = T X(k) Y(K)

Convolution of two periodic signals results in multiplication of their Fourier

coefficients and period T.
 7. Multiplication (or) Modulation Theorem:

If x(t) FS X(K) and y(t) FS Y(K) then

Z(t) = x(t) y(t) FS Z(k) = X(k) *Y(K) .

8. Parseval’s Theorem:

If x(t) is the periodic signal with Fourier coefficients X(K), then average power in
the signal is given by ∑ | ( )|
ie; Power P = ∑ | ( )|
Power of the signal can be obtained by squaring and adding the magnitudes of
Fourier coefficients.

9. Symmetry properties:

If x(t) is real then X*(k) = X(-k)

If x(t) is imaginary then X*(k) = - X(-k)
If x(t) is real and even then Im{X(k)} = 0
If x(t) is real and odd then Re{X(k)} = 0.

Spectra of Periodic Signals:

The coefficients of the Fourier series of a signal are displayed in a set of two plots in the
frequency domain.

(i) Amplitude Spectra:

It is showing the amplitude of the spectral component Vs frequency.

(ii) Phase Spectra (or) Line Spectra:

It is showing the phase angle of the spectral component Vs frequency.

Problems:

1. Obtain exponential Fourier Series for the signal given below. Plot the magnitude and Phase
Spectrum also?
x(t) Periodic exponential pulse

Figure 1.3 Periodic Exponential Pulse

Hence period T = 0.5 and x(t) = over one period.

Solution:

Step:1 To obtain X(K).

( )= ∫ ( ) dt
wo = 2 / T = 4 and x(t) = for 0 to 0.5 ; ie;
.
( )= dt;
−
. ∫
. ( )
( )=2∫ dt;
= - 2/(1+j4 )[ ( ) . − 0
];

Hence = cos 2 – j sin 2 = 1 always.

= - 2/(1+j4 )[ ( . ) − − 1];

= - 2/(1+j4 ) [0.606- 1];

X(k) = 0.78698/(1+j4 )
Step:2 To express Exponential Fourier Series

Putting for ( ) in ( )=∑ ( )

( )=∑ . 7869/(1 + 4 )
Step:3 To obtain magnitude and Phase Spectrum of X(k):

X(k) = 0.78698/(1+j4 )

= [0.78698/ (1+j4 )] *[(1-j4 )/ (1-j4 )];

= [0.7869/ (1+(4 )2] –j[(0.7869* 4 )/(1+(4 )2]; -------(1)

| X(k)| = [0.7869/ 1 + (4 ) ] + [(0.7869 ∗ 4 )/1 + (4 ) ]

= (0.7869) (1 + (4 ) )/(1 + (4 ) ]

= 0.7869 / (1 + (4 )
and Phase Spectrum is given by

( )
∠X(k) = tan
( )

∠X(k) = − tan−1 [4 ]
 Following table lists the calculation of |X(k)| and ∠X(k)

Table 1.1 calculation of |X(k)| and ∠X(k)

K |X(k)| = 0.7869 / (1 + (4 ) ∠X(k) = − tan−1 [4 ]

In radians
-3 0.0208 1.5442
-2 0.0312 1.5310
-1 0.0624 1.491
0 0.7869 0
1 0.0624 - 1.491
2 0.0312 - 1.5310
3 0.0208 - 1.5442

Figure 1.4 Magnitude and Phase plot

2. Determine the complex exponential Fourier Series for periodic rectangular Pulse train given
below. Plot its magnitude and Phase Spectra.

x(t) Rectangular pulse train

-T0 - T/2 0 T/2 T0

 Figure 1.5 Rectangular pulse train

Solution:

Step 1: Step:1 To obtain X(K).

( )= ∫ ( ) dt
/
( )= ∫ /
dt
/
( )= ( ) /

/ /
( )= { − } since wo = 2 / T.

( )= sin( ) ----- (1) since = sin

Step2: To express Fourier Series

( )=∑ ( ) put X(k) value then

( )=∑ sin

Step3: To obtain magnitude and Phase Plot:

Let us assume the duty cycle of the waveform be T/T0 = 1/5 and amplitude A = 1

We know that wo = 2 / T0.; wo T = 2 / T0 = 2 /5.

/
Eqn(1) becomes | ( )| = sin( ) = sin( ) = sin(k /5)

sin(k /5)
= 1/5{ } since = sinc
/5

| ( )| = 0.2 sinc(k /5)

∠ ( ) = 0 since there is no imaginary part

| ( )| Magnitude plot

-10 -5 0 5 10 k

c c
v v
 ∠ ( ) Phase plot

K
c
v
Figure 1.6 Magnitude and Phase plot

Magnitude spectrum has the shape of ‘Sinc’ function which passes through zero at k = ± 5, ± 10…..

Since X(k) is real , there is no Phase shift.

Spectral Characteristics of Non-Periodic Signal:

 The spectral characteristics of non-periodic signals can be studied with the help of Fourier
Transform.
 Fourier transform provides effective reversible link between frequency domain and time
domain representation of the signal.
 For non-periodic signals T0 ∞.Hence wo = 0, Therefore spacing between the spectral
components becomes infinitesimal and hence the spectrum appears to be continuous.

Definition of Fourier Transform:

Fourier transform of x(t) is defined as

( )= ∫ ( ) dt (or)

( )= ∫ ( ) dt

X(t) is the time domain representation of the signal.

X( ) is the Frequency domain representation of the signal.

Definition of Inverse Fourier Transform:

( )= ∫ ( ) dw (or)

( )= ∫ ( ) df

Properties of Fourier Transform:

1. Linearity:

If x(t) FT X(w) and y(t) FT Y(w) then

Z(t) = ax(t) + by(t) FT Z(w) = a X(W) + b Y(W)

 The Fourier Transform of linear combination of the signals is equal to linear combination
of their Fourier Transforms. It is also called Superposition.

2. Time Shift:

If x(t) FT X(w) then y(t) = x(t) FT X(W)=X(W- )

It states that by shifting the frequency by ′ in frequency domain is equivalent to
multiplying the time domain signal by .
3. Time Scaling:
If x(t) FT X(w) then y(t) = x(at) FT Y(W)= X( )
| |
Compression of a signal in time domain is equivalent to expansion in frequency domain
and vice versa.
4. Frequency Differentiation:
( )
If x(t) FT X(w) then -jt x(t) FT

Differentiation of the frequency spectrum is equivalent to multiplying the domain

signal by complex number –jt..

5. Time differentiation:

If x(t) FT X(w) then dx(t) / dt FT jw X(w).

Differentiation in time domain corresponds to multiplying by jw in frequency domain.

It accentuates high frequency components of the signal.

6. Convolution:
If x(t) FT X(w) and y(t) FT Y(w) then

Z(t) = x(t) * y(t) FT Z(w) = X(w). Y(w) .

A Convolution operation is transformed to modulation in frequency domain.

7. Integration:
If x(t) FT X(w) then

∫ ( ) dt FT X (w)

Integration in time represents smoothing in time domain. This smoothing in time

corresponds to de- emphasizing the high frequency components of the signal.

8. Modulation:
If x(t) FT X(w) and y(t) FT Y(w) then
Z(t) = x(t) y(t) FT Z(w) = [X(w) *Y (w)].

Modulation in time domain corresponds to convolution of spectrums in frequency domain.

 9. Duality:
If x(t) FT X(w) then x(t) FT 2 x(-w)

10. Symmetry:

Let x(t) be real signal and X(w) = XR(w) + j XI(w) then

xe(t) FT XR(w) and xo(t) FT j XI(w)
Hence xe(t) , xo(t) are even and odd parts of signal x(t) respectively.

11. Parseval’s Theorem or Rayleigh’s theorem:

If x(t) FT X(w) then

E=∫ | ( )| dt

= ∫ | ( )| dw = − ∫ | ( )| df

Energy of the signal can be obtained by interchanging its energy spectrum.

Problem:

1. Obtain the Fourier Transform of signal e-at u(t) and plot its magnitude and Phase spectrum.

Solution:

x(t) = e-at u(t) ; X(w) = ∫ −

u(t) dt since u(t) = 1 for t≥ 0, limits of

above integration will be from 0 to ∞ ie.,

( )
X(w) = ∫ −
dt ; X(w) = ∫ ( ) dt = [ ] ie;
( )

X(w) = ; To obtain Magnitude and Phase spectrum Multiply both side by a-jw

X(w) = * = - ;

2+ 2 1
|X(w)| = [ 2+ 2] + [ 2+ 2] = 2 = 2
( + 2)2 ( + 2)

and Phase Spectrum is given by

( )
∠X(k) = tan
( )
 −
−1 2+ 2
∠X(k) = − tan { } = − tan−1 { } The following fig shows the magnitude
2+ 2
and phase plots for a = 1 and varying w.

|X(w)| Magnitude plot ∠ ( ) Phase plot

0 w
0 w

Figure 1.7 Magnitude and Phase plot

MODULATION:

 Modulation is a fundamental requisite for communication to achieve long distance

communication.
 Modulation is the process of placing the message signal over some carrier to make it
suitable for transmission over long distance.
 Signals containing information or intelligence to be transmitted are referred to as
modulating signal (or) baseband signal (or) Information bearing signal.
 The carrier is supposed to carry the message signal from transmitter to receiver.
 The carrier frequency is much greater than the modulating frequencies.
 The signal resulting from the process of modulation is called modulated signal.

Definition:

Modulation may be defined as the process by which some characteristics of a carrier is

varied in accordance with the modulating signal.

Modulation  at transmitting side; Demodulation at receiving side.

NEED FOR MODULATION (OR) ADVANTAGES OF MODULATION:

(i) Easy of Radiation:

As the signals are translated to higher frequencies, it becomes relatively easier to
design amplifier circuits as well as antenna systems at these increased frequencies.
(ii) Adjustment of Bandwidth:
Bandwidth of a modulated signal may be made smaller or larger than the original
signal. Signal to noise ratio in the receiver which is a function of the signal bandwidth can
thus be improved by proper control of bandwidth at the modulating stage.
(iii) Reduction in height of antenna:
When free space is used as a communication media, messages are transmitted and
received with the help of antennas. The antenna radiates effectively when its height is in
the order of wavelength of the signal to be transmitted.
For example, for a frequency of 1KHz , the height of the antenna required for
effective radiation would be half the wavelength,

∗
ie; Antenna height = = = = 150 Km (∵ c = f ; = )
∗ ∗

The antenna of this height is practically impossible to install.

Now consider a modulated signal f = 10MHz. The minimum antenna height is given by

∗
Antenna height = = = = 150 m.
∗ ∗

This antenna height can be practically achieved.

(iv) Avoids mixing of signals:

Each modulating signal (message signal) is modulated with different carrier then
they will occupy different slots in the frequency domain (different channels). Thus
modulation avoids mixing of signals.

(v) Increases the range of communication:

 The frequency of the baseband signal is low and low frequency signals cannot travel
along distance when they are transmitted.
 The modulation process increases the frequency of the signal to be transmitted. Hence
increases the range of communication.
 The attenuation reduces with increase in frequency of the transmitted signal and they
travel long distance.

(vi) Multiplexing:
If more than one signal uses a single channel then modulation may be used to
translate different signals to different spectral location, thus enabling the receiver to select
the desired signal.

(vii) Improves quality of reception:

Due to modulation, the effect of noise is reduced to great extent. This improves
quality of reception.
 Classification of Modulation
MODULATION

Analog Modulation Digital Modulation

Continuous Modulation Pulse analog Modulation PCM DM ADM DRM

(Carrier is Continuous ) (Carrier is Pulse )

Amplitude Modulation Angle Modulation PAM PWM PPM

DSB-SC SSB VSB Phase Modulation(PM) Frequency Modulation (FM)

WB FM NB FM

Where PAM – Pulse Amplitude Modulation

PWM - Pulse Width Modulation

PPM - Pulse Position Modulation

PCM - Pulse Code Modulation

DM – Delta Modulation

ADM – Adaptive Delta Modulation

DPCM – Differential Pulse Code Modulation.

