Tectonics 

EQ1: Why are some locations more at risk from tectonic hazards? 
Theory of plate tectonics and its key elements 
 
The Earth’s structure 
 

 
● The Earth is made up of the inner core, the outer core, the mantle and the crust.  
● The lithosphere includes the crust and the most upper part of the mantle. 
○ It is said to be moving fueled by rising heat from the mantle creating convection currents. 
● The asthenosphere lies below the lithosphere and the plates are said to float and move on this. It 
is hot, semisolid material  
 
● The Earth’s crust (lithosphere) is split into sections, called plate tectonics. There is  
○ thin oceanic crust, which underlies the ocean basins (mainly basalt) 
○ thicker continental crust, underlies the continent (mainly granite) 

○  
● The low density of the thick continental crust allows it to float higher on the much higher density 
mantle below. 
● The edge of plate tectonics are called plate boundaries. 
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Why do plates move? 

 

 
● Plates move due to convection currents.  
a. Radioactive decay in the inner core produces heat.   
b. The magma (molten rock) expands, becoming lighter.  
c. As it less dense than the surrounding magma, it is forced upwards.  
d. The hot rock rises gradually towards the crust and its moves away from the heat source 
it cools.  
e. When it reaches the lithosphere, its forced sideways because it cannot pass through the 
solid rock above it.  
● Thus, heat which rises within the mantle to drive convection currents which in turn move 
tectonics plates. 
● Convection currents operate as cells.  
● Slab pull and slab suction are the two main forces driving tectonic activity.  
● Slab pull is the pulling force exerted by a cold dense oceanic plate plunging into the mantle due 
to its own weight.  
 
Theory of Plate tectonics 
 
The​ Plate tectonic theory​ provides an explanation of tectonic activity. The Earth's crust is divided into 
separate parts, called tectonic plates, which float on the partially molten rocks of the upper mantle. The 
plates move due to convection cells in the mantle. 

 
● This theory was developed from the Wenger’s C ​ ontinental Shelf theory​.  
● Wegener suggested that originally there was large continent called P​ angea​ surrounded by a sea 
called Panthalassa. 
● Convection currents that created Pangea eventually broke it apart, former smaller continents.  
 
 
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Evidence for the Theory of Plate Tectonics 

1. Many continental shelf shapes fit together (e.g. South America fits the west coast of Africa) 
2. Geological evidence finds matching rock formation and mountain chains in South America and 
Africa 
3. Matching fossilised animals and plants can be found in South America and Africa. 
4. Parts of Antarctica, North America and UK contain coal deposits of similar age found under 
tropical conditions in temperate areas. 
5. Most earthquakes and volcanoes occur in zones near plate boundaries. 
6. When the ocean floor was surveyed, at mid ocean ridges, new oceanic crust was being created 
with symmetrical magnetic stripes. This stripes (in a process called paleomagnetism) were 
found in the iron rich rocks either side of the constructive plate boundaries. The bands 
correspond to times when the Earth’s magnetic field reversed from North to South and so on.  
 
Types of Plate Boundaries  
 
Constructive (Divergent) Plate Boundary 
 
● Tension​ force experienced. 
● These plates move apart or diverge 
● Occur between two plates that are pulled apart by convection current in the mantle 
● The crust spreads out latterly away from the ridges, called​ sea floor spreading. C ​ rust material 
either side of the ridge is younger. 
● As the pieces of crust separate, a gap is left called, a mid oceanic ridge, that filled by magma 
from the mantle. 
● On land, a rift valley forms. 
● Less violent and more effusive volcanic eruptions due to basaltic magma. (1-4 on VEI) 
● Less friction so magnitudes are lower.  
 
Transform (Conservative) Plate Boundary 
 
● Shearing​ force experienced 
● Plates slide past each other - either in different directions or at different speeds 
● Lithosphere is neither created or subducted. 
● Stress accumulates on both sides of the fault plane and produces strain. This leads to a build up 
of pressure and once it passes the elastic limit, earthquakes can occur. 
● Stress is great along transform boundaries resulting in high magnitude earthquakes 
 
Destructive (Convergent) Plate Boundary 
 
● Compressional​ force experienced 
● They move together and collide. 
● Subduction is said to occur due to slab pull.  
● Denser oceanic plates are subducted at cold downwellings. 
● Plate material melts in the mantle, causing frequent earthquake and volcanoes. 
● High magnitude earthquakes that can be deep or shallow, greatest along the Wadati Benioff 
zone.  
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● The viscous lava is more resistant to movement resulting in more explosive volcanic activity. 
 
Global Distribution of Earthquakes, Volcanoes and Tsunamis 
 
● Most volcanic eruptions and earthqakes occur near a plate boundary 
● 70% of all earthquakes are found in the Ring of Fire in Pacific Ocean 

 
 
Risks associated with Plate Boundaries (physical processes impact on the magnitude and type of 
volcanic eruption and earthquake magnitude and focal depth (benioff Zone) 
 
 
Plate  Image  Seismic Activity  Volcanic Activity  Formations 
Boundary 
Type 

Constructive  Upwelling of magma,  The magma rises up  Shield 

forces formed crust  and forms a shield  Volcano 
to be pulled apart  volcano.  Mid Ocean 
and moved laterally.  There are generally  Ridge 
  Stress and Tension is  less explosive.   
built and once these   
exceeds the elastic 
limit, earthquakes 
ensue. 
 
As the magma is 
constantly rising, 
there is little time for 
tension to built so 
earthquakes seen 
here tend to be 
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frequent and small 

magnitude. 

