Objectives

23.1
F. OPTICS 23.2 Interference
23.3 Two-slit interference pattern
23.4 Interference in a thin film
23.5 Diffraction at single slit
23. Physical optics 23.6 Diffraction gratings
23.7 Polarisation
23.8 Optical waveguides

Outcomes Outcomes
a) h) explain the phenomenon of thin film
b) interference for normal incident light, and
and diffraction phenomena solve related problems
c) explain the concept of coherence i) explain the diffraction pattern for a single slit
d) explain the concept of optical path difference, and
j)
solve related problems
minimum in the diffraction pattern for a
e) state the conditions for constructive and destructive
interferences single slit
f) -slit interference pattern k)
g) power of an aperture
interference pattern

Outcomes Outcomes
l) explain the diffraction pattern for a o) state that polarisation is a property of transverse
waves
diffraction grating
p) explain the polarisation of light obtained by
m) use the formula d for a diffraction reflection or using a polariser
grating q) understand polarisation planes
n) describe the use of a diffraction grating to law tan B = n
form the spectrum of white light, and to r) I = I0cos2
s) explain the basic principles of fibre optics and
determine the wavelength of monochromatic
waveguides
light t) state the applications of fibre optics and
waveguides

Objectives
(a) understand and use emitted at the opening and they will combine
when expanding on the other side of the
principle to explain opening creating the diffraction pattern.
interference and
diffraction
phenomena
 Every point on a wave front is a source of
secondary wavelets.
i.e. particles in a medium excited by electric
field (E) re-radiate in all directions
i.e. in vacuum, E, B fields associated with wave
act as sources of additional fields
Plane wave propagation
New wave front is still a
plane as long as dimensions
of wave front are >>
If not, edge effects become
important
Note: no such thing as a
perfect plane wave, or
collimated beam
Coherence
If the phase of a light wave is well defined at all
times (oscillates in a simple pattern with time
and varies in a smooth wave in space at any
instant), then the light is said to be coherent.
If, on the other hand, the phase of a light wave
varies randomly from point to point, or from
moment to moment (on scales coarser than
the wavelength or period of the light) then
the light is said to be incoherent.
Interference
Recall interference of sound waves. Light waves
also display constructive and destructive
interference.
For incoherent light, the interference is hard to
washed out
rapid phase jumps of the light.
Soap films are one example where we can see
interference effects even with incoherent
light.
New wavefront
Construct the wave front
tangent to the wavelets
r=c t
Given wave-front
Allow wavelets to
at t evolve for time t
23.2 Interference
Objectives
(b) understand the concept of coherence
(c) understand the concept of optical path
difference
(d) know the conditions for constructive
interference and destructive interference
Coherence
For example, a laser produces highly coherent
light. In a laser, all of the atoms radiate in
phase.
An incandescent or fluorescent light bulb
produces incoherent light. All of the atoms in
the phosphor of the bulb radiate with random
phase. Each atom oscillates for about 1ns, and
produces a coherent wave about 1 million
wavelengths long. But after several ns, the
next atom radiates with random phase.
Interference of light waves was first
demonstrated by Thomas Young in 1801.
When two small apertures are illuminated with
coherent light, an interference pattern of light
and dark regions is observed on a distant
screen:
Light
 Constructive and Destructive
Path Difference Interference
We can understand the interference pattern as Two waves (top and middle) arrive at the
resulting because light from the two apertures same point in space.
will, in general, travel a different distance The total wave amplitude is the sum of the
before reaching a point on the screen. The two waves.
difference in distance is known as the path The waves can add constructively or
difference. destructively
P
Light

Constructive and Destructive

Interference 23.3 Two-slit interference pattern
Objectives
(e) -slit interference pattern
(f) derive and use the formula y = D/a for

Two Slit Diffraction Two Slit Interference

An incoherent light source
illuminates the first slit.
This creates a nearly-uniform but
coherent illumination of the
second screen
(from side-to-side on the screen,
the light wave has the same
oscillating phase).
The two waves from the two slits
S1 and S2 create a pattern of
alternating light and dark fringes
on the third screen.