DSB-SC – Double Side Band Supressed Carrier

SSB – Single Side Band

VSB – Vestigial Side Band

AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM) or DOUBLE – SIDEBAND FULL CARRIER (DSB-FC):

Definition:

Amplitude modulation is the process by which the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied
in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, but frequency and phase
remains constant.

Derivation of Amplitude Modulation OR Representation of AM:

Let the modulating signal Vm (t) = Vm sin(wmt) ------- (1)

The carrier signal is represented by Vc (t) = Vc sin(wc t) --------(2)
Where Vc ---- Amplitude of the Carrier Signal
Vm ---- Amplitude of the modulating Signal
According to the definition, the amplitude of the carrier signal is changed after modulation
VAM = Vc + Vm (t) ;---------------(3)
Substitute eqn 1 in 3 then

VAM = Vc + Vm sin(wmt) = Vc [ 1 + sin(wmt) ] = Vc [ 1 + ma sin(wmt) ] ----(4)

Where ma = = Modulation Index (or) Depth of Modulation.

Hence AM wave is given by VAM (t) = VAM sin(wct) ------(5)

Substitute eqn (4) in eqn (5) then

VAM (t) = Vc [ 1 + ma sin(wmt) ] sin(wct) -----(6) (OR)

VAM (t) = Vc [ 1 + ma sin(2 fmt) ] sin(2 fc t )

VAM (t) = Vc sin(wct) + Vc ma sin(wmt) sin(wct) ;

( ) ( )
We know that sin(wmt) sin(wct) = ;

( ) ( )
VAM (t) = Vc sin(wct) + Vc ma [ ];

VAM (t) = Vc sin(wct) + cos(wm − wc ) t - cos(wm + wc ) t ;

Carrier Lower side band Upper side band

The negative(-) sign associated with the USB represents a Phase shift of 1800. This
equation represents the time domain behaviour of AM signal.

AM Envelope:

 The shape of the modulated signal is called as AM envelope which contains all the
frequencies and is used to transfer the information through the system.
 An increase in the modulating signal amplitude causes the amplitude of the carrier
to increase. If message signal is absent, the output is simply the carrier signal.
 The shape of the envelope is identical to shape of the modulating signal. The
repetition rate of the envelope is equal to the frequency of the modulating signal.
 Figure 1.8 Message signal ,Carrier signal and AM signal

AM FREQUENCY SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH:

Amplitude modulated wave

VAM (t) = Vc sin(wct) + cos(wm − wc ) t - cos(wm + wc ) t ;

The expression for the AM wave shows that it consists of three terms
(i) I st term represents the carrier wave.
(ii) The IInd term represents a sinusoidal signal at frequency (fc- fm). It is called as lower
sideband. Its amplitude is .
(iii) The IIIrd term represents a sinusoidal signal at frequency (fc + fm). It is called as upper
sideband. Its amplitude is .
 Frequency spectrum of AM wave

Amplitude
Vc

. LSB USB .
wm wm

wm − wc wc wm + wc Frequency
Bandwidth = 2 wm = 2 fm

Figure 1.9 Frequency spectrum of AM wave

Side Bands:

 Whenever a carrier is modulated by an information signal, now at different

frequencies are generated as part of the process. These new frequencies are called
side frequencies or Side bands.

 The side bands are occurs in the frequency spectrum directly above and below the
carrier frequency. Assuming a carrier frequency of fc and modulating frequency of
fm, the upper sideband fUSB and lower side band fLSB are computed as follows.

fUSB = wm + wc ; fLSB = wm − wc

Band Width of AM :

The band width of the AM signal is given by the subtraction of highest and lowest
frequency component in the frequency spectrum.

B = fUSB -- fLSB; B = (fc + fm) - (fc- fm) = 2fm

B = 2fm

Where B - Bandwidth in Hertz,

fm - Highest modulation frequency in Hertz.

Thus band width of AM signal is twice of the maximum frequency of the modulating signal.
Phasor Representation of an AM with Carrier:

Vc ma
+ wm (USB)
2

Carrier Resultant

0 AM Phasor VAM(t)

Vc

-wm

(LSB)

Figure 1.10 Phasor representation of an AM wave with carrier.

 The amplitude variation in an AM system can be explained with the help of Phasor
diagram.
 Vc is carrier wave phasor taken as reference phasor.
 The phasor for the upper sideband rotates anticlockwise at an angular frequency of wm .
 The phasor for the lower side band rotates clockwise at the same angular frequency wm..

and the resulting phasor is VAM(t) , the vector sum of two side bands with carrier . It
depends on the position of the sideband phasor and carrier wave phasor.

 The phasors for the carrier and upper and lower side frequencies combine, sometimes in
phase (adding) and sometimes out of phase (subtracting) .

Coefficient of Modulation or Modulation Index (ma):

 Modulation index is a term used to describe the amount of amplitude change present
in an AM wave.
 Modulation index is defined as the ratio of maximum amplitude of modulating signal to
the amplitude of carrier signal. i.e.,
ma= Vm/Vc
 The modulation index should be a number between 0 and 1.

Degree of Modulation:

 The modulating signals presented in the envelope of amplitude modulated signal

only if Vm < Vc than ma < 1.

 In AM three types of degree of modulation are available. It depends upon the amplitude of
the modulating signal relative to the carrier.
 (i) Under Modulation ( ma < 1 and Vm < Vc )
(ii) Critical Modulation ( ma = 1 and Vm = Vc )
(iii) Over Modulation ( ma > 1 and Vm > Vc )

Under Modulation : ( ma < 1 and Vm < Vc )

Here the envelope of the modulated signals does not reach the zero amplitude axis . Hence the
signal is fully preserved in the envelope of the AM wave.

The envelope detector can recover the message signal without any distortion.

Vm

- Vm

Figure 1.11 AM wave for percentage modulation less than 100%

Critical Modulation ( ma = 1 and Vm = Vc ):

ma = 1 when Vm = Vc

Here envelope of the modulated signal just reaches the zero amplitude axis . The message
signal remains preserved,

An envelope detector can recover the message signal without any distortion.
 Figure 1.12 Critical modulation

Over Modulation ( ma > 1 and Vm > Vc ) :

 Here both the positive and negative extensions of the modulating signals are cancelled or
clipped out. The amplitude of a baseband signal exceeds carrier amplitude.
 The envelope and message signal are not same. This is called envelope distortion. Due to
this envelope detector provides distorted message signal.
 An over modulation signal can be recovered using a costly and as well as complex
technique Synchronous detection.

Figure 1.13 Over Modulation

Percentage Modulation:

 When modulator index is expressed in percentage it is called percentage modulation.

 Percentage modulation gives percentage change in the amplitude of the output wave when
the carrier is acted on by a modulating signal.

For example ma = 0.5 corresponds to 50 % Modulation.

% Modulation = Vm/Vc * 100 = ma * 100

 It also expressed as

% ma = * 100

AM POWER DISTRIBUTION:

 The modulated wave contains three terms such as carrier wave, LSB and USB. Therefore
the modulated wave contains more power than the carrier had before modulation took
place.
 The modulated wave contains extra power in the two sideband components. The amplitude
of the sidebands depends on the modulation index ‘ma’. Therefore the total power in the
modulated wave will depend on the modulation index also.
 The total power in the modulated wave will be

Pt = [carrier power] + [power in LSB] + [power in USB]

Pt = Pc + PLSB + PUSB --------- (1)

Pt = V2 carrier/R + V2 LSB/R + V2 USB/R --------- (2)

Where V carrier – rms value of carrier voltages

VLSB and VUSB are rms value of upper and lower sideband voltages.

R – Resistance in which power is dissipated.

Carrier Power Pc = V2 carrier/R = (Vc/√2 )2/ R.

Pc = Vc2/ 2R ------(3)

Where Pc – carrier Power(watts) ; Vc – Peak carrier voltage; R – Load Resistance (ohms).

Power in the side bands:

The upper and lower side bands Powers are expressed mathematically as

PLSB = PUSB = V2SB/R ={ maVc/2/√2 )2/ R = ma2Vc2/8R ---------(4)

Where VSB = maVc/2 – maximum amplitude of sidebands.

Total power in AM:

Substitute eqn 3 and 4 in 1

Pt = Pc + PLSB + PUSB

Pt = Vc2/2R + ma2Vc2/8R + ma2Vc2/8R

Pt = Vc2/2R + ma2Vc2/4R

Pt = Vc2/2R[1 + ma2/2]

Pt = Pc[1 + ma2/2] ---------------(5)

 Pt/Pc = 1+ ma2/2

If ma = 1 for 100% modulation then Pt/Pc = 1.5

Pt = 1.5 Pc

Power(w)

LSB Vc USB

. PUSB = ma2Pc/4

f LSB fc fUSB Frequency

Figure 1.14 Power Spectrum for an AM wave.

Modulation index in terms of Pt and Pc :

Pt/Pc = 1+ ma2/2 ;

ma2/2 = Pt/Pc – 1;

ma = ( / – )

Current Calculations:

We know that Pt = Pc[1 + ma2/2] ; Pt = It2R and Pc = Ic2R;

Where Pt – Total transmit power (watts);

Pc – Carrier Power;

It – Total transmit current;

Ic – Carrier current;

R – Antenna resistance.

Pt/Pc = It2R / Ic2R = 1+ ma2/2;

It2 / Ic2 = 1+ ma2/2; It/ Ic = [1 + ( )2]/2

It = Ic [ + ( ) ]/

Modulation Index in terms of Current:

It2 / Ic2 = 1+ ma2/2 ; ma2/2 = It2 / Ic2 – 1

 ma2 = 2(It2 / Ic2 -1);

ma = ( ) −

Transmission Efficiency:

 The amount of useful message power present in AM wave is expressed by transmission

efficiency.
 It can be defined as the ratio of power in sidebands to total power, because sidebands only
contain the useful information.

% η = Power in sideband / Total power * 100

= PLSB + PUSB / Ptotal * 100

= ( ma2Vc2/8R + ma2Vc2/8R ) / Vc2/2R[1 + ma2/2] * 100

= Vc2/2R[ma2/4 + ma2/4] / Vc2/2R[1 + ma2/2] *100

= (ma2/2) / [1 + ma2/2] *100 = ma2 / (2+ ma2) *100

If ma = 1 then % η = 1/3 *100 = 33.3%;

% η =33.3%

 Only 33.3% of energy is used and remaining power is wasted by the carrier information
along with the sidebands. The maximum transmission efficiency of the AM is 33.3% .This
means that only one-third of the total power is carried by the sidebands and the rest two-
third is a waste.

Modulation by several sine waves or complex Information signal:

In practice modulation of a carrier by several sine waves simultaneously are needed.

Let V1,V2,V3…… etc be the simultaneous modulation voltages with frequencies fm1, fm2,fm3…

Then the total modulating voltage Vt will be equal to the square root of sum of square of individual
voltages

Vt = + + ….

Total modulation index

mt = + + ….

Advantages

(i) AM is a relatively inexpensive.

(ii) AM wave can travel a long distance.
(iii) It covers large area than FM.
(iv) AM has the advantage of being usable with very simple modulators and demodulators.
Dis advantages

(i) Poor performance in presence of noise.

(ii) AM is wasteful of Power
(iii) AM is wasteful of Bandwidth.

Application

(i) Low quality form of modulation that is used for commercial broadcasting of both audio
and video signals.
(ii) Two – way mobile radio communication such as citizens band(CB) radio.
(iii) Aircraft communications in the VHF frequency range.