Destructive  When an oceanic  In the Benioff Zone,  Statro 

(Oceanic and  crust pushes into  the oceanic crust is  volcanoes. 
Continental)  continental crust  subducted down into 
there is a collision.  the mantle and 
  The oceanic crust is  partial melting 
denser and subducts,  occurs. At the same 
under slab pull, into  time, heat from 
the Benioff Zone.  friction causes the 
The compression  rocks to melt. The 
builds up pressure,  molten rock (magma) 
which can suddenly  collects and can rise 
be released as the  up through cracks in 
plate subducts,  the continental crust. 
causing earthquakes  As pressure builds 
up, a volcanic 
eruption can occur. 

Destructive  The denser and  The friction from the  Volcanic 

(Oceanic and  cooler oceanic plate  compressional forces  Islands 
Oceanic  is subducted under  as subduction 
the less dense  occurs, melts the 
  younger oceanic  lithosphere as heat 
plate. As one plate  and pressure 
slides over another,  increases.  
earthquakes are 
formed. 

Destructive  The compressional  As the plates are of  Fold 

(Continental  forces can build up  similar density, no  Mountains 
and  pressure and this can  subduction occurs. 
Continental  be suddenly  The crust buckles 
  released.   and is pushed 
upwards. The region 
in which the 
compression occurs 
is the collision zone. 
Upfolds form ridges 
and downfolds form 
valleys.  

Transform  The sliding motion  Conserve the crust,   

causes the plates to  and no subduction 
get stuck due to the  occurs for partial 
rough nature of the  melting to occur to 
  rock.   form 
Elastic rebound is  stratovolcanoes. 
said to occur as 
stress accumulates 
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on both sides of the 

fault plan and 
produces strain. This 
leads to a build up of 
pressure and once it 
passes the elastic 
limit, earthquakes 
occur. 
 
Cause of intraplate earthquakes 
 
● Ancient fault lines can get fractured as as stress builds up on the fault lines. When the fault can 
hold no more stress, it buckles and folds, releasing energy in the form of seismic waves. 
● These can also be man made. For example, the building of a dam (Hoover dam), fracking and 
underground nuclear testing has been known to cause earthquakes.  
 
Cause of intraplate volcanoes 
 
● A hotspot is a small area of the Earth’s crust where there 
is an unusually high heat flow from the core. 
● Mantle plumes are hot molten rock derived from just 
under the crust.  
● Strong convection currents raise molten rock up to 1000 
km across. On nearing the surface, plastic mantle plume 
encounters significantly lower pressure and become 
molten. In certain locations, this magma pierces the crust 
above. 
● E.g. Hawaii - as the hot spot under the seafloor produces undersea volcanoes, some of the 
volcanoes build up to the surface of the ocean and become islands. As the islands move away 
from the hotspot (As the plate moves), they begin to erode and become inactive. 
 
Earthquakes 
 
Earthquake formation 
 
● Build up of tectonic strain through compressional, tension or shearing forces. 
● When the pressure exceed the strength of fault, the rock fractures 
● This produces a sudden release of energy, creating seismic waves that radiate away from the 
point of fracture 
 
● The ​focus​ of an earthquake is the point at which strain is 
released 
● The ​epicentre​ is the point directly above the focus on the 
earth’s surface.  
 
 
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Types of seismic waves: 
 
Seismic waves can cause crustal fracturing and ground shaking. 
 
P Waves  S Waves  L Waves 

 
 

● Primary Waves  ● Secondary Waves  ● Love Waves 

● 8 km/sec  ● 4 km/s  ● Surface waves 
● Arrive first  ● Slower than p waves.  ● Moves from side to side 
● Short Wavelength  ● Longer wavelength  (obliquely) 
● Travel quickly  causing more  ● High amplitude  
● Least destructive.  destruction.  ● More destructive than P 
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● Longitudinal Waves  ● Transverse Waves  Waves 

● Moves through solid  ● Cannot travel through 
rock and fluids  liquids. 
● Vibrate at right angles to 
the direction of travel. 
 
Secondary hazards of an earthquake: 
 
● Soil Liquefaction 
○ Loose material (sand, silt) can temporarily lose normal strength and behave like a liquid 
under the pressure of strong shaking. 
○ Occurs in saturated soils 
○ This can result in damage to roads, telecommunications etc.  
● Landslides  
○ Occur when slopes weaken and fall 
○ Seismic waves loosen rock or unconsolidated material on steep slopes. 
○ Material loses its cohesive strength and moves downwards under the influence of 
gravity. 
 
Volcanoes cause 
 
The viscosity of the magma affects the nature and power of an eruption and the resultant shape 
Three main factors determine the viscosity of magma. 
1. Temperature - the higher the temperature, the lower the density of the magma and the more 
easily it will flow. 
2. Amount of dissolved gases - the greater the amount of dissolved gases, the less fluid the 
magma.  
3. Chemistry - the higher the silica content, the more viscous the magma.  
 