Why did Young (1800s) use single slit

Interference of waves from double slit before the double slit?
1. The first slit forces the wave to be
Each slit in the
previous slide acts coherent all the time
as a source of an 2. From moment to moment (after
outgoing wave. many oscillations of wave) the
Notice that the two wave is still incoherent, but at
waves are coherent each moment in time, the wave
The amplitude of has the same phase at the two
the light wave slits.
reaching the screen
is the coherent sum 3. He was too cheap to buy a 19th
of the wave coming century laser.
from the two slits.
Two Slit Diffraction Two Slit Diffraction
If the two slits are separated by a difference d f we put a lens of Focal Length f=L, then the
and the screen is far away then the path expression l dsin is exact.
difference at point P is l dsin If l = 2 etc, then the waves will arrive in
phase and there will be a bright spot on the
L screen. L
P P
Light Light
dsin dsin

Fringes Interference Conditions

Consider apertures made of tall, narrow slits. If For constructive interference,
the path difference must be
at point P the path difference yields a phase zero or an integral multiple
difference of 180 degrees between the two of the wavelength:
beams a dark fringe will appear. If the two d sin = m , (m 0, 1, 2...)
waves are in phase, a bright fringe will appear. For destructive interference,
the path difference must be
an odd multiple of half
wavelengths:
= d sin = (m - 12 ) (m 0, 1, 2...)

m is called the order number

Double Slit interference Double Slit interference

m
If we know distance D, ym D If m = 1,
position y of mth bright d
fringe
d sin d
y
y D
d m d
D
m
D
y
ym D
m d
d
Could be used to measure the wavelength of light!

Example Two Slit Diffraction:

If the distance between two slits is 0.050 m and the When green light ( = 505 nm) passes through a pair of
distance to a screen is 2.50 m, find the spacing double slits, the interference pattern shown in (a) is
between the first- and second-order bright fringes for observed. When light of a different color passes
yellow light of 600 nm wavelength. through the same pair of slits, the pattern shown in (b)
d sin = m , (m 0, 1, 2...) is observed.
ym L tan m
m D
sin m /d ym
m d
6
sin 1 1(600 nm) /( 0.05m) 12 10 ( 2 1)600 nm 2.50m
y2 y1
12 10 6 rad 0.05m
1
y2 y1 6 10 7 50m
y1 (2.5m)(12 10 6 ) 0.030mm
y2 y1 0.03mm
y2 y1 0.030mm
 Two Slit Diffraction: Solution
(a) Is the wavelength of the second color greater than or
less than 505 nm? Explain.
d sin = m , (m 0, 1, 2...)
(b) Find the wavelength of the second color. (Assume that
the angles involved are small enough to set sin = tan
= .) green light ( = 505 nm)
4.5 orders of green light = 5 orders of mystery
light
4.5 (505 nm) = (5)
< 505 nm, = (4.5/5)(505 nm) = 454 nm
d sin = m , (m 0, 1, 2...)

Thin film - continued 23.4 Thin film

example of air wedge:
reflection from upper plate, na>nb, no phase
shift
reflection from lower plate, na<nb, phase
shift of

Description of phase shift during

reflecting Interference conditions for thin films
Non-normal n = sin /sin
incident ray

Assume light travelling in medium with index AB = BC

= d/cos
of na, and hits interface to the medium with
index of nb
if na>nb, no phase shift
if na<nb, half circle phase shift

Example 1: Soap film interference Example 1: Soap film interference

Maximum reflection or
transmission happens to
be a certain (colour) at
different position (angle)
The interference colours from a soap film can
be related to the thickness of the film by
using the interference condition and noting
that there is a 180 degree phase change upon
reflection from the film surface, but no phase
change for the reflection from the back
surface.
The colour seen depends also upon the angle
of view
Example 2: Oil film interference Example 2: Oil film interference
The interference colours from an oil film on
water can be related to the thickness of the
film by using the interference condition and
noting that there is a 180 degree phase change
upon reflection from the film surface, but no
phase change for the reflection from the back
surface.
This presumes that the index of refraction of
the oil is greater than that of the water. The
colour seen depends also upon the angle of
view