GENERATION OF AM WAVES (OR) AM MODULATORS:

The device which is used to generate an amplitude modulated wave is known as amplitude
modulator. The methods for generation of AM waves are broadly divided into two parts. They are

(i) Square law or nonlinear modulator circuits

(ii) Linear modulator circuits

Based on the power level at which modulation is carried out may be termed as

(i) Low level Modulators

(ii) High level Modulators

In general square low modulators are low level modulators while linear modulators are high level
modulators

GENERATION OF AM WAVES USING NONLINEAR PROPERLY

(OR) NON LINEAR MODULATORS.

 A simple diode or transistor or FET can be used as nonlinear modulator by

restricting the operation over the non linear region of its characteristics.
 In this case the input to the device is kept so small, then the device operates in a
nonlinear region of its V-I characteristics. This method is useful only for small
signal amplitude modulation.
 The methods for generation of AM waves using nonlinear property are broadly
divided into two types
(i) Square law Modulator
(ii) Balanced Modulators

SQUARE LAW MODULATOR:

Construction: A Square-law modulator circuit consists of the following elements

(i) A nonlinear element

(ii) A carrier source and modulating waves,
(iii) Band pass filter for extracting the desired modulation products.
 Modulated
+ Nonlinear Filter
Modulating Signal
element
Signal
~

Carrier signal

Figure 1.15 Block diagram of Square Law Modulator

Operation:

The modulating signal and carrier are connected in series with each other their sum V1(t)

is applied at the input of the nonlinear devices , such as diode , transistor etc.

Figure 1.16 Square Law Modulator

m(t) –modulating signal Vmsinwmt;

C(t) _ Carrier signal Vcsinwct

V1(t) = Vmsinwmt + Vcsinwct -----(1)

The input and output relation for nonlinear device is as follows.

V2(t) = a V1(t) + b V12(t) ----(2)

Where a & b are constants.

Substituting eqn 1 in 2 we get

V2(t) = a [Vmsinwmt + Vcsinwct ] + b [Vmsinwmt + Vcsinwct ]2

= aVmsinwmt +a Vcsinwct +b Vm 2sin2wmt + bVc 2sin2wct + 2b [ Vm sinwmt Vc sinwct ]

When the bandpass filter is tuned to the carrier frequency it allows only wc , (wc - wm) and
 (wc + wm) . Neglecting second and higher order terms.

Hence we obtain

V2(t) = a Vcsinwct + b Vm Vc [ cos(wc - wm) t – cos (wc +wm) t]

Since 2sinwmtsinwct = cos(wc - wm) t – cos (wc +wm) t

 This equation is the generalized equation of an AM wave, hence AM wave is generated.

 The diode modulator does not provide amplification and a single diode is unable to
balance out the undesired frequency completely.
 These limitations can be eliminated by using amplifying devices like transistor, FET in a
balanced mode.

Balanced Modulator:

 The circuit that is very commonly used for AM generation. In this modulator, two non-
linear devices are connected in the balanced mode.
 It is assumed that the two transistors are identical and the circuit is symmetrical. Since the
operation is confined in non-linear region of its transfer characteristics.

Figure 1.17 Balanced Modulator

 The carrier voltage across two windings of a centre – tap transformer are equal and
opposite in phase Vc = V'c. The input to transistor T1 is given by

Vbc = Vc + Vm

Vbc = Vc sinwct+ Vm sin wmt -----(1)

 Since both Vc and Vm are in –phase.

Similarly the input voltage to transistor T2 is given by

V'bc = V'c + Vm

V'bc = -Vc sinwct+ Vm sin wmt ----(2)

By the nonlinearity relationship, the collector current can be written as

I1 = a1 Vbc + a2 (Vbc )2 -----(3)

I1' = a1 V'bc + a2 (V'bc )2 -----(4)

Substituting eqn 1 in 3 we get

I1 = a1[Vc sinwct+ Vm sin wmt ] + a2[Vc sinwct+ Vm sin wmt ]2

I1 = a1[Vc sinwct+ Vm sin wmt] + a2[Vc2 sin 2wct+ Vm 2sin 2 wmt +2 Vm Vc sinwct sin wmt ] (5)

Similarly Substituting eqn 2 in 4 we get

I1' = a1[-Vc sinwct+ Vm sin wmt] + a2[Vc2 sin 2wct+ Vm 2sin 2 wmt -2 Vm Vc sinwct sin wmt] (6)

Output voltage Vo is given by

Vo = k(I1 – I1') ---(7)

This is because I1 and I1' flow in opposite directions in a tuned circuit. K is a constant depending
on impedance and other circuit parameters.

Substituting eqn 5 and 6 in 7 we get

Vo = 2k a1Vc sinwct + 4ka2 Vm Vc sinwct sin wmt

The other terms are balanced out.

Vo = 2k a1Vc[ 1 + 2(a2/a1)Vm sin wmt] sinwct

Vo = 2k a1Vc[ 1 + masin wmt] sinwct

Where ma = 2(a2/a1)Vm is the modulation index.

Advantages of a balanced modulators over other Non – linear Modulators:

(i) In simple non – linear circuits the undesired non – linear terms (harmonics) are
eliminated by a band pass filter. Hence the band pass filter must be carefully
designed.
(ii) But in a balanced modulator, the undesired non-linear terms are automatically
balanced but at the output we get only the desired terms, so filter design is not
required.
Drawbacks of Non – linear Modulator:

(i) Heavy filtering is required to remove the unwanted terms present in the output of
the modulators.
(ii) The output power level is also very low. Hence a substantial linear amplification is
necessary to bring the power up to the desired level to reduce these problems linear
modulators are used.

Generation of AM waves using Linear Property (or) Linear Modulators:

In this type of modulators the devices are operated in linear region of its transfer
characteristics thus the relation between the amplitude of the modulating signal and the resulting
depth of modulation is linear.

The important linear modulator is

(i) Switching modulators (or) Chopper Modulators.

(ii) Transistor Modulators.

Switching Modulators:

 Basically linear modulators are high level modulators and are arranged so that undesired
modulation products never fully develop and need not be filtered out.

This is usually accomplished with the aid of a switching device.

Figure 1.18 A Simple Diode Switching Modulator

 In which the switching action is provided by a simple diode. The input signal is consisting
of message and carrier signal. The carrier wave is applied to the diode is large in
amplitude, so that the switching action of the diode is controlled by carrier.
 We assume that the diode acts as ideal switch ie; the diode is forward biased for every
positive half cycle of the carrier. And behaves like a short circuited switch. The signal
appears at the input of the band pass filter.
 For a negative half cycle of the carrier the diode is reverse biased and behaves like an open
switch. The signal does not reach the filter, and no output is obtained. Thus the signal is
modulated at the rate of carrier frequency.
 The output of band pass filter is tuned to the carrier frequency hence it allows all the Vc
terms and rejects other frequency terms.
 The input voltage V1(t)

V1(t) = Vc sinwct+ Vm sin wmt where Vm << Vc

The resulting load voltage Vo(t) is

Vo(t) = { V1(t) Vc > 0;

0 Vc < 0; }

 The switching action is equal to multiplication of input signal with periodic signal g(t) with
frequency wc . The Fourier series representation of g(t) can be written as

( )
g(t) = ½ + 2/ ∑ cos[2 (2 − 1)]
( )

The load voltage Vo(t) = V1(t) * g(t)

( )
= Vc sinwct+ Vm sin wmt * [½ + 2/ ∑ cos[2 (2 − 1)]]
( )

= Vm sin wmt + sinwct [½ + 2/ coswct - 2/3 cos3wct +……]

Vo(t) = sinwct +2/ sinwmt coswct + other terms

The high frequency and dc components are eliminated by band pass filter thus the resultant output
is given by

Vo(t) = [ 1 +ma sinwmt ] sinwct

Thus the required AM wave is generated using a switching modulator.

Transistor Modulators:

 Amplifying devices like transistors, FET etc can provide amplification. Transistor can be used for
generating AM by varying their gain parameters in accordance with the modulating signal.
 The modulating signal can be conveniently supplied on any of the three terminals of the device
emitter, base and collector. Accordingly the type of modulator will be called
(i) Emitter Modulation
(ii) Collector Modulation
(iii) Base Modulation

Emitter Modulation or Low power AM:

 As the name indicates the emitter modulator the modulating signal is injected into the emitter and
the carrier signal is injected in the base.
 The resistors R1 and R2 can be used to provide proper biasing. RE & CE can be used for bias
stabilization. The main requirement of emitter modulator is, it needs to operate in both saturation
and cut-off region to produce necessary nonlinearity to generate AM.
 Figure 1.19 Emitter Modulator

 The amplitude of the modulated signal depends on the carrier and voltage gain of the amplifier. A
small signal class A amplifier can be used as amplitude modulator. When no modulating signal is
present, the circuit operates as linear class ‘A’ amplifier and the output is amplified carrier signal.
 When modulating signal is present the amplifier operates nonlinearly and multiply the two signals
as a result of AM is generated. The modulating signal varies the gain of the amplifier at a rate of
modulating signal, thus the depth of modulation is directly proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.

The voltage gain of emitter modulator is given

Av = [1 + maVmsin (2 fmt) ] -----(1)

Where Av – voltage gain with modulation

– voltage gain without modulation

Voltage gain Av = Vo/Vi

Vo = Av – Vi ---(2)

Vi = Vc sinwct ----(3)

Now substitute the value of Av and Vi in Vo we get ,ie., put eqn 1 and 3 in 2.

Vo = [ 1+ maVm sin(2 fmt) ] Vc sinwct

 Vo = Vc sinwct + ½ maVmVc[ cos(wc-wm)t – cos (wc+wm)t]

Carrier LSB USB

 Thus AM wave is generated.

 In emitter modulation the amplitude of the output signal depends on the amplitude of input carrier
and voltage gain of the amplifier.

Drawbacks:

(i) The amplifier is operated in class ‘A’ mode. Thus efficiency is low.
(ii) The output power is very small. Thus it is not suitable for generating high level
modulation.

COLLECTOR MODULATION (OR) MEDIUM AND HIGH POWER AM MODULATOR:

In this case, the modulating signal is applied at the collector terminal and carrier signal is
applied at the base hence it is known as collector modulation.

Figure 1.20 Collector Modulation Circuit

CONSTRUCTION:

 Transfer T1 forms RF amplifier in “class C” model for higher efficiency. The carrier signal is
applied at the base of T1. Vcc is the collector supply for biasing. Transistor T2 forms a “classB”
amplifier used to amplify the modulating signal. After amplification the modulating signal appears
across the modulating transformer.
 This modulating signal exists in series with the collector supply Vcc. The capacitor “C” offers
very low path for the carrier signal and as such the carrier is prevented from flowing through
modulating transformer Tr1
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:

 The carrier signal is amplified by the class C modulated amplifier and its amplitude remains
constant equal to Vcc as no voltage exists across the modulating transformer Tr1 in the absence of
modulating voltage.
 When modulating voltage Vmsinwmt appears across the modulating transformer Tr1, its voltage
will added with the supply voltage Vcc ,the net effect is a slow variation in supply voltage Vcc.
 The slow variation in supply voltage changes the amplitude of the carrier voltage at the output of
the modulated class C amplifier. The envelope of the output voltage is identical with modulating
voltage, and thus an AM wave is generated.
 The slowly varying supply voltage is given by the amplitude modulated voltage

= Vcc + Vmsinwmt = Vcc[ 1 + Vm/Vcc sinwmt] = Vcc [1 + ma sinwmt]

 The modulated output voltage is given by

Vo(t) = Vcc [1 + ma sinwmt] sinwct

Figure 1.21 Characteristics

Power and Efficiency Calculation:

 The modulated power delivered to the output load depends on the input supplied by the supply
voltage and the power dissipation in the collector circuit. Out of the total power in the collector
circuit, only a part of it reaches the output load, the remaining power is lost in the collector circuit.
 This loss is due to the collector resistance and other dissipating components.