 
  Basaltic lava  Andesitic lava  Rhyolitic lava 

Temperature  Hottest 1000-1200  800-1000  650-800 

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Main minerals  Low silica (50%)  Intermediate silica  High silica (70%) 
High CO​2​, Fe and Mg  (60%) 

Gas content  (0.5-2%)  3-4%  4-6% 

Formed by  Melting of mantle  Subducted oceanic  Melting of lithospheric 

minerals  plate melts, mixes with  mantle slabs of 
seawater  previously subducted 
plate 

Flow   Thin and runny  Slow  Thick and stiff 

Eruption energy  Effusive, gentle  violent  Very violent 

Locations  Shield Volcanoes,  Composite cone  Supervolcanoes. 

ocean hot spots  volcanoes 
 
Primary Impacts of Volcanoes 
 
● Pyroclastic flows  
○ responsible for most volcanic related 
deaths.  
○ Result from frothing of molten magma in 
the vent of the volcano, or lava domes 
collapse because of gravity 
○ Bubbles burst explosively to eject hot 
gases and pyroclastic materials, such as 
glass shards, crystals and ash 
○ Clouds up to 1000 degrees 
○ Can travel up to 450 km/hr 
● Tephra 
○ Ejection of rock fragments into the atmosphere.  
○ They can then be transported by wind thousands of miles; 
○ Can vary in size from bombs (32mm in diameter) to fine dust (4mm) 
○ Can cause buildings roofs to collapse 
○ Start fires on the ground 
○ Dust can reduce visibility and affect air travel 
● Lava flows 
○ Viscosity depends on silica content 
○ On steep slopes some lava flows reach 15 m/s 
● Volcanic gases 
○ Mix normally includes water vapour, Sulphur dioxide, Carbon Monoxide .Most deaths 
associated with carbon monoxide as its colourless and odourless. 
● Jokulhlaup 
○ Flood meltwater issuing from underneath an ice cap or glacier. 
○ Occurs when a volcano erupts underneath the ice and melts the ice. 
○ The water bursts out underneath the ice carrying with it glacial moraines (rock 
fragments) and blocks of ice and is deposited in lowland areas. 
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● Lahars 
○ Water mixed with volcanic deposits flowing rapidly along existing valleys.  
○ Fast velocity and amount of material carried and the great distance they travel make 
them dangerous. 
○ Caused by 
■ Heavy rainfall - humid air being seeded with volcanic ash accelerates 
condensation, the formation of clouds and rain 
■ Emptying of a crater lake 
■ Melting of snow and ice due to heat from an eruption 
■ mudslide/landslide 
 
 
Tsunamis 
 
● Created by w​ ater column displacement​, 
by undersea plate movements where the seabed 
is thrust upwards or downwards very quickly. 
● Longer wavelengths. 
● The energy from the earthquake causes 
waves to propagate over the ocean surface 
● As the wavelengths of the tsunami grow 
approach the coastline, the grow in height. They 
are slowed by the friction of their collision with the 
rising sea bed. 
● As the velocity decreases, the wavelengths shortens and amplitude increases. 
● Amount of time between successive waves (wave period) are often a few minutes but can be 
over an hour apart 
 
 
The impact of tsunamis depend on a number of physical and human factors 
● Duration of event 
● Wave amplitude, water column displacement and distance travelled 
● Water depth and gradient of the shoreline 
● Coastal ecosystem buffer (*E.g. Mangrove or coral reefs) 
● Quality of early warning systems 
● Degrees of coastal development and proximity to the coast, especially in tourist areas. 
   
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EQ 2: Why do some tectonic hazards develop into disasters? 

Definitions 
● Natural Hazard: ​A natural tectonic event that disrupts daily home or work routines. It is a 
perception of an an event that has the potential to threaten both life and property. 
● Natural Disaster: ​A hazard that disrupts normal conditions to a point where a place or 
community cannot adjust and there is significant loss of life and injuries, and or financial costs. 
● Mega Disaster​ Major hazardous event that becomes catastrophic and more than a disaster. The 
scale of impacts are exceptionally great, unusually severe with large number of deaths, loss of 
buildings and infrastructure or long lasting impacts on normal social and economic systems. 
○ The UN quantified the difference between the two through the number of deaths and the 
socio-economic impacts.  
○ 500 or more deaths is a disaster 
○ A mega disaster results in over 2000 deaths, over 200000 made homeless or the GDP of 
a country is reduced by at least 5% or there is dependence of aid from abroad for a year 
or more after the event.  
 
Dreggs model shows the interaction between hazards, disaster and human vulnerability. 
 

 
 
Disasters only occur when a vulnerable population is exposed to a hazard. 
 
● Risk refers to the exposure of people to a hazardous event, this includes deaths, injuries, trauma, 
and upset, loss of livelihoods, damage to property etc.  
● Hazard refers to and earthquake or volcanic event itself as well as relevant secondary hazards - 
including characteristics such as magnitude, speed of onset, spatial extent, frequency and 
duration. 
● Vulnerability relates to human geography characteristics such as location of settlements, 
knowledge and understanding 
The hazard risk formulae captures various components that influence the amount of risk that a hazard 
may produce for a community or population. 
 
V ulnerability
Risk = Hazard × Exposure × M anageability  
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Hazard × V ulnerability
Disaster = Capacity to cope.  
 
Resilience refers to the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb 
and recover from the effects of a hazard. 
 
The Pressure and Release Model 
 

 
 
Disaster is the intersection of two processes - Vulnerability and natural hazard event 
 
● Pressure and Release model suggest what should be tackled in order to reduce the risk of 
disaster.  
● Root causes such as limited access to power and resources  
● This create vulnerability through dynamic pressures such as inadequate training or standards.  
● Dynamic processes result in unsafe conditions, in the physical and social environments. 
 
Social and economic impacts of tectonic hazards 
 
● Concentration of volcanoes are in relatively narrow belts means not only that a relatively small 
proportion of the land area of the world is close to a volcano but also that a relatively small 
proportion of people are in direct exposure to a volcanic event. 
● Less than 1% of the world’s population is likely experience risk from volcanic activity 
● 5% are estimated to be at risk from earthquake events. 
 