Applications: Applications:
Reflective coating Anti-reflection coating For destructive interference
Increasing the Reducing reflection Path deference = (m + ½)
d
reflection 2ndCos = (m + ½) ,
Take 0 , for nearly normal light

2nd = (m + ½)
If m = 0 , then thickness of the film is
minimum;
2nd = ½
d = /4n

Applications: Anti-reflection coating

For constructive interference
Path deference = m 1/4
d
2ndCos = m ,
Take 0 , for nearly normal light

2nd = m
If m = 1 , then thickness of the film is
minimum;
2nd =
d = /2n

Anti-reflection coating Anti-reflection coating

A single layer anti-reflection coating can be
made non-reflective only at one wavelength,
usually at the middle of the visible.
Multiple layers are more effective over the
entire visible spectrum.
One coating layer is only for a certain
wavelength, normally chosen in the central
yellow-green portion of the spectrum ~550nm
(most sensitive to the eyes)
Overall reflection can be reduced from 4~5%
to 1%, the reflectivity can be reduced further
by multiple-layer coatings
Anti-reflection coating
widely used for
highly corrected photographic lenses usually
using many pieces of glasses
devices of solar cell or phototdetectors use
this coating to increase light amount
transmitted
LED device to reduce Fresnel lossses
Reflective coating
If the quarter-wavelength layer has greater
index than the glass
half-cycle phase shift happens at the air-film
interface
no phase shift at the interface of film-glass
half-cycle phase shift during travelling in
film
the interference is constructive

Reflective coating 23.5 Diffraction at single slit

The reflectivity is increased, for a film with Objectives
index of 2.5 increases reflectivity of 38% (i) know the diffraction pattern for a single slit
(j) /a for
100% reflectivity can be achieved by multiple- the first minimum in the diffraction pattern
coating layers widely used in modern
optoelectronics to construct micro-cavity for a single slit

Diffraction Single Slit Diffraction

The bending of light We have seen how we can get an interference
around objects into what pattern when there are two slits.
would otherwise be a The interference pattern with a single slit can
size is approximately (neither
known as diffraction. too small nor too large)
Diffraction occurs when
light passes through very
small apertures or near Light
sharp edges.

Single Slit Diffraction Single Slit Diffraction

To understand single slit diffraction, we must P
consider each point along the slit (of width a
Light a
) to be a point source of light. (a/2) sin
A
There will be a path difference between light
leaving the top of the slit and the light A
a/2 P
leaving the middle. This path difference will
C
yield an interference pattern. B B C
P
Light a Sin = BC/AB = 2BC/a If a = , ray AP and BP
(a/2) sin BC = (a/2)sin are completely out of
L phase, destructive int.
Single Slit Diffraction Single Slit Diffraction
Path difference of rays to P from top and Notice that central
bottom edge of slit, L = asin destructive if maximum is twice as
L=m wide as secondary
maxima
P m=1
Sin = m / W,
Light a Destructive
(a/2) sin Dark Fringes on screen m= 1
y = L tan L (m /W)
sin = m (m 1, 2...) Destructiv e Maxima occur for
a
y= 0 and,
Thus, a minimun is obtain at angle where asin m L
y L (m 1/2)( /W)

Single-Slit Diffraction from a large aperture

Diffraction from a pinhole (telescope, microscope, camera).