Let Pin = Input power in the collector circuit

 Pout = Output power delivered to a load RL

Pd = Power dissipation in the collector circuits

Pin = Pout + Pd ------(1)

Pd = Pin – Pout

Pd = Pin{1-Pout/Pin}

COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY:

 The ratio of output power and input power in the collector circuit is delivered as collector circuit
efficiency denoted as .

= Pout/Pin -------( 2)

Hence Pd = Pin (1- ) -----(3)

Hence Pin = Pcc (1 + ma2/2) ---(4)

Where Pcc = Vcc * Ic is the power supplied by Vcc

Substitute eqn 4 in 3

Pd = Pcc [1 + ma2/2] (1- )

 This dissipation in the collector circuit increases with an increase in modulation index. This
dissipation generates heat.

Pout = Pin = Pcc (1 + ma2/2)

The modulated output is obtained at the collector.

Advantages:

(i) Better linearity

(ii) High collector efficiency
(iii) Higher output power per transistor.
(iv) It produces more symmetrical envelope.

Disadvantages:

(i) Large modulating power is required when the modulating amplifier used for high
power applications.
(ii) Collector saturation prevents 100% modulation from being achieved with just the
collector being modulated.
Comparison between linear and nonlinear Modulators:

Sl.no Linear Modulators Non-Linear Modulators

1 Heavy filtering is not required while extracting Heavy filtering is required for extracting the
the desired modulated frequency terms desired modulated frequency terms

2 These modulators are used in high level These modulators are used in low level
modulation modulation

3 The carrier voltage is very much greater than The modulating signal voltage is very much
the modulating signal voltage ie.,Vc>>Vm greater than the carrier voltage ie.,Vm>> Vc

AM Demodulation:

The process of recovering the original modulating signal from a modulated wave is termed as
demodulation or detection.

Demodulation is exactly the opposite process of the modulation.

Types of AM detectors:

AM detectors are basically of two types

Non coherent or Envelope detection

(i) Linear detectors

Coherent or Synchronous detection

(ii) Non-Linear detectors or Square law detectors

Non-Linear detectors:

A device is said to be non-linear if the output is not a linear function of the input amplitude. ie the
device should work in the nonlinear portion of its transfer characteristics .

Two types of nonlinear detectors are

(i) Square law detector

(ii) Rectifier detector.

Square law detector:

Low level modulated signal can be detected by using Square law detectors in which a device
operating in the non-linear region is used to detect the baseband signal.
 The circuit is very similar to square law modulator, the only difference is a LPF instead of BPF
used in modulator.

Figure 1.22 Square Law Detector

 A diode can be used as a Square law detector if it is made to operate in the nonlinear portion of its
dynamic V-I characteristics. The dc source Vd is used to adjust the operating point.
 When modulated signal is applied at the detector input the operation takes place over nonlinear
region of characteristics due to which the lower half portion of the current waveform is
compressed. This causes envelope distortion.
 The average diode current of the detector consists of steady or DC component and all time varying
AC component at the modulation frequency. Therefore the current does not remain constant and
varies with time.
 The output of the diode passes through RC combination and the capacitor C bypasses all the
RF(ac) components and modulating frequency terms to flow through the load resistor ‘R’ ,thus
producing the desired detected output.

The distorted diode – current is given by the non – linear (square Law) relation

I = a1V +a2V2 -----(1)

Where V is the input modulated voltage

V = Vc( 1+masinwmt)sinwct -------(2)

Substituting eqn 2 in 1

I = a1 (Vc( 1+masinwmt)sinwct) +a2(Vc( 1+masinwmt)sinwct)2

I = a1Vcsinwct[1+masinwmt] + a2Vc2sin2wct[ 1+masinwmt]2

I = a1Vcsinwct[1+masinwmt] + a2Vc2/2(1-cos2wct)[ 1+ma2sin 2wmt + 2masinwmt]

 This current is passed through a lowpass filter which allows to pass the frequencies upto wm and
suppress the other higher components. Thus the baseband signal with frequency wm is recovered
from the modulating signal.
 I = a2 Vc2/2 + a2 Vc2/2 (2masinwmt)

Distortion:

 The nonlinear characteristics of the diode produce additional frequency components. Frequency
entered about wc and 2wc are easily suppressed by using a low pass filter, as they are far away
from wm.
 But 2wm is very close to wm and hence it cannot be totally suppressed by the low pass filter.
Therefore component 2wm introduces distortion.
 This distortion term 2wm cannot be completely eliminated and is always present as distortion.
Thus a square law detector cannot provide a distortion less AM detection.

Figure 1.23 Transfer Characteristics of square Law Detector

Rectifier detector:

Figure 1.24 Rectifier Detector

 The modulated signal is fed to the diode through a resonant circuit, tuned to carrier frequency.
The resonant circuit has a bandwidth sufficient to accommodate the sidebands of the signal and
thus signal at the input of diode is without distortion.
 The tank circuit at the input of the diode is needed in order to prevent ripples entering the diode.
If AM signal, is applied to a diode and a resistor circuit, the negative peak of AM wave will be
suppressed. The output across the resistor is rectified version of AM signal.

The diode current id(t) = VAM(t) / rd+R ----(10

Where rd - Dynamic resistance of diode ‘D’

The amplitude modulated signal can be represented as

VAM(t) = Vc( 1+masinwmt)sinwct ---(2)

( )
And id(t) = ----(3)

The average current is given by

Iav = 1/T∫ id(t) dt

( )
= 1/ 2 ∫ d(wct) + ∫ id(t) dwt

( )
= 1/2 { }[−coswct]

= [Vc( 1+masinwmt)] / (rd +R) -----(4)

Vav = Iav .R = [Vc R ( 1+masinwmt)] / (rd +R) ----(5)

 The efficiency of detector is calculated by finding the ratio between the average value and peak
value of the modulated voltage.

= {Average value/Peak value} * 100 = Vav /Vm *100

= [Vc R ( 1+masinwmt)] / (rd +R) / Vc( 1+masinwmt)]

= * 100 = * 100
/

If rd/R << 1 then = * 100 = 31.8 %.

 Thus rectifier detector is not very efficient because it produces only one third of the input signal at
the output. It also produces distortions. Hence to improve the efficiency, heavy filtering is needed.
For this purpose a capacitor is connected across the load.
Linear detectors or Coherent Detector:

 Linear detectors are of two types

(i) Non coherent or Envelope detection
(ii) Coherent or Synchronous detection [ it mainly used for detection in case of
DSB/SC or SSB signal].
 It may be used for detection of AM signals but because of cost restriction they are not generally
employed for this purpose.

Non coherent or Envelope detectors (Diode Detector):

 A diode is operating in a linear region of its characteristics can extract the envelope of an AM
wave. Such a detector with large carrier is detected by using the envelope detector.
 AM signals with large carrier are detected by using the envelope detector. This detector is
extremely popular in commercial receiver circuits because it is very simple and less expensive.
 The envelope detector is a simple and very efficient device which is suitable for the detection of a
narrowband AM signal. An envelope detector produces an output signal that follows the envelope
of the input AM signal exactly.

Principle of Operation:

 The standard AM wave is applied at the input of the detector. The modulated carrier voltage is
applied to the series combination of a diode and the load impedance consisting of a resistor ‘R’ in
shunt with a capacitor ‘C’.
 Since the applied modulated voltage is of large magnitude the operation takes place over the linear
region of the transfer characteristics of diode.

Figure 1.25 (a) Envelope Detector (b) Output Waveform

 Let us assume that initially the capacitor is absent, the circuit acts as a half wave rectifier. Now
capacitor is introduced parallel to the resistor. For the positive half cycle of carrier signal (i/p) the
diode is forward biased. It will charge the capacitor to the almost peak value of the input voltage.
 As soon as the capacitor charges to the peak value, the diode stops conducting. The capacitor will
discharge through R between the positive peaks.
 The discharging process continuous until the next positive half- cycle. When the input signal
becomes greater than the capacitor voltage, the diode conducts again and the process repeats itself.
  In negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and no current flows. So the capacitor
discharges will continue through resistor ‘R’ at a slow rate, until next positive cycle appears.

Selection of the RC time constant:

 The capacitor charges through D and R when the diode is on and it discharges through R when
diode is off. The charging time constant RC should be short as compared to the carrier period 1/fc.

RC << 1/fc ----(1)

 On the other hand the discharging time constant RC should be long enough so that the capacitor
discharges slowly through the load resistance R. But this time constant should not be too long
which will not allow rate of change of the envelope.

1/fc << RC << 1/fm

 The spikes are introduced due to charging and discharging of the capacitor. The spikes can be
reduced to a negligible amount by keeping the time constant RC - large.
 There are two types of distortions available in diode detector output.
(i) Diagonal peak clipping
(ii) Negative peak clipping

Diagonal clipping in diode detector:

 This type of distortion occurs when the RC time constant of the load circuit is too long. Due to
this the RC circuit cannot follow the fast changes in the modulating envelope. If RC time constant
is too high, the discharge curve becomes approximately horizontal. In that case, negative peaks of
the detected envelope may be completely or partially missing.
 The recovered baseband signal is distorted at negative peaks. This type of distortion is known as
diagonal clipping. An optimum value of the time constant has to be chosen which provides a
compromise between the following two facts.
(i) The spikes or fluctuation in a detected envelope should be minimum.
(ii) Negative peaks of detected envelope should not be missed oven partially.

Figure 1.26 Diagonal Clipping

  Negative peak clipping in Diode Detector:
 The Negative peak clipping of the detected signal takes because of the detected signal
takes place because of over modulation effect taking place in detector.
 It occurs due to fact that the modulation index on the output side of the detector is higher
than that on its input side.
 So that the over modulation may takes place at the output of the detector.
 The only way to reduce or eliminate the distortions is to choose the RC time constant
properly.

Figure 1.27 Negative Clipping

Advantages:

(i) Very simple

(ii) Less expensive
(iii) Very efficient device which is suitable for the detection of a narrowband AM signal.
(iv) AM signals with large carrier are detected by using envelope detector.

DOUBLE BAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER AM (DSB-SC):

 In AM with carrier scheme, there is wastage in both transmitted power and the bandwidth.
 In order to save the power in amplitude modulation the carrier may be suppressed, because
it does not contain any useful information. This scheme is called as the DSB-SC-AM.
 It contains only LSB and USB terms, resulting that a transmission bandwidth is twice the
frequency of the message signal.
 Bandwidth is same as that of AM.

Expression for DSB-SC:

Let the modulating signal Vm (t) = Vm sin(wmt) ------- (1)

The carrier signal is represented by Vc (t) = Vc sin(wc t) --------(2)

Where Vc ---- Amplitude of the Carrier Signal

Vm ---- Amplitude of the modulating Signal
V(t)DSB-SC = Vc(t) Vm (t) ;---------------(3)
 Substitute eqn 1 and 2 in 3 then
V(t)DSB-SC = Vm sin(wmt) Vc sin(wc t)

VDSB-SC (t) = {cos(wc − wm ) t - cos(wc + wm ) t} ;

Lower side band Upper side band

Figure 1.28 Frequency spectrum of DSB-SC-AM

 In the above diagram, the carrier signal is supressed. It contains only two side band terms having
the frequency of fc- fm and fc+fm.

Figure 1.29 Graphical representation of DSB-SC-AM.