   
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Economic impacts need to be considered  

 
● Level of development 
● Insured impacts versus non insured impacts 
● Total number of people affected and speed of economic recovery 
● Degree of urbanisation - e.g. land values 
● Absolute vs relative impacts on a country’s GDP. 
 
Scales measuring hazards  
 
Earthquakes 
 
Richter Scale 
● Measures magnitude of an earthquake 
by measuring arrival of P and S waves, 
amplitude of S waves and distance 
from the epicentre 
● Scales were only valid for certain 
frequency and distance ranges 
● Although used in the media, in the 
world of science it has been 
discontinued 
Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS) 
● Now considered the best scale for 
larger earthquakes as it is more 
accurate 
● Magnitude of an earthquake is based of 
seismic movement of the earthquake which is equal the rigidity of the x average amount of slip 
on the fault x size of area that slipped 
● Scale is logarithmic meaning each whole number step represents 10 fold increase in measured 
amplitude - e.g. 7 is 10x larger than 6 
● In terms of actual energy released the magnitude scale corresponds to the release of 33 times 
more energy 
 
❖ Produces quantitative figure that is observationally objective, making it reliable 
❖ Allows for a comparison of earthquakes and subsequent effects 
❖ However doesn’t tell you how much damage has occurred visually (unlike Mercalli Scale) 
❖ Richter scale doesn't reflect size of big earthquakes (magnitude greater than 8) very well.  
 
   
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Modified Mercalli Scale 

 
● Earthquake intensity scale based on 
observed effects, using roman numerals 
ranging from I (undetectable without 
instruments) to XII (total destruction) 
● Does not have a mathematical basis 
● Lower numbers reflect how earthquake is 
felt by people 
● Higher numbers of the scale are based on 
observed structural damage 
 
❖ Scale has more meaning to non-scientists 
as intensity refers to the effects actually 
experienced at the place 
❖ It is very subjective scale making 
comparisons unreliable 
 
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) 
 
● Measures how explosive a volcanic eruption is 
● Score given from 0-8 
● Score of 0 = non explosive eruption - less than 
10 000 m​3​ of tephra ejected 
● Score of 8 = Mega colossal explosive reputation 
that ejects 1x10​12​ m​3​ of tephra and has a cloud column 
height of over 20 km 
● Scale is logarithmic, with each interval on the 
scale representing 10 fold increase in ejecta volume 
 
The score is based on  
● Volume of tephra 
● Eruption cloud height 
● Observations - ranging from gentle to mega colossal 
 
❖ Produces a quantitative number which is reliable 
❖ Agglomerates various factors (e.g. volume of tephra, cloud height) to distinguish between each 
eruption 
❖ However does not take into account gas emissions or atmospheric/climate impact of eruptions 
 
   
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Tsunami Intensity Scale 

 
● 12 Point System 
● 1 = Only detected by tide gauges 
● 12 = all buildings are demolished. Most reinforced concrete buildings suffer from a least grade 3 
damage 
● Value based on: 
○ Effects on human 
○ Damage to buildings and infrastructure 
 
● Shows the impact of a tsunami in a relatable and understandable way 
● It is another subjective scale, meaning it can not be very reliable as different people have 
different opinions. 
 
Hazard Profiles 
 

 
 
A hazard profile is a technique used to understand the physical characteristics of different types of 
hazards, for example earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanoes. 
 
Can be used to analyse and assess the same hazards which take place in contrasting locations or at 
different times 
 
Criteria 
● Magnitude 
● Frequency  
● Duration 
● Areal extent 
● Speed of onset 
● Temporary Spacing (time between events - random/regular) 
 
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Difficult to assess across hazards, for example an earthquake to a tsunami or volcanic eruption as they 
have different impacts on society. Nad have varying spatial and temporary destructions 
 
Factors that affect vulnerability  
 
Severity of a disaster depends on the physical nature of the hazard event and the social nature of the 
human populations affected by the event.  
 
Wealth 
 
● Lack of income means people can’t buy resources needed to prepare for or cope with hazard 
● Poorest​ are less likely to afford housing or infrastructure that can withstand extreme events. 
○ Less likely to have insurance policies that can aid in recovery.  
○ Less likely to have access to medical care and suffer from more disease 
○ Areas with high population density (E.g. slums) are more likely to have low quality 
housing 
○ Rapid urbanisation means many of the poorest utilise homes that are built quickly and of 
poor quality 
○ Rapid growth and urbanisation leads to inadequate planning. People settle in illegally 
hazardous zones such as river banks (flooding risk) and steep slopes (landslide risk) 
making them more vulnerable 
● Sometimes, it is the r​ ichest​ that are more affected 
● Coastal areas contain beachside real estate that is populated by rich people, leaving the rich 
more vulnerable to tsunamis 
● The degree of property value also effects vulnerability as the rich have more valuable property at 
stake 
 
Education 
 
● Through education one can learn how to avoid or reduce impacts - e.g. earthquake drills 
● Written messages can be used to spread word about hazards in general or specific disasters 
● With educated populations with professionals trained in hazards, professionals can help 
populations with their hazard preparations and responses 
 
Technology 
● Capabilities of available technology play a role in disasters. 
● Technology has improved our ability to forecast extreme events, withstand impacts of the events 
and recover afterwards 
● Wealthier, more educated societies are more likely to to have advanced technology.  
 
Age 
 
● Children and elderly tend to be the most vulnerable 
● They have less physical strength to survive and are often more susceptible to certain diseases 
● Elderly have declining vision and hearing 
● Children have less education 
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● Both are generally dependent on others for survival as they have fewer financial resources. 
● 56% of those who died in the 2011 Japan Tsunami were over 65, even though this age group 
comprises just 23% of the population affected. 
 