Dark fringes occur at A lens images parallel rays to a

zeros of Bessel point at the focal distance f.
function, (2-D All parallel rays experience the
geometry). same phase change from a
incident plane wave to the focus.
First dark fringe A image formed by a lens of
Sin = 1.22 (l/D) diameter a is fuzzed out by the
D = diameter of pinhole single slit diffraction pattern,
whose central maximum is of
width: = 1.22 /a

Rayleigh Criterion
Diffraction limited Resolution 23.6 Diffraction gratings
Two objects can be resolved (barely) if the Objectives
diffraction maximum of one object lies in the (k) know the diffraction pattern for diffraction
diffraction minimum of the second object. gratings
min = 1.22 [wavelength]/[diameter of lens or (l) use the formula d n for diffraction
mirror] gratings
(m) describe the use of diffraction gratings to
form the spectrum of white light and
measure the wavelength of monochromatic
light

Diffraction Gratings Diffraction Gratings

Each slit is a source of a If the incident wave
wave uniformly and coherently
excites N slits, then the
Observe the outgoing
contribution from all of the
wave at an angle , the
slits will exactly cancel if
contributions from all
slits add up coherently if d sin = (m+1/N) , (m=0,
d sin = m ,
By virtue of using many
slits, the diffraction grating
reduces the width of each
maximum by a factor 1/N.
Sharpening of Diffraction Pattern
Diffraction pattern with N=5
Width of each principal maximum is
= /(Nd), d = spacing of grating
N = number of slits illuminated by source.
Resolution of Diffraction Grating
A grating can be used to measure the
wavelength of a spectral line from an atomic
or molecular transition.
A grating has 5000 rulings/cm,
Our light source makes a spot 5mm across on
the grating.
We observe the diffraction pattern in 3rd
order.

Resolution of Diffraction Grating Resolution of Diffraction Grating

With what precision can we measure the
wavelength of incident light? = sin (d/m)
1 2 = sin [d/(m+1/N)]

d sin = (m+1/N) , ( 1 2) / 1 = relative precision

N = (5000/cm)(0.5cm) = 2500 (d / m) sin
[d /(m 1 / N )]sin
1 2
Consider two wavelengths 1 and 2 such that (d / m) sin
2
Sin = (m) 1/d = (m+1/N) 2/d
m 1/ N 1
1 2 = measurement precision 1
m 1 / N m 1 / N mN
Precision improves with larger values of either N
or m, But diffraction maxima get weaker and
weaker as m increases

Diffraction Grating Resolution 23.7 Polarisation

N = 2500, m = 3
Relative precision = 1/(2500 3) = 1.3e-4
Red light l = 800 nm
Absolute precision = (800 nm) 1.3e-4 = 0.1nm
(One atomic diameter!!!!!)
Objectives
(n) understand that polarisation is a property of
transverse waves
(o) understand the production of polarised
light by polaroid and by reflection
(p) understand polarisation planes
(q) use the formula I = I0cos2

EM waves Plane of polarisation

Light is a transverse wave - like waves on a The plane of polarisation is the plane
string, or ripples on the surface of water containing the electric field E and the
The associated electric and magnetic fields, E direction of the wave
and B are at right angles to the direction the
wave is traveling and to each other
Direction wave
E is traveling E
Direction the wave
electric
is traveling
B magnetic B
 Production of radio waves Production of radio waves
Radio waves are produced by electric currents Radio waves are produced by electric currents
in an aerial in an aerial
The waves are polarised in the same direction The waves are polarised in the same direction
as the aerial. as the aerial.

A horizontal aerial makes A vertical aerial makes

waves that are polarised waves that are polarised in
in the horizontal plane the vertical plane

Light waves Polarised vs unpolarised

Light waves are produced by electric currents Observed along the direction the wave is traveling,
within atoms
A polarised wave An unpolarised wave
Usually atoms are oriented randomly and the looks like this: looks like this:
produced light is unpolarised

E has a definite direction

and oscillates up and Direction of E changes
down randomly with time

Production of polarized light Polarising filters

This is most easily done by placing a A polarising filter has conducting lines of molecules
polarising filter in front of an unpolarised light Electric fields along these lines generate electric
source currents and are absorbed
Optical axis
E Transmitted Only the component perpendicular to the E
of polarising filter polarised light conducting lines is transmitted
NB: the optical axis is
Unpolarised perpendicular to the
E conducting lines E
incident light