Phasor Diagram:

 Let us assume the carrier phasor is the reference phasor and oriented in horizontal
direction.
 The USB term (AM) maVc/2 cos(wc+wm)t rotates an angular frequency of wm in
anticlockwise direction.
 The LSB term (AM) maVc/2 cos(wc-wm)t rotates an angular frequency of wm in
clockwise direction.
 The resultant amplitude of the modulated wave at any point is the vector sum of the two
side bands.
 USB

wm

o Vc Resultant VAM

-wm

LSB

Figure 1.30 Phasor Diagram of DSB-SC-AM.

Power Calculation:

The total power transmitted in AM is

Pt = Pc { 1+ ma2/2}--------(1)

Where Pc = Vc2/ 2R ------(2)

If the carrier is suppressed, then the total power transmitted in DSB-SC-AM is

Pt' = [power in LSB] + [power in USB]

Pt' = PLSB + PUSB

Pt' = ma2Vc2/8R + ma2Vc2/8R

Pt' = ma2Vc2/4R

Pt' = Pc ma2/2 -----(3)

( since PLSB = PUSB = ma2Vc2/8R )

Power savings = (Pt –Pt') / Pt ----(4)

Sustitute eqn 1 & 3 in 4

Power savings = (Pc { 1+ma2/2}- Pc { ma2/2})/(Pc { 1+ ma2/2})

= (Pc+{ Pc ma2/2}- Pc { ma2/2})/(Pc { 1+ ma2/2})

2
Power savings = 1/({ 1+ ma /2}) * 100
2
Power savings = 2/({ 2+ ma }) * 100

If ma = 1 then the power saving is

% Power savings = 2/3 *100

% Power savings = 66.7%

In DSB-SC 66.7% of power is saved due to the suppression of the carrier wave.
GENERATION OF DSB – SC – AM:

There are two ways of generating DSB-SC - AM such as

(i) Balanced Modulator

(ii) Ring Modulator.

Balanced Modulators:

Figure 1.31 Balanced Modulator

 The circuit that is very commonly used for DSB-SC generation.

 The same circuit can be used to generate AM with carrier. The main difference between
AM with carrier generation and DSB-SC –AM is the feeding points of the carrier and
modulating signals are interchanged.
 In balanced modulator, two non-linear devices are connected in the balanced mode, so as
to suppress the carrier wave.
 It is assumed that the two transistors are identical and the circuit is symmetrical. Since the
operation is confined in nonlinear region of its transfer characteristics.
 The modulating voltage across the two windings of a centre-tap transformer are equal,
and opposite in phase ie; Vm =Vm’
 The input voltage to transistor T1 is given by
Vbc = Vc+Vm
Vbc = Vc sinwct +Vm sinwmt---------(1)
Since Vc and Vm are in phase,

Similarly the input voltage to transistor T2 is given by

V'bc = V'm + Vc

V'bc = -Vm sinwmt +Vc sinwct ----(2)

By the non linearity relationship, the collector current can be written as

I1 = a1 Vbc + a2 Vbc2 -----(3)

 I'1 = a1V'bc + a2 V'bc2 ---(4)

Substituting the values of Vbc & V'bc from 1 and 2 we get

I1 = a1 [Vc sinwct +Vm sinwmt] + a2 [Vc sinwct +Vm sinwmt]2

= a1 [Vc sinwct +Vm sinwmt] + a2 [Vc2 sinwct +Vm2 sinwmt + 2 Vc sinwct Vm sinwmt]

similarly

I'1= a1 [-Vm sinwmt +Vc sinwct ] + a2 [-Vm sinwmt +Vc sinwct ] 2

= a1 [-Vm sinwmt +Vc sinwct ] + a2 [-Vm2 sinwmt +Vc2 sinwct + 2-Vm sinwmt Vc sinwct ]

The output AM voltage Vo is given by

Vo = k(I1 – I'1) substitute the values of I1and I'1 in Vo then

Vo = 2k a1Vmsinwmt +4k a2Vmsinwmtsinwct ----(5)

The other terms are balanced out

Output voltage contains only the two sidebands and the modulating signal. The carrier has been
canceled out. Eqn 5 can be write

Vo = 2k a1Vm[1 +2 a2/a1Vm sinwct] sinwmt

Vo = 2k a1Vm[1 +ma sinwct] sinwmt where ma = 2a2Vm/ a1 is the modulation index.

Advantages:

(i) Suppression of carrier results in economy of power.

(ii) It is commonly used in carrier current telephony system in which one sideband is filtered
out to reduce the width of channel required for transmission.
(iii) It offers secrecy.
(iv) It increases the efficiency because the carrier is suppressed.

Ring Modulator or Diode Balanced Modulator:

Figure 1.32 Ring Modulator

  The one of the most popular method of generating a DSB-SC wave is ring modulator.
 The circuit employs diodes as non-linear devices and the carrier signal is connected
between centre taps of the input and output transformers.
 There is no need for a band pass filter at the output.
 The four diodes are controlled by a square wave carrier Vc(t) of frequency fc.
 To understand the operation of the circuit, we assume that the diodes have a constant
forward resistance rf when switched on, and a constant backward resistance rb when
switched off.
 In the positive half cycle of the carrier wave, the outer diodes are switched to their forward
resistance rf and the inner diodes are switched to their backward resistance rb.
 In the negative half cycle of the carrier wave, the diode operates in the opposite condition.

Principle of Operation:

Figure 1.33 (a) Illustrating the condition when the Outer diodes are switched on and the inner
diodes are switched off (b) ) Illustrating the condition when the Outer diodes are switched off and
the inner diodes are switched on

 The carrier signal acts as switching signal to alternate the polarity of the modulating
signals at the carrier frequency.
 Consider the case when there is no modulating signal only carrier signal is present. Diodes
D1 and D2 or D3 and D4 will conduct depending upon the polarity of carrier and will
provide an effective short circuit, thereby providing the signal from reaching the output.
 On positive half cycle of carrier diodes D1 and D2 will conduct and a input is connected
through upper portion of output transformer secondary.
 If the diodes D1 & D2 are identical, no current flow through the output transformer and no
voltage at the output.
 During negative half cycle of carrier diodes D3 & D4 will conduct now the input is
connected to the output through opposite half of output transformers. Again no current
flows through the output transformer, hence output is zero.
 When both the carrier and modulating signals are present the carrier signal acts as a
switching signal to alternate the polarity of message signal during positive half cycle of the
carrier. Diodes D1 &D2 conduct while diodes D3 & D4 does not conduct.
  During negative half cycle of the carrier voltage diodes D3 & D4 conduct and D1 & D2
does not conduct.

Let the modulating signal Vm (t) = Vm sin(wmt) ------- (1)

The carrier signal is represented by Vc (t) = Vc sin(wc t) --------(2)

Where Vc ---- Amplitude of the Carrier Signal
Vm ---- Amplitude of the modulating Signal

The output voltage equals the product of two signals

Vo(t) = Vc(t) Vm (t) ;---------------(3)
Vo(t) = Vm sin(wmt) Vc sin(wc t)

Figure 1.33 (c) Graphical Representation of DSB –SC signal

 Vo(t) = {cos(wc − wm ) t - cos(wc + wm ) t} ;

Lower side band Upper side band

Thus the DSB-SC wave is generated.

 It also known as double balanced modulator because comparing to balanced modulator

here two more diodes are used.

Advantages:

(i) It’s output is stable.

(ii) Requires no external source to activate the diodes
(iii) Virtually no maintenance
(iv) Longer life.

DEMODULATION OF DSB-SC:

Linear or Coherent or Synchronous Detectors:

 Synchronous detection is the process in which the modulated signal is mixed with the
carrier in a non-linear device in a manner that resembles with that of a multiplicative mixer
giving sum and difference frequency components in the output.
 The carrier may be generated locally by an oscillator.
 The coherent detector uses exact carrier synchronization for retrieving the message signal
from the modulated signal.
 The detectors are mainly used for detecting DSB-SC or SSB-SC signals because of their
complicated nature.
 The Synchronous detector basically consists of a product modulator with a low pass filter.
 The incoming signal is first multiplied with locally generated carrier signal and then
entered through a low pass filter.
 It is assumed that the local oscillator is exactly synchronized with the carrier in both
phase and velocity, hence the name synchronous detector.

Figure 1.34 Block diagram of Synchronous detector

 Figure 1.35 Circuit for synchronous detection

Considering the case of a DSB-SC signal, the signal input is

V1(t) = Vm sin(wmt) Vc sin(wc t)

V2(t) = V sin(wc t)
The output Y(t) = V1(t) * V2(t) = VVm sin(wmt) Vc sin2(wc t)
Since sin2(wc t) = [1-cos2 wc t] / 2 then
Y(t) = VVmVc sin(wmt){ [1-cos2 wc t] / 2}
= { sin(wmt) - sin (wc t)cos2wct

The low pass filter passes on the first components, while attenuating the second component

Vo(t) = sin(wmt)

Assume the local carrier to have a phase difference with the transmitted carrier.

V2(t) = V sin(wc t +∅)

In case of DSB – SC signal

V1(t) = Vm sin(wmt) Vc sin(wc t)

Y(t) = V1(t) * V2(t)
= Vm sin(wmt) Vc sin(wc t) * V sin(wc t +∅)
Using sin (A+B) formula
= Vm Vc V sin(wmt) sin(wc t) {sin(wc t)cos∅ + cos(wc t)sin∅}
= Vm Vc V { sin(wmt) sin2(wc t) cos∅ + sin(wmt) sin(wc t) cos(wc t)sin∅}
= Vm Vc V { sin(wmt) [[1-cos2 wc t] / 2 ]cos∅ + sin(wmt) sin(wc t) cos(wc t)sin∅}
Y(t) = [Vm Vc V/2 ] sin(wmt) cos∅ - [Vm Vc V/2 ] sin(wmt) cos2 wc t cos∅
+ Vm Vc V [sin(wmt) sin(wc t) cos(wc t)sin∅]
When it passes through LPF it removes all high frequency carrier terms then the output will be

Vo(t) = sin(wmt) cos∅

If ∅ = 0° then Vo(t) is maximum.

If ∅ = 90° then Vo(t) is minimum

Advantages:

(i) DSB-SC is more efficient in transmitted power as compared to DSB FC

(ii) It has better signal to noise ratio as compared to single side band transmission.

Dis advantages:

(i) Even though the carrier is suppressed the bandwidth of DSB-SC remains same as
DSB FC

SINGLE SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER (SSB-SC-AM):

 In AM with carrier both the transmitting power and bandwidth are wasted, hence the DSB-
SC-AM scheme has been introduced in which power is saved by suppressing the carrier
component but the bandwidth remains same (ie BW = 2wm).
 Further increase in the saving of power is possible by eliminating one sideband in addition
to the carrier component, because the USB and LSB are uniquely related by symmetry
about the carrier frequency so either one side band is enough for transmitting as well as
recovering the useful message.
 In addition to that, transmission bandwidth can be reduced into half, if one side band is
suppressed along with the carrier. This scheme is known as SSB-SC-AM.

Figure 1.36 Block Diagram of SSB – SC - AM

Expression for SSB-SC:

In order to suppress one of the side bands, the input signal fed to the modulator 1 is 90
degree out of phase with that of signal fed the modulator 2

Let V1 (t) = Vm sin(wmt + 90°) Vc sin(wc t +90°) ----(1)

V1 (t) = Vm cos(wmt ) Vc cos(wc t ) -----(2)

V2 (t) = Vm sin(wmt) Vcsin (wc t) --------(3)

Therefore V(t)SSB-SC = V1(t) + V2 (t)
 ` V(t)SSB = Vm Vc [sin(wmt) sin(wc t) + cos(wmt) cos(wc t)]------(4)
We know that SinAsinB+ cosAcosB = cos(A-B) / 2
Hence eqn 4 becomes

VSSB (t) = {cos(wc − wm ) t

Frequency Spectrum of SSB –SC –AM:

Figure 1. 37 Frequency Spectrum of SSB –SC –AM

In the above diagram shows that only one sideband signal is present, the carrier and the upper
sideband signal are supressed.

Transmission Bandwidth: (BW):

SSB requires half of the bandwidth of the DSB-SC and use considerably less transmitted power.

BW = fm

The bandwidth of SSB-SC signal is fm same as the bandwidth of the baseband signal.

Graphical and Phasor Diagram of SSB –SC –AM:

 Figure 1. 38 Graphical and Phasor Diagram of SSB –SC –AM

Power Calculation:

The total power saved in SSB-SC- AM is calculated as follows

Power in SSB-SC-AM is

Pt'' = PSB = ¼ ma2 Pc --------(1)

Power savings = (Pt –Pt'') / Pt ----(2)

Pt – Total power transmitted.

Power savings = ( {1+ 2/2} − { 2/4})/( {1+ 2/2})

= {1 + 2/2 − − 2/2}}/( {1+ 2/2})

Power savings = (4 + 2)/({ 4 + 2 2}) * 100

If ma = 1 then the power saving is

% Power savings = 5/6 *100

% Power savings = 83.3 %

In addition to carrier one of the sidebands is also suppressed the power savings is 83.3 % over AM with
carrier.
Generation of SSB-SC:

SSB-SC waves can be generated in two ways

(i) Frequency discrimination or filter method

(ii) Phase discrimination method
(a) Phase shift method
(b) Modified phase shift or weaver’s method.

Frequency discrimination or Selective filtering method:

 This is the most commonly used method to generate SSB-SC-AM.

 This method basically consists of balanced modulator and a suppression filter.
 Balanced modulator circuit to generate DSBSC signals followed by sideband filters to
remove the unwanted sideband.
 The filter is single side band pass filter with a sharp cut off at each side of the band pass to
obtain satisfactory adjacent sideband rejection.
 The design of single side band pass filter is very critical and puts some limitations on the
modulating and carrier frequencies.

Block diagram for balanced modulator- filter

Figure 1.39 Block diagram for balanced modulator- filter

 The quality factor of a single side band filter depends on the carrier frequency, the
frequency separation between sidebands, and the desired attenuation level of the unwanted
sideband. Q = fc (log-1S/20)1/2 / 4∆
 Where Q-Quality factor, fc –carrier frequency, S- dB level of suppression of unwanted
sideband, ∆ – frequency separation between the side bands.
 In the block diagram, the output of balanced modulator is DSB-SC signal, which is passed
through a sharp cut off filter to eliminate the undesired side band.
 The filtered signal is up converted in a mixer (the second balanced modulator) to the final
transmitter frequency and then amplified before being coupled to the antenna.
 Linear power amplifiers are used to avoid distorting the side band signal.
 For a satisfactory performance of the system the following two requirements have to be
satisfied.
(i) The pass band of the filter should be same as that of the desired sideband.
(ii) The separation between pass band and stop band in the filter should not
exceed twice the maximum frequency component present in the baseband.
  The important requirement of this method is the unwanted sideband and whose nearest
frequency component is separated from the desired sideband by twice the lowest
frequency component of the modulating signal.
 Initial modulation takes place in the balance modulator at a low frequency (such as
100kz) because of the difficulty of making adequate sideband filters at higher
frequencies.
 For transmitting high frequencies, the Q of the tuned circuits must be very high otherwise
Q is to be raised further and after a particular limit, increase in Q is not possible.
 To overcome this problem the selective filter it has been replaced by mechanical or
crystal filters which may be used in the frequency range of 500 KHz to 80MHz
respectively.
 Mechanical filters are often used because of the following advantages.
(i) Small size
(ii) Good band pass characteristics
(iii) Very good attenuation characteristics.
(iv) Adequate upper frequency limit.
 The crystal filters may be cheaper but are preferable only at frequencies greater than
1MHz.
 The balanced mixer is similar to the balanced modulator except that its sum frequency is
away from the crystal oscillator frequency.
 In the mixer, the frequency of the crystal oscillator is added to the SSB signal, thus the
frequency is increasing to the desired value of transmitting frequency.
 The mixer is usually followed by a linear power amplifier to raise the amplitude of the
SSB signal without distortion.
 Class ’C’ amplifier is not used because it will distort the signal. Class ’A’ amplifier is less
efficient. Hence Class ’B’ amplifier is used which is more efficient than Class ’A’ output.

Phase Discrimination Method

(i) Phase Shift or Phasing Method:

 This method avoids the prime disadvantage of filtering method ie; the requirement of a
sideband filter with a narrow transition band and it cannot be used at very low and very
high frequencies.
 This method does not have any sideband filters and the primary modulation can be done at
the transmitting frequency. The unwanted sideband can be removed by generating the
components of sideband out of phase.
 If the undesired sideband is USB then the two USB are generated such that they are 180°
out of phase with each other. So that USB’s added with each other and cancel out, each
other.
 When two undesired sideband components are added they cancel each other with only the
presence of desired signal.
 Two balance modulators and two phase shifters are used in this phasing method.
 Figure 1.40 Block diagram for Phasing Method

 One of the modulators receives the input signal directly and another receives with a phase
shift of 90°
 The carrier signal is passed through the second modulator with a phase shift of 90° and the
another modulator receives the signal directly.
 The carrier signal is cancelled out in this circuit by both of the balanced modulators and
the unwanted sidebands cancel at the output of the summing amplifiers (Adder).

 Input signals for modulators (1)

Vc(t) = Vcsinwct; -----(1)

Vm(t) = Vmsinwmt-----(2)

Input signals for modulator(2)

Vc(t) = Vcsin(wc+ )t;
Vc(t) = Vc cos wc t ------(3)

Vm(t) = Vmsin(wm+ )t
Vm(t) = Vm cos wmt ---(4)

Output from modulator 1

V1(t) = Vcsin wc t *Vmsinwmt
V1(t) = {cos(wc − wm ) t - cos(wc + wm ) t} ----(5)

Output from modulator 2

V2(t) = Vc cos wc t * Vm cos wmt
 V2(t) = {cos(wc − wm ) t + cos(wc + wm ) t} ---(6)

Therefore Vo = V1(t) +V2(t)

Vo = VmVc cos(wc − wm ) t-------LSB
Thus one of the sideband is cancelled, whereas the other is reinforced.

Merits:

(i) It does not require any sharp cut off filter.

(ii) It is possible to generate the desired sideband in a single frequency translation step,
regardless of how large the carrier frequency may be.

De Merits:

In spite of these merits, the phasing method is less popular than the filter method. The reason is
that the following constraints should be precisely met in order to suppress the carrier and undesired
sideband.

(i) Each balanced modulator need to be carefully balanced in order to suppress the carrier.
(ii) Each modulator should have equal sensitivity to the baseband signal.
(iii) The carrier phase shifting network must provide an exact 90° phase shift at the carrier
frequency.

Modified Phase Shift Method (or) Weavers method (third method):

 It is the modification of the phasing method ie; overcome the limitation of phasing method
 It is required AF phase shift network to operate over a large range of audio frequencies but
also retains the advantages like its ability to generate SSB at any frequency and use of low
audio frequency.
 However this method is not used often commercially because of its complexity.
 Modulators BM1and BM2 both have the un shifted modulating signal as inputs. One
balance modulator takes the audio frequency sub carrier with a 90° shift from the
oscillator.
 Second balance modulator BM2 receives the sub carrier signal directly from the oscillator.
 Instead of trying to phase shift the whole range of audio frequencies, this method
combined with AF carrier which lies in the middle of audio frequency.
 The low pass filter at the output of BM1 and BM2 with cut off frequency ensures the input
to the balanced modulator BM3 and BM4.
 The output of BM3 andBM4 gives the desired sideband suppression.
 Figure 1.41 Block diagram for Weavers Method

Let the modulating signal

Vm(t) = Vm sinwmt--------(1)

AF carrier signal Vo(t) = 2Vo sinwot ---(2)

RF carrier signal Vc(t) = 2Vc sinwct-----(3)

The input of balanced modulator1 = Vm sinwmt2Vo sin(wot+90o)

Hence output of BM1 is = VmVo [{cos(wc − wm ) t + 90° }- { cos(wc + wm ) t+90° }] (4)

Similarly the input of BM2 is = Vm sinwmt2Vo sinwot

Output of BM2 is = VmVo [{cos(wo − wm ) t- cos(wo + wm ) t}] -----(5)

The low pass filter in the BM1 and BM2 eliminates the upperbands of the modulator.

Hence the output of LPF1 is = VmVo{cos(wc − wm ) t + 90° }

The output of LPF2 is = VmVo [{cos(wo − wm ) t

Assume Vm = Vo = 1

Output of balanced modulator3 = 2 sin wct {cos(wc − wm ) t + 90° }

Since sinAcosB = sin(A+B) + sin(A-B)

= sin[(wc+wo-wm)t +90° ] + sin [wc-wo+wm)- 90° ] ------(6)

Output of balanced modulator4 = 2 sin (wct+90° ) cos(wc − wm ) t

 = sin[(wc+wo-wm)t +90° ] + sin [wc - wo + wm)+ 90° ] ----(7)

From eqn 6 and 7 the output of summer circuit is

Vo = sin[(wc + wo - wm)t +90° ] + sin [wc - wo + wm)- 90° ]

+ sin[(wc + wo - wm)t +90° ] + sin [wc - wo + wm)+ 90° ]

Vo = 2 sin[(wc + wo - wm)t +90° ]

Other two terms are cancelled each other because it is out of phase with each other.

Vo = 2cos(wc + wo - wm)t

The final RF output frequency is fc + fo-fm which is essentially the lower sideband of RF carrier
fc +fo .If the upper side band is desired, interchange the inputs of carrier to BM3 and BM4 in which case
the final RF carrier fc – fo.

Advantages:

(i) It does not require a sideband filter or any wide band audio phase shift network.
(ii) Correct output may be maintained without use of critical parts or adjustments.
(iii) Low frequency signals are also used.
(iv) Side bands may be easily switched.

Disadvantages:

(i) System is extremely complex.

(ii) Dc coupling is required to avoid the loss of signal components close to AF and it produces
whistles at the output.

Detection of SSB –SC-AM:

Synchronous detector:

Figure 1.42 Block diagram of a Synchronous Detectors

If the incoming signal is a SSB-SC signal then

V1(t) = cos(wc − wm ) t (consider the LSB is present)---(1)

V2(t) = Vsinwct -----(2)

The output of the non linear device acts as multiplying device is given by

Y(t) = V1(t) * V2(t)

Y(t) = sin wct cos(wc − wm ) t

Since sinAcosB = ½[sin(A-B) + sin(A+B)

Y(t) = [ sin wmt + sin(2wc –wm)t] / 2

The first term of the output is modulating frequency signal that is passed on to the output. The
second component is a RF component and is attenuated by the filter.

Vo(t) = [ sin wmt]

Assume the local carrier to have a phase difference with the transmitted carrier.

The carrier is then represented by

V2(t) = Vsin(wct + ∅) -----(1)

For a SSB-SC signal with lower sideband only. The input signal is

V1(t) = cos(wc − wm ) t ------(2)

Y(t) = V1(t) * V2(t)

Y(t) = [ sin (wct + ∅) cos(wc − wm ) t]

Y(t) = [ cos(wc) t coswmt + sinwctsinwmt ][ sinwctcos∅ +coswct sin∅]

= [ cos(wc) t coswmt sinwctcos∅ +cos(wc) t coswmt coswct sin∅

+ sinwctsinwmt sinwctcos∅ + sinwctsinwmt coswct sin∅]

= [ ((1 − cos(2wc) t)/2) sinwmtcos∅ +((1 + cos(2wc) t)/2) coswmt sin∅

+ coswct sinwct[sinwct sin∅ + coswmt cos∅]]

After low pass filtering all wc and 2wc terms are filtered thus the output will be

Vo(t) = [ sin wmt sin∅+coswmt cos ∅] -----(3)

 Thus there is a phase a phase delay due to improper synchronization ∅ = 0 then

Vo(t) = sin wmt -----(4)

For voice signal, a small phase delay is not important.

 The synchronous detection is effective only when locally generated carrier is properly
synchronized with the transmitted carrier.
 In eqn 3 the output signal is multiplied by either cos ∅ and sin∅ .
 When ∅ is time independent, there is no distortion rather there is only attenuation.
 But in general ∅ randomly varies with respect to time due to random variation of
propagation media. This causes undesirable distortion in the detected output.
 In order to avoid distortion, and to ensure exact synchronization, a pilot carrier is inserted.
 This is separated at the receiver and is used to synchronise the carrier.

Advantages:

(i) Bandwidth of SSB is half of DSB-SC –AM (ie Bandwidth = fm). Thus twice the number
of channels can be accommodated at a given frequency spectrum.
(ii) The power of the suppressed carrier and sideband is saved. Hence transmitter power
requirement in SSB is reduced.
(iii) No carrier is transmitted, hence possibility of interference with other channels are avoided.
(iv) Because of narrow bandwidth of SSB, the effect of noise at the receiver circuits is reduced.
This gives better quality of reception in SSB.
(v) It eliminates the possibility of fading.

Dis Advantages:

(i) Transmission and reception of SSB becomes more complex and the required performance
standard is very high.
(ii) SSB receivers require precise tuning than conventional AM receivers.

Application:

(i) Police wireless communication

(ii) SSB telegraph system
(iii) Point – point radio telephone communication and mobile communication.
(iv) UHF and VHF communication.

VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND (VSB) MODULATION:

 Let us consider the modulating signals of very large bandwidth (such as Video signals,
TV, Telegraphic signals and high speed data signals) having the very low frequency
component along with high frequency signal.
 These components give rise to sideband, very close to the carrier frequency which are
difficult to remove it.
 Thus it is not possible to go till the extreme and fully suppress one complete sideband in
case of television signals.
  The low frequency component of video signal contains the most important information of
the picture and any effort to completely suppress the lower sideband would result in phase
distortion at these frequencies.
 This difficulty is overcome by a scheme known as vestigial sideband modulation (VSB).
 In VSB, the desired sideband is allowed to pass completely. Whereas just a small portion
(called trace or vestige) of the undesired sideband is allowed. The transmitted vestige of
the undesired sideband compensates for the loss of the wanted sideband.
 VSB is a compromise between DSB – SC and SSB-SC. It inherits the advantages of
DSB – SC and SSB-SC but avoids the disadvantages.

Mathematical representation of VSB system:

 The VSB modulated wave is desired in the time domain as

S(t) = ½ Vc m(t) cos(2 fct) ± ½ Vc m’(t) sin(2 fct)

 Where the plus sign corresponds to the transmission of a vestige of the upper sideband and the
minus sign corresponds to the transmission of a vestige of the lower sideband.
 The signal m’(t) in the quadrature component of S(t) is obtained by passing the message signal
m(t) through a filter whose frequency response (f) satisfies the following requirement.

(f) = j [H(f-fc) – H(f+fc)] for fm ≤ f ≤ fm.

Transmission Bandwidth:

 The transmission bandwidth of VSB modulation is BT = fm +fv

 Where fm –message bandwidth, fv – width of the vestigial sideband.
 Bandwidth of VSB is slightly greater than SSB-SC but less than DSB-SC.

Frequency spectrum of VSB:

Figure 1.43 (a) frequency spectrum of VSB

Generation of VSB (filter method):

Figure 1. 43 (b) Filtering scheme of the Generation of VSB Wave.

 The product modulator generates DSB-SC signal from the message and carrier.
 The band pass filter is designed in such a way that it passes one sideband almost
completely and passes a portion (vestige) of other sideband.
 The output of the band pass filter is VSB signal.

Magnitude response of VSB filter.

Figure 1.44 Magnitude response of VSB filter.

 Here fc to fc + fm is upper side band. Its portion from fc to fc + fv is suppressed partially.

 fc to fc - fm is lower side band. Its portion from fc - fv to fc is to be transmitted as
vestige.
 The filter response is only for positive frequencies. This frequency response is normalised,
so that at the carrier frequency we have |H(fc)| = ½.
 The frequency response fc-fv ≤| H(f)| ≤ fc + fv exhibits odd symmetry.
  In the transition interval fc-fv ≤| H(f)| ≤ fc + fv the following two conditions are satisfied.
(i) The sum of the values of the |H(f)| at any two frequencies equally displaced
above and below fc is unity. H( f-fc) +H(f+fc) = 1.
(ii) The phase response is linear.

Demodulation of VSB:

Figure 1.45 VSB-AM Synchronous Detector.

 The first step in coherent detection process involves multiplying the modulated signal by a
locally generated sinusoidal wave which is synchronous with the carrier wave.
V(t) = S(t) . Vc' coswct ------(1)
Fourier transform of V (t)
V(f) = Vc'/ 2[ S(f-fc) + S(f+fc)] ------(2)

The product modulator at the generator gives DSB – SC signal.

U(t) = Vc coswct m(t).

Fourier transform of it U(f) = Vc/2 {M(f-fc) +M(f+fc)}

S(f) = U(f) H(f)

S(f) = Vc/2 {M(f-fc) +M(f+fc)} H(f) -----(3)

S(f-fc) = Vc/2 {M(f-2fc) H(f-fc)+M(f) H(f-fc)} ----(4)

S(f+fc) = Vc/2 {M(f) H(f+fc)+M(f+2fc) H(f+fc)} ----(5)

Substitute eqn 4 & 5 in 2

V(f) = Vc'/ 2[Vc/2 {M(f-2fc) H(f-fc)+M(f) H(f-fc)} + Vc/2 {M(f) H(f+fc)+M(f+2fc) H(f+fc)}]

V(f) = Vc'/2*Vc / 2[{M(f-2fc) H(f-fc)+M(f) H(f-fc)}+ {M(f) H(f+fc)+M(f+2fc) H(f+fc)}]

It will be passed through LPF, the higher frequency terms are eliminated.

Vo(f) = VcVc'/4 m(f)[H(f-fc) + H(f+fc)]

 Since H(f-fc) + H(f+fc) = 1

Vo(f) = (VcVc')/4 m(f)

on time domain coherent detector output. Vo(t) = m(t)

Advantages of VSB-SC:

(i) It has bandwidth greater than SSB but less than DSB-system.
(ii) Low frequencies near fc are transmitted without any attenuation.
(iii) The filter required need not have a sharp cut – off.

Application of VSB-SC:

VSB is used in television for transmission of picture signal since low frequencies near fc
represent significant picture details.

Comparisons of Amplitude Modulation Systems

Sl.No Parameter AM with carrier DSB-SC SSB-SC VSB-AM

1 Bandwidth 2fm 2fm fm fm< BW<2fm
2 Power saving for 33.33% 66.66% 83.3% 75%
sinusoidal
3 Power saving for 33.33% 50% 75% 75%
non-sinusoidal
4 Generation Easier to generate Not Difficult More Difficult but easier to
Methods difficult to generate than SSB-SC
generate
5 Signal to noise (S/N)o = 2/3(S/N)I (S/N)o = (S/N)o = (S/N)o = (S/N)I
2(S/N)I (S/N)I
6 Transmission 33.3% 100% 100% 33.3< <100%
Efficiency
7 Sidebands Two sidebands Two sidebands One side One of the sideband is
band partially suppressed and
vestige of the other
sideband is transmitted
to compensate for that
that suppression
8 Application AM broadcast Carrier Police Television, high speed
telephony, wireless, transmission.
short distance Mobile
point to point
communication

Frequency Translation or Frequency Changing or Frequency mixing or Heterodyning:

 In communication, it is often convenient (or) necessary to translate the modulated wave

upward or downward in frequency, so that it occupies a new frequency band.
 This is accomplished by multiplication of the signal by a locally generated sine wave and
subsequent filtering.
  A device which performs such a operation is known as frequency changing or frequency
mixing or heterodyning.
 This concept plays an vital role in radio, TV systems, telephone and telegraph broad cast
systems.

Generation of Frequency translation:

 Consider a modulated wave S1 (t) whose spectrum is centred on a carrier frequency f1 and
the requirement is to translate it upward in frequency such that its carrier frequency is
changed from f1 to a new value f2. This requirement may be accomplished using mixer.
 Mixer is a device that consists of a product modulator followed by a band pass filter.
 Depending on whether the incoming carrier frequency f1 is translated upward or
downward, there are two different conversion techniques.
 Up conversion
 Down conversion

Figure 1.46 Black diagram of mixer

Mixer has a product modulator and a BPF. The product modulator generates desired
modulated signal and its output is passed through the BPF to select the required frequency
band, thus the resultant required frequency translated signal is obtained.

Up conversion:

 In this case the translated carrier frequency f2 is greater than the incoming carrier
frequency f1. The required local oscillator frequency fo is defined as
f2 = f1 + fo ; fo = f2- f1.

Figure 1.47 Spectrum of Mixer

  The un shaded part of the spectrum defines the wanted modulated signal S2 (t) and the
shaded part of this spectrum defines the image signal associated with S2 (t).
 In this case the mixer is referred to as frequency up converter.

Down conversion:

 In this second case the translated carrier frequency f2 is smaller than the incoming carrier
frequency f1. The required local oscillator frequency fo is defined as
f2 = f1 - fo ; fo = f1- f2.
 The shaded part of the spectrum defines the wanted modulated signal S2(t) and the un
shaded part of this spectrum defines the associated image signal .
 In this case the translated carrier frequency f2 has to be larger than W (ie one half of the
bandwidth of the modulated signal) to avoid sideband overlap.
 In this case the mixer is referred to as frequency down converter.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

 Multiplexing is actually defined as the process of transmitting several independent signals

simultaneously over a single channel.
 To transmit a number of signals over the same channel, the signals must be kept apart. So
that they do not interfere with each other. And thus they can be separated at the receiving
end.
 This is accomplished by separating the signals either in frequency or in time.
 The technique of separating the signals in frequency is referred to as frequency division
multiplexing (FDM)
 The technique of separating the signals in time is called Time division multiplexing.

Operation of FDM systems:

 In this method, each message of maximum frequency fm is translated into different

frequency spectrum using the carriers. These messages are then combined in an adder
circuit.
 At the receiving end , a broad band receiver receives this signal and passes it onto a
baseband receivers, which receives the signals corresponding to the respective baseband
frequency.
 At the output of these receivers, different signals are available.
 Here FDM operates in only one direction.
 If the signals to be transmitted simultaneously are em1(t), em2(t), em3(t), em4(t), and base
band frequencies are f1, f2, f3, f4 then the modulated baseband carrier at the adder input are.
e1 (t) = E1 [1 + em1(t)]cosw1(t)
e2(t) = E1 [1 + em2(t)]cosw2(t)
e3(t) = E1 [1 + em3(t)]cosw3(t)
e4(t) = E1 [1 + em4(t)]cosw4(t) These signals are combined together at the adder
and form a common modulating signal for AM transmitter.
The transmitter output is

e = Ec[ 1+ea{e1(t) + e2(t) + e3(t) + e4(t)}] coswct

 Thus transmitted wave contains all the original signal and

Bandwidth = 2 (fm1+ fm2+ fm3+ fm4)

Figure 1.48 Block diagram for Frequency Division Multiplexing

Low pass filter:

 Each signal input is passed through a low pass filter which is remove the high frequency
components that do not contribute much toward signals representation, but are capable of
disturbing other message signals that share the common channels.
 These LPF may be omitted only if the input signals are sufficiently band limited initially.

Modulators:

 The filtered signals are applied to modulators which shift the frequency range of the
signals. So as to occupy mutually exclusive frequency intervals.
 The frequency translations are obtained from the carrier supply.
 The most widely used method of modulation in FDM is SSB modulation, which in the
case of voice signals requires a bandwidth that is approximately equal to that of original
signal.
 In practice, each voice input is usually assigned a bandwidth of 4 KHz.

Band pass filter:

 The band pass filters following the modulators are used to restrict the band of each
modulated wave to its prescribed range.
 The resulting band pass filters output are next combined in parallel to form the input to the
common channel.
  At the receiving terminal, a bank of band-pass filters with their inputs connected in parallel
is used to separate the message signal on a frequency spectrum.
 Finally the original message signals are recovered by individual demodulators.

Non Linear Distortion:

 Generally non- linear distortion is produced by non- linear elements in the channel.
 Practical channels and electronic devices such as amplifiers often exhibit non- linear
transfer characteristics that result in non- linear signal distortion.
 Non- linear devices, in general act linearly when the input x(t) is small. But distort the
signal when input amplitude is large.

Figure 1.49 Transfer Characteristics of a non linear device

 To investigate the nature of non- linear distortion let us assume that the transfer
characteristic of the non- linear device can be modelled as
Y(t) = a1x(t) + a2x2(t) +a3 x3(t) + a4x4(t) +……… -------(1)
 The higher powers of x(t) in this equation gives rise to the non-linear distortion.
 Fourier transform of eqn 1 is
Y(f) = a1x(f) + a2x*x (f) +a3 x*x*x (f) + ………-------(2)
 Now if x(t) is band limited in w, the output of linear network will contain no frequency
beyond |f| <W
 But in non-linear case the output includes x*x(f) which is band limited in 2W, x*x*x(f)
which is band limited in 3W and so on.
 The nonlinearities have therefore created output frequency that was not present in the
input.
  Furthermore since x*x(f) may contain components for |f| < W . This portion of the
spectrum overlaps that of x(f).
 By using filtering technique the added component at |f| > W can be removed.
 But there is no way to get rid of the added components at |f| < W. These in fact constitute
the nonlinear distortion.
 Therefore the non- linear distortion appears as harmonics of the input of the wave.
 If the input is sum of the two cosine waves say cosw1t +cosw2t.then the output will contain
harmonic distortion in terms at frequencies 2f1, 2f2 , cross product terms (intermodal
distortion) at frequency f1±f2 , f1±2f2, 2f1±f2 and so forth.
 These sum and difference frequencies are designated as intermodulation distortion
generalizing the intermodulation effect
 If x(t) = x1 (t) +x2(t) then Y(t) contains the cross product of x1 (t) x2 (t).
 In the frequency domain x1 (t) x2 (t) becomes x1 (f) * x2 (f) even though x1 (f) , x2 (f) may
be separated in frequency, x1 (f) * x2 (f) can overlap both of them producing cross talk.

Crosstalk:

 It occurs when one signal cross over the frequency band of another signal due to non-linear
distortion in the channel.
 The non-linear distortion is of particular concern in
(i) Telephone transmission system
(ii) In systems where a number of different signals are multiplexed and
transmitted over the same channel.

Remedy:

 To minimize the non-linear distortion is to keep the signal within the linear operating
range of the transfer characteristics
 It can be accomplished by two non-linear devices (1) Compressor (2) Expander.

x(t) Tcom[x(t)] Texp{Tcomp[x(t)]}

Channel
Compressor Expander
(Assumed to x(t)
be nonlinear)

Figure 1.50 Block diagram for Compander

 A compressor essentially the amplitude range of an input signal. So that it fails with in the
linear range of the channel.
 If the compressed signal falls within the linear range of the channel, the signal at the
channel output is proportional to Tcomp[x(t)] which is distorted by the compressor but not
the channel.
 Ideally then the expander has a characteristics that perfectly complements the compressor.
So the expanded output is proportional to Texp{Tcomp[x(t)]} = x(t) as desired.
 The joint use of compressing and expanding is called compensation.
Problems:

(1). A 400 Watt carrier is modulated to a depth of 75% Calculate the total power in the modulated
wave?

Solution

Given carrier power = 400W

ma = 75% = 0.75

Total power in the modulated wave

Pt = Pc[1 + (ma 2)/2]

Pt = 400[1+(0.75)2/2]

Pt = 512.4W

(2). A broadcast radio Tx radiates 10kw when the modulation percentage is 60. How much of this is
carrier power?

Solution

Given total power Pt = 10kw

ma = 60% = 0.6

Carrier power in the modulated wave

Pt = Pc[1 + (ma 2)/2] ; Pc = Pt / [1 + (ma 2)/2]

Pc = 10000/[1+(0.6)2/2]

Pc = 8.47Kw

(3). A Tx radiates 9kw without modulation and 10.125 kw after modulation. Determine depth of
modulation?

Solution

Given Carrier power Pc= 9 kw; Pt = 10.125kw

ma = ?

Carrier power in the modulated wave

Pt = Pc[1 + (ma 2)/2] ;

10.125 = 9/[1+( ma)2/2]

ma = 0.5
(4) A 1MHz carrier with an amplitude of 1 volt peak is modulated by a 1KHz signal with ma = 0.5
sketch the voltage spectrum?

Solution

Given

Carrier frequency fc = 1MHz

Modulating frequency fm = 1KHz

Modulation index ma = 0.5

Carrier voltage Vc = 1 volt

The upper sideband FUSB = fc +fm = 1MHz + 1KHz = 1.001 MHz

The lower sideband FLSB = fc - fm = 1MHz -1KHz = 0.999 MHz

Side band voltage = (ma Vc)/ 2 = 0.25V

1V

0.25V 0.25V

0.999 1.000 1.001 Frequency MHz

(5). AM radio bandwidth is 10 kHz. What is the maximum modulation frequency?

Solution

Given

Channel Band Width B = 10 kHz

Band Width B = 2fm

Modulating frequency fm = 5 kHz

(6). A modulating signal 20 sin(2 * 103t) is used to modulate a carrier signal 40 sin(2 * 104t). Find
out (i) Modulation index (ii) Percentage Modulation (iii) Frequencies of the sideband components
and their amplitudes (iv) Bandwidth of the modulating signal (v) Also draw the spectrum of the
AM wave.

Solution
 Given

Modulating signal Vm(t) = 20 sin(2 * 103t)

carrier signal Vc(t) = 40 sin(2 * 104t)

(i) Vm(t) = Vm sin(2 fmt)

fm = 1kHz

(ii) Vc(t) = Vc sin(2 fct)

fc = 10kHz

(iii) Modulation index ma = Vm/Vc = 20/40 = 0.5

(iv) Frequencies of Side Band components

The upper sideband FUSB = fc +fm = 10 kHz + 1 kHz = 11 kHz

The lower sideband FLSB = fc - fm = 10 kHz – 1 kHz = 9 kHz

Side band voltage(Upper & Lower) = (ma Vc)/ 2 = 0.5 * 40/2 = 10V

(v) Spectrum

40V

10V 10V

9 10 11 Frequency in kHz

(7) For an AM DSB-SC wave with peak un modulated carrier voltage Vc = 10V, a load resistance R L
= 10 Ω and a modulation co-efficient ma=1. Determine

(a). Powers of the carrier and the upper sidebands

(b). Total Side Band power

(c). Total power of the modulated wave.

(d). Draw the power spectrum.

Solution

Given
 Carrier voltage Vc = 10 V

Load resistance RL = 10 Ω

ma = 1

(a) Carrier power Pc = Vc2/ 2R

= 100 /2*10

Pc = 5w

Upper and Lower Side Band power

PUSB = PLSB = (ma2 / 4) Pc

= 1*5 / 4 = 1.25w

(b) The total Side Band power is

PSB = PUSB + PLSB = 1.25 + 1.25 = 2.5 w

(c) Total power in the modulated wave.

Pt = Pc[1 + (ma2)/2]
Pt = 5(1 + 12/2) = 7.5w

(d) Power spectrum.

Power

Pc = 5w

1.25 w 1.25 w

Frequency in (Hz)

(8). For the AM wave

Vmax = 22 V ; Vmin = 2V
Determine (a) Peak amplitude of the upper and lower side frequencies (b) Peak amplitude of the un
modulated carrier (c) Peak change in the amplitude of the envelope. (d) Co-efficient of modulation (e) %
of modulation.

Solution

Given

Vmax = 22 V

Vmin = 2 V

(a) VUSB = VLSB = ¼ ( Vmax –Vmin) = ¼ (22-2) = 5V

(b) Vc = ½ (Vmax + Vmin) = ½(22 +2) = 12 V

(c) Vm = ½ (Vmax - Vmin) = ½ (22 -2) = 10 V

(d) ma = Vm/Vc = 10 / 12 = 0.83

(e) % ma = 83%

Or ma = (Vmax – Vmin) / (Vmax – Vmin) = (22-2) / (22+2) = 20/24 * 100 = 83%

(9). For an AM DSB-SC Tx with an unmodulated carrier power Pc = 100w that is modulated
simultaneously by three modulating signals with co-efficients of modulation m1 = 0.2 , m2 = 0.4 and m3 =
0.5. Determine (a) Total co efficient of modulation (b) Upper and Lower Side Band power (c) Total
transmitted power.

Solution

Given

Pc = 100w ; m1 = 0.2 ; m2=0.4; m3 = 0.5

(a) Total modulation co-efficient

 mt = + +
= √0.2 + 0.4 + 0.5

mt = 0.67

(b) Total Side Band power

PSB = (mt)2Pc / 2 = (0.67)2*100 / 2 = 22.45w

(c) Total transmitted power

Pt = Pc[1 + (mt2)/2] = 100(1+(0.67)2/2 = 122.445w.

(10). The antenna current of an AM transmitter, modulated to a depth of 40% by an audio sine wave is
11 A. it increases to 12A as a result of simultaneous modulation by another audio sine wave. What is the
modulation index due to this second wave?

Solution

Given

It = 11A ; m1 = ma=0.4 = 40%

(a) It = Ic ([1 + ( ) /2
Ic = It / ([1 + ( ) /2
= 11 / ([1 + (0.4) /2
Ic = 10.58 A

Total modulation Index mt = 2([ ( / ) − 1])

mt = 2([ (12/10.58) − 1])

mt = 0.76

(b) Total modulation index

mt = +

m2 = −

m2 = √0.76 − 0.4

m2 = 0.646.

(11). A 1000kHz carrier is simultaneously AM modulated with 300Hz, 800Hz and 1.5kHz audio sine
waves. What will be the frequencies present in the output?

Solution
 Given

fc =1000kHz , fm1 = 300 Hz , fm2 = 800Hz, fm3 = 1.5kHz

Frequencies in the output – fc , fc+fm1, fc+ f m2, fc +f m3, fc-f m1, fc-f m2 , fc-f m3.

fc+fm1 = 1000kHz + 300Hz = 1000.3kHz

fc+fm2 = 1000kHz + 800Hz = 1000.8kHz

fc+fm3 = 1000kHz + 1.5kHz = 1001.5 kHz

fc-fm1 = 1000kHz - 300Hz = 999.7 kHz

fc-fm2 = 1000kHz - 800Hz = 999.2 kHz

fc- fm3 = 1000kHz – 1.5kHz = 998.5 kHz

998.5 999.2 999.7 1000 1000.3 1000.8 1001.5 f( kHz)

(12). How many AM broadcast stations can be accommodated in a 100kHz bandwidth if the highest
frequency modulating a carrier is 5kHz.

Solution

Given

Channel Band Width B = 100 kHz

Modulating frequency fm = 5 kHz

Number of stations = BW / fm = 100 / 5 = 20