Gender 
 
● Women are more vulnerable to natural hazards than men 
● Women are more likely to be poor, less educated and politically marginalised - often due to the 
patriarch society 
● Women often face the burden of being the main caretaker of the world - i.e. they are tasked 
with protecting children and the elderly leaving them less mobile and more likely to experience 
harm themselves 
 
Governance 
 
● Governments can advance policies that reduce vulnerability such as existence and enforcement 
of building codes and regulation to ensure quality and safety of buildings 
● Establish agencies tasked with reducing vulnerability - e.g. F ​ e
​ deral E
​ ​mergency ​Ma
​ nagement 
A​gency. 
● Control education investment and so can support education and awareness efforts  
○ Japan has a ‘Disaster Preparedness Day’ each year to prepare communities for shock.  
● Invest in economic development to reduce poverty and increase wealth 
● Foster social networks and empower individuals and communities to help themselves to prepare 
for and respond to hazards - e.g. emergency preparedness plans can be developed from a 
community level to nationwide 
● Control effectiveness of communication systems (e.g. media, tsunami warning systems) which 
affect the ability to inform people of a hazard in advance to coordinate rescue efforts 
● Corruption of government officials and business influence how resources are distributed or 
whether building codes are ignored and accepting of bribes to allow builders to take shortcuts 
● Political Some governments (e.g. China, North Korea) oppose foreign aid and intervention. Secret 
nature inhibits examination of how much is given, to whom etc. 
● Government systems play a large role in how effectively the available technology is used in 
disaster situation. 
 
Physical Vulnerability 
 
● People may choose to live in hazard prone area that offers little protection. 
● The accessibility of an area affects how quickly rescuers and aid can arrive. 
● The time the event occurs can also affect vulnerability 
● Rapid urbanisation destroys ecosystems - e.g. deforestation may increase the risk of flash floods 
as surface runoff increases 
 
 
   
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Comparing the impacts in a developed, developing and less developed country.  

 

 
 
Developed Country - New Zealand 
 
Facts 
 
● 7.1 Magnitude Earthquake 
● 4 September 2010 
● 10km deep - Shallow 
● 04:35 local time 
● Duration 40 seconds 
● 40 km west of Christ Church 
● Caused by lateral movement along a transform fault (called 
Greendale Fault) near Canterbury 
 
Impacts 
 
● 1 Death (from a heart attack) and 2 were injured 
● Sewers were damaged and water lines were broke 
● Water supply in Rolleston was contaminated 
● Christchurch Hospital was forced to use emergency generators 
● Liquefaction become a serious problem, causing flooding, damaging buried pipes and building 
foundations 
● Cost of repairs was estimated at NZ$ 2 billion 
 
Response  
 
● State of emergency was declared by 10:16 on 4th September 
● City’s CBD was closed to the general public 
● New Zealand Army deployed to help police enforce the closure and curfew 
● Centra government planned to provide at least 90% of the funds needed to rebuilt the area’s 
water, sewage and road network 
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● Red Cross provided people with children under the age of 5 with grants for people living 
significantly damaged homes with their electricity bills 
● $898 million was paid out in building claims by insurance companies 
 
Less Developed Country - Haiti 
 
Facts 
 
● 7.0 Magnitude 
● 12th January 2010 
● 13 km - very shallow 
● 16:53 Local time 
● Duration 30 seconds 
● 25 km west of Port-au-Prince, the capital 
● Slip along conservative plate boundary between 
Caribbean plate and North American Plate 
 
Impacts 
 
● 220,000 people were killed 
● 1.3 million people were made homeless 
● 60% of Government buildings were destroyed 
● Hospitals and 5000 schools were badly damaged 
● International airport and the Port-au-Prince Harbour were unusable because the control tower 
was destroyed. 
● 4000 inmates escaped when the main prison was destroyed 
● 1 in 5 people lost their jobs 
● Outbreak of Cholera 
● Total Damage bill was $7.9 billion - 120% of Haiti’s GDP 
 
Response 
 
● $100 million was given in aid by the USA 
● 115000 tent shelters were provided 
● Dominican Republic provided emergency water and medical supplies 
● UN troops and police were sent to distribute aid and keep order 
● World Bank waived country’s debt for 5 years 
● $1.1 billion had been collected for refeilf effort, but only 2% has been actually released. 
● Haiti is still dependent on overseas aid to help its recovery 
 
 
   
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Developing Country - China 

 
Facts 
 
● 12th May 2008 
● Magnitude 7.9 struck Sichuan, mountainous region in 
SW China 
 
Impacts 
 
● 45.5 million people were affected 
● 70,000 died 
● 5 million were made homeless 
● Earthquake triggered landslides that led to a ¼ of earthquake related deaths 
● School collapsed killing 5335 children 
 
Responses 
 
● 130,000 soldiers and relief workers were sent to affected areas 
● People in risk from landslides were safely relocated 
● Government pledged $10 billion for rebuilding works 
● Within two weeks, temporary homes, roads and bridges were being built 
● 99% of farmhouses have been rebuilt 
 
Why impacts varied between Haiti, China and New Zealand 
 
Physical Vulnerability 
 
● Effects in all areas were similar as buildings collapsed and services were cut off. In New Zealand, 
they responded quickly as they had well organised emergency services 
● Sichuan is situated in a mountainous region making accessibility harder  
● The international airport in Haiti was damaged due to damaged to the control tower and the 
Port was damaged too making it difficult for aid to reach the vulnerable 
● Areas with high population density tend to have low quality housing. Haiti has a population 
density of 384 people per km​2​. Shanty towns in Port-au-Prince are poorly constructed from 
rapid urbanisation as unemployed farmhands have migrated to the city for work and live in 
shack buildings. 
● In China, the earthquake’s damage was concentrated in rural areas and small towns - not a 
densely populated city like Port-au-Prince. The epicentre was still 40km away from Christchurch 
in the New Zealand earthquake - unlike 25km away in the case of Haiti 
 
Wealth 
 
● Haiti has a GDP per capita of $819. These people are less likely to afford housing and other 
infrastructure that can withstand extreme hazards. Damaged were estimated to be around $7.9 
billion - 120% of Haiti’s GDP 
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● In New Zealand $898 million was paid out in building claims by insurance companies. New 
Zealand’s central government offered to fund 90% of the money required to restore water, 
sewage and road networks.  
● China is also wealthier than Haiti as it is a large country with a growing economy, so it had the 
money to pay for rescue efforts. The government pledged $10 billion for rebuilding works 
● Haiti has 0.25 doctors per 1000 people compared to 2.4 doctors per 1000 people in New 
Zealand. The poor are less likely to have access to medical care and are less able to cope after an 
event and suffer more disease 
● Medical services were quickly restored which helped to avoid the outbreaks of disease seen in 
Haiti in China  
 
Government 
 
● In New Zealand, building practises enforced. On the other hand corruption of local government 
officials and law enforcement means that unsafe building practises resulted in poorly 
constructed buildings that could not withstand the ground shaking and collapsed in China. In 
Haiti, many of the buildings were much lower standard codes were poorly enforced and many 
buildings were made of hand-made non reinforced concrete, which is extremely vulnerable to 
earthquake 
● Although over $1.1. Billion was given to Haiti through aid, only 2% had been released give the 
corruption of the Haiti Government unevenly distributing the resources. 
● China’s strong central government was able to respond quickly and effectively to the disaster 
 
Education 
 
● Literacy rate in Haiti is 51%. Educated people can learn hot to avoid or at least reduce many 
impacts 
● Literacy rate in New Zealand is 99% where written messages can be used to spread the word 
about hazards in general or about specific disasters 
● Many Professional left Haiti during the Duvalier regimes, leaving a less educated population with 
fewer professionals trained in Hazards who could have helped with hazard preparations and 
responses 
● It was the first Earthquake in a lifetime for many in Haiti - the last significant earthquake of 
magnitude 8.1 hit in 1946. The native population did not know what to do in times of a hazard 
 
In terms of the Pressure-Release Model, the corrupt unstable political system (the root cause) meant a 
lack of education and training in building adequate infrastructure (the dynamic pressure) leading to 
unprotected buildings (the unsafe condition), making Haiti quite vulnerable. When matched with a 
hazard, such as an earthquake, a disaster occurred.   
Tectonics 

EQ 3: How successful is the management of tectonic hazards and 

disasters? 
Tectonic disaster trends since the 1960s  
 
The Emergency Events Database (​EM-DAT​) was launched by CRED (Centre for Research of the 
Epidemiology of Disasters) provides data on disasters  
 
It was set up to serve the purposes of humanitarian action at national and international level, rational 
decision making for disaster preparedness and produce an objective base for vulnerability assessment 
and priority setting 
 

 
 
● Total number of recorded hazards has increased over the last 50 years 
● Geophysical events (e.g. volcanoes, earthquake) have remained stable 
● Meteorological (storms) and hydrological (flooding) events have increased - possibly linked to 
Climate Change and urbanisation related population increases 
● Earthquakes occur far more frequently than Tsunamis and Volcanoes 
● Total number of reported disasters seems to be falling 
 
   
Tectonics 

Total Number of Deaths 

 
 
 
● Number of deaths seems to fluctuate 
since the 1960s 
● Highest number of deaths in 1976 - 
coinciding with 1976 Tangshan Earthquake 
which killed 250000 people  
● Most of the graph is low, with a few 
noticeable peaks (e.g in 2004 after the 
Boxing Day Tsunami) 
 
 
Total Affected  
 
● The number affected by earthquakes has 
moderately increased 
● The graph peaks in 2008 where 47.5 
million were affected - corresponding with 
the 2008 Sichuan Earthquake where 46 
million were affected 
 
 
 
Economic​ d
​ amage  
 
● Economic costs associated with both 
hazards and disasters of all types have 
increased  
● High costs is in 2011 at $240 billion, 
correlating with the 2011 Fukushima 
Earthquake accounting for $210 billion 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
How accurate and reliable is this data? 
 
● Has standardized definitions for terms and criteria to be fulfilled for something to be classified a 
disaster, improving  
● Advent of social media means that it is easier to report crimes as well sensationalise the impacts 
of an earthquake 
Tectonics 

● However, different organisations may have different criteria making it hard to compare 
● Self reported information may be manipulated - e.g. North Korea may not want to appear weak 
or may underplay the effects of the Earthquake or to protect the tourism industry, such ass in 
Thailand after the 2004 Asian tsunami 
● Shanty towns are illegal settlements and are often not counted; there is no way to know how 
many were affected 
● Depends on whether primary (Direct) and secondary (indirect) deaths have been counted 
● Location is significant; in more sparsely populated regions of the world which are more remote, 
the data is difficult to collect  
● Improvements in technology means data from today is more accurate and reliable. It may be 
unfair to compare disasters by interpreting historical data to produce trends 
 
Mega Disasters 
 
● A meg disaster is usually large scale on either aerial scale or in terms of human or economic and 
or human impact 
● They pose serious problems for effective management to minimise the impact of the disaster 
● Scale of impact means itneriational support is required in intermediate aftermath as well as 
during the longer term recovery. These events can affect more than one country either directly or 
indirectly 
 
Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami - Impact on global energy policy 

 
 
Facts 
 
● 9.0 Magnitude Earthquake in March 2011 as Pacific Plate was subducted under the Eurasian 
plate. 
● Produced a tsunami that wreaked destruction along the Tohoku Coasts, including the Fukushima 
Nuclear Power Plant 
Tectonics 

● 15,700 people died 

● Estimated to have cost $235 billion - World Bank 
● 10m tsunami waves were generated above the epicentre 
● Waves travelled up to 10km inland 
 
Impacts 
 
● Reduced confidence in Japanese government and its nuclear energy policies 
● Contaminated water leaked from the plant leaked into the Pacific Ocean and into fishing 
grounds 
● Increased demand for Liquified Natural Gas so worldwide prices increased. 
● Germany pledged to phase out its nuclear power plants by 2022 
● 91 Countries offered aid including blankets, food, and search dogs 
● Bank of Japan offered $183 billion to Japanese banks so they cold keep operating 
● The accident also contributed to the escalating capital costs associated with the contribution of 
new nuclear reactors because of the additional safety measures required 
 
 
Asian Tsunami 

 
Facts 
● 26th December 2004, Earthquake struck 200 km west of Sumatra  
● Magnitude 9.0 struck as the Indian Ocean subducted under the Burma microplate.  
● The sea floor shifted about 3m, displacing 5km of water above it.  
● Waves are high as 23m ensured damages 
 
Response 
● Global impact as it affected Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka 
● Coastal towns in Sumatra all destroyed 
● Coastal sediment eroded easily and sand was displaced elsewhere 
● Maldives were swept over. 
● Fishing industry was devastated - 60% of Sri Lanka’s fishing fleet was destroyed 
● $7 billion was provided by governments and charities in aid effort and to help with 
reconstruction 
● Bodies were buried in mass graves to help prevent the spread of disease 
● Early warning systems for Tsunamis have been set up in the Indian Ocean, through cooperation 
of many governments 
● The UK Government’s Disaster and Emergency disaster appeal fund raised £32 million 
Tectonics 

 
Eyjafjallajokull eruption  

 
Facts 
● 20th March 2010 
● Iceland sits on the Mid Atlantic Ridge, a constructive plate boundary. 
● Iceland is also located over a hotspot where there is more magma production and volcanic 
activity than elsewhere expected. 
● As the Eurasian plate moves eastwards while the North American Plate moves westerwards, the 
divergence allows for materials to rise from the mantle. 
 
Impacts 
 
● Local population evacuated to avoid respiratory threats due to ash 
● Glaciers melted leading to local flooding 
● Fresh fish exports were badly affected leading to a loss of income 
● In Heathrow, 1000 flights were cancelled. People couldn't travel for business, weddings etc 
● The ash scoured windscreen and reduce visibility. It can cause jet engines to shut down. British 
Airways was losing £32 million a day  
● Europe lost €2.6 billion in terms of GDP due to the eruption 
● Car Manufacturing disruption - Nissan plant had to stop production of certain cars as they run 
out of critical sensor produced in Ireland.  
 
Multiple Hazard Zones - e.g. the Philippines 
 
● Am ​ ultiple hazard zone i​ s an area vulnerable to a number of physical hazards that combine to 
create an increase level of risk. Often there is never any time for an extended period of recovery 
● Disaster hotspots​ are areas where hazards occur at incredibly vulnerable places 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Tectonics 

 
Philippines Case Study 
 
Population: 101 million 
GDP per capita: $7300 - middle income country 
Capital: Manila 
 
 
Why the Philippines is vulnerable to hazard events 
● Growing population has led to rapid urbanisation and 
high population density. As cities grow and expand, 
reduced infiltration become an issue increasing the 
chance of flooding 
● 60% of the population live on coastal zones - liable to 
sea surges, flooding and tsunamis 
● 25% of the population live in poverty, meaning many 
can't afford quality and safe buildings that are 
earthquake proof 
● Many life on steeply sloping land which make the 
population more vulnerable to landslides 
● Deforestation has decreased the soil protection as 
hillsides stipped of trees have fewer roots to hold 
them together. Mudslides become more common 
when hit by sudden hughe outbursts of rain 
● Philippines lies on the boundary between the Philippine and Eurasian Plate as well lying on the 
Ring of Fire- making it vulnerable to volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis. 
○ The country has 22 active volcanoes 
○ Over 30% of the country’s population lies within 30km of a volcano 
● Philippines lies on Southeast Asia’s major typhoon belts. This brings strong winds and heavy 
rainfall but also increase the risk of flooding and landslides 
 
Examples of multiple hazards 
● Mount Pinatubo (1991) eruption - 350 people died; $710 million in economic losses 
● Guinsaugon Landslide (2006) - 1150 people died; school along with 500 homes wiped out 
● Cebu Earthquake (2013) - 183 people died; 3.5 million people were affected 
● Typhoon Haiyan (2013) - 6300 people died; 90% of the city was damaged or destroyed 
 
Prediction and forecasting accuracy of tectonic hazards 
 
● Earthquakes 
○ Earthquake risk can be predicted as its based on statistical likelihood of an event 
happening at a particular location 
○ Long term forecasts are more reliable than short term forecasts 
○ Currently it's not possible accurately predict when or where earthquakes will happen.  
○ Some are trying to create diagnostic precursor - pattern of seismic activity which indicate 
a high probability of an earthquake happening in a small window of space and time - by 
examining where the plates are running together with the most stresses, examining 
animal behaviours, changes in radon emissions  
● Volcanoes 
Tectonics 

○ Small earthquakes are caused by magma rising up through cracks and so Seismometers 
could be used 
○ Temperature around the volcano tends to increase, measured through thermal imaging 
sensors 
○ Gas samples can measure sulphur levels as sulphur content tends to increase close to an 
eruption 
● Tsunamis 
○ Detected by open ocean boys and coastal tidal gauges 
■ Communication infrastructure quickly issues alternative to allow elevation of the 
coastal areas 
○ DART technique uses recorders that measure changes to water pressure 
 
Hazard Management Cycle 
 
Hazard management is the process in which governments and organisations work together to protect 
people from natural hazards 
They aim to: 
● Avoid/reduce loss of life/property 
● Provide help to those affected 
● Ensure a rapid and effective recovery 
 
It involves government at all levels - local, regional and national - as well as international organisations , 
businesses and community groups 
 
1. Mitigation (Prevention) 
1.1. Identifying potential natural hazards; taking steps to reduce impacts 
1.2. Enforcing and developing building codes 
1.3. Building protective structures (tsunami sea defence walls) 
2. Preparedness 
2.1. Developing plans 
2.2. Developing early warning systems 
2.3. Creating evacuation routes 
3. Response 
3.1. Search and rescue teams 
3.2. Evacuation of people 
3.3. Restoring critical infrastructure 
4. Recovery 
4.1. Providing health and safety services 
4.2. Providing food and temporary shelter 
4.3. Rebuilding homes and other structures 
 
   
Tectonics 

The Park Model - Hazard Response Curve 

 
● The ​Park Hazard Response Model​ illustrates how a country or region may respond after a 
hazard event 
● Can be useful in comparing countries at different levels of development might recover from a 
hazard event 
● It can be used to better prepare for future events, for example, through modification of past 
events 
 
Hazard Management Approaches 
 
Hazard Management generally focuses on h ​ azard mitigation ​- strategies meant to avoid or delay the 
hazard events or h​ azard adaptation - ​ strategies designed to reduce the impacts of a hazard events 
 
There are three main approaches to aid hazard management from e ​ ngineers, ​NGOs and insurers. 
Community involvement is also important; models forecasting disaster impacts have questionable 
reliability 
 
● Modifying the hazard event 
○ Diverting lava Flows - Building barriers and digging channels to try and divert flows into 
safer directions.  
■ This method is fairly ineffective as the flow of lava is hard to predict making it 
difficult to know where to build the walls or dig the channels 
■ Terrain has to be suitable - i.e a downward slope 
■ May just lead to geographical displacement affecting another community instead 
○ Mangrove Forests are known to be effective at dissipating energy from waves whipped 
up by the wind. Vegetation can reduce the flow speed and height of an oncoming 
tsunami 
○ There was little mitigation in Iceland before Eyja because the eruptions were very rare. 
The location of a volcano can’t be controlled and the ash cloud was directly under a get 
stream that was unusually stable. 
● Modifying the vulnerability and resilience 
○ Land Zone Planning - regulate how land in a community may be used; certain types of 
structures and facilities (nuclear power plants or critical hospitals) are prohibited; some 
communities may be resettled 
Tectonics 

○ GIS Mapping can help identify where routes should be placed (to help with 
preparedness) or to help with rescue and recovery 
○ Early warning systems use scientific instruments to detect whether an eruption or 
tsunami is about to occur. 
■ After the Boxing Day Tsunami, Tsunami Warning Systems were implemented in 
the Indian Ocean 
■ When seismographs detected P waves of Japan’s NE coast, the Japanese 
government sent out text messages via mobile phones warning of the earthquake 
○ Modelling hazard impacts allow scientists to predict the impacts of hazard events on 
communities. Scientists can compare the effects of different scenarios (e.g. impacts of a 
tsunami if a seawall is built or not). These models can be used by decision makers to help 
develop plans and strategies to reduce the impact of hazard events and target resources 
more effectively 
■ International Volcanic Ash Task Force was set up after Eyja in 2010 to examine 
how best to define hazardous airspace 
○ Community preparedness and adaptation is important as local knowledge is in a 
important part of disaster preparedness 
■ Most effective when there is a committee which develops plans, organises people 
and coordinates their efforts - e.g. through providing first aid courses, creating list 
of vulnerable people who need special assistance 
■ Moken Tribe noticed unusual movements in the Bay of Bengal and ordered 
villagers to run to the hilltop, saving 200 lives from the effects of the 2004 Boxing 
Day Tsunami 
○ Public Education is also very important - good education and public awareness reduce 
vulnerability and prevent hazards from developing into disasters. People can learn what 
to do before, during and after a hazard.  
■ It involved regularly practising emergency procedures - yearly Disaster 
Preparedness Day 
■ Japanese children practise earthquake drills four times a year 
■ Workplaces are encouraged to have emergency preparedness kits 
● Modifying the loss 
○ Constructing buildings that are earthquake proof - using rubber shock absorbers and 
reinforced foundations deep into the bedrock 
■ Not all hazard resistant design needs to be expensive and high tech - e.g. in 
Pakistan houses are built from bales of straw held together by strong plastic 
netting 
○ Roofs of houses built near volcanoes can be sloped to reduce amount of ash that builds 
up on them 
○ Buildings at risk from tsunamis can be elevated and anchored to their foundations to stop 
them floating away 
○ Seawalls ocan be built to reflect some of the energy of a tsunami 
■ 40% of Japan’s coastline is