Conducting lines
polariod
of molecules

Transmitted intensity Combining polarising filters

A polarising filter absorbs half the intensity of A second polarising filter with the same
unpolarised light optical axis as the first does not absorb
E additional light E

E
100%
E 100% 50%
E
50%
50%
Combining polarising filters
A second polarising filter with an optical axis The intensity I0 the light is Optical
perpendicular to the first absorbs all proposional to its amplitude transmission
remaining light I0 A02 axis
0% When a polarized light of
E amplitude A0 insidents to a
polaroid whose transmission axis
100% is inclined a an angle of , only the
E light parallel to the transmission
50% axis is allowed to pass through, A0
where the component amplitude,
A = A0 cos

A = A0 cos , Optical
The intensity of the component transmission 600
wave I is related to the component axis
amplitude, A, where E
25%
I A2 I = I0cos2
Then =
I/Io = A2/A02 I0cos2600
100%
A0 =0.25I0
= A02cos2 /A02
I = I0
I = I0cos2

Polarisation by scattering in air

Sunlight induces
electric current Sunlight
600 oscillations in air (unpolarised)Induced electric
molecules currents in air
12.5% molecules
I = I0 E

100%
I2 = I1cos2
E = I1cos2600 Scattered
50% = 0.25I1 light
= 0.25 0.5I0 Polarised light
I1 = 0.5I0
= 0.125I0 observer

Polarisation by scattering in air Polarisation by reflection

If one observes the Light reflected off non-metallic surfaces (e.g.
scattered light at Sunlight water, glass) is partly polarised with E parallel
right angles to the (unpolarised)Induced electric to the surface
incident light currents in air
direction, it will be molecules
polarised because
oscillations along
Scattered
the observation
light
direction cannot
produce transverse Polarised light
scattered light observer
 Reflection off non-metallic surfaces
Brewster angle 1.0
n=1.5
The amount of polarisation normal 0.8
component
depends on the incidence angle B

reflection
parallel
At the Brewster angle of n1 0.6 to surface
incidence the reflection is fully
polarised n2 0.4

At the Brewster angle of 0.2 component

incidence, the reflected and for air, perpendicular
n2 B 0.04
refracted light are at right n1=1.0 to surface
1.3 52± 0o 20o 40o 60o 80o
angles Normal incidence
1.4 54± 56.3o
The Brewster angle is n2 n1
2
0.5
2
Brewster angle tan B=n2/n1
calculated as tan B=n2/n1 1.5 56± R 0.04
n2 n1 2.5

Polarising sun-glasses Randot and Titmus tests

Some sunglasses are made with The left and right eye see slightly
a polarising filter different images: close objects are
displaced more between the left
The optical axis is vertical
and right eye than far objects.
This reduces the reflection from This allows depth perception.
horizontal surfaces (e.g. water One way to simulate this is
on the road) overlaying two images with
different polarisations and
watching them through
polarizing glasses (3D movies)

Randot and Titmus tests 23.8 Optical waveguides

If the optical axis differs by 90o explain the basic
between the two filters, the left principles of fibre
eye sees a different image than optics and
the right eye waveguides
This is used to test stereoscopic
vision in the Randot and Titmus state the applications
tests of fibre optics and
Further study: 3D Movies waveguides.
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_do_Real_D_3D_glas
ses_work_in_the_cinema_but_they_wont_work_with
_any_other_3D_images_at_home_Are_there_any_ima
ges_that_do_work

History of Fiber Optics History of Fiber optics

John Tyndall demonstration in 1870
During 1930, other ideas were developed with
this fiber optic such as transmitting images
through a fiber.
During the 1960s, Lasers were introduced as
efficient light sources
In 1970s All glass fibers experienced excessive
optical loss, the loss of the light signal as it
traveled the fiber limiting transmission
distance.

Total Internal reflection is the basic idea of fiber optic

 Source and transmitters
History of Fiber optics
This motivated the scientists to develop glass A basic fiber optic communications system
fibers that include a separating glass coating. consists of three basic elements:
The innermost region was used to transmit the
light, while the glass coating prevented the Fiber media
light from leaking out of the core by reflecting Light sources
the light within the boundaries of the core.
Light detector
Today, you can find fiber optics used in variety
of applications such as medical environment to
the broadcasting industry. It is used to
transmit voice, television, images and data
signals through small flexible threads of glass or
plastic.

Several applications of fiber optic A Light Sources

Configuration of a Fiber Optic Sensor System LED (Light emitting diode) ILD (injection laser diode)

Detectors Fiber media

Detector is the receiving end of a fiber optic link. There are three types of fiber optic cable
There are two kinds of Detectors commonly used
1.PIN (Positive Intrinsic Negative) Optical fibers are the actual media that guides
2.APD (Avalanche photo diodes)
the light

Plastic optic fiber

PIN APD Single Mode Step-index Multimode fiber

How Does fiber optic transmit light The loss of fiber optic
Material obsorption
Material Scattering
Waveguide scattering
Fiber bending
Fiber coupling loss
 The advantages of fiber optic over
Idea of Modulation wire cable
When sending information by an optical fiber,
the information must be encoded or
Thinner
transformed somehow into information that Higher carrying capacity
capable of being transmitted through a fiber. Less signal degradation
The signal needs to be modulated. There are Light signal
two types of modulation Analog and digital.
Low power
Flexible
Non-flammable
Lightweight

Disadvantage of fiber optic over Optical fiber transmits light. But,

copper wire cable what prevents the light from escaping
Optical fiber is more expensive per meter than from the fiber?
copper
Optical fiber can not be join together as easily
as copper cable. It requires training and
expensive splicing and measurement
equipment.

Laws of Reflection & Refraction

Total internal Reflection

Critical angle: sin c = n2/n1 (n1>n2)

Reflection law: angle of incidence=angle of reflection

n1 sin 1 n2 sin 2
[2-18]

Optical Fiber com munications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

Total Internal Reflection & Critical Angle Phase shift due to TIR
Transmitted
(refracted) light
2 90
The totally reflected wave experiences a phase
2 kt
n2 Evanescent wave shift however which is given by:
n 1 > n2
n 2 cos 2 n n 2 cos 2
1

ki 1 kr c N 1 1 p 1 1
Critical angle 1 c
TIR
tan ; tan
Incident Reflected 2 n sin 1 2 sin 1
light light
(a) (b ) ( c)
n1
n
Light wave travelling in a more dense medium strikes a less dense n2
medium. Depending on the incidence angle with respect to
which is determined by the ratio of the refractive indices, the Where (p,N) refer to the electric field components
wave may be transmitted (refracted) or reflected. (a) 1 < c
(b) 1 = c (c) 1 > c and total internal reflection (TIR). parallel or normal to the plane of incidence
n2 respectively.
sin c
n1
 Optical waveguiding by TIR:
Dielectric Slab Waveguide Launching optical rays to slab waveguide
n2
sin min ; minimum angle that supportsTIR
n1
Maximum entrance angle, 0max is found

end face.

2 2
n sin 0 max n1 sin c n1 n2

Numerical aperture: 0 m ax

2 2
NA n sin 0 max n1 n2 n1 2
n1 n2
n1
Propagation mechanism in an ideal step-index optical waveguide.
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

Optical rays transmission through dielectric slab Optical Fibers: Modal Theory (Guided or
waveguide Propagating modes) & Ray Optics Theory
n1 n2 ; c c O
2

n1 n2
Optical Fiber comm unications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

n1 n2
For TE-case, when electric waves are normal to the plane of incidence
must be satisfied with following relationship:

2 2
n1 d sin m n1 cos 2 n2 [2-25]
tan Step Index Fiber
2 n1 sin
Optical Fiber comm unications, 3 rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

Different Structures of Optical Fiber

Ray Optics Theory (Step-Index Fiber)

Skew rays

Each particular guided mode in a fiber can be represented by a group of rays which
Make the same angle with the axis of the fiber.

Optical Fiber com munications, 3 rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000 Optical Fiber com munications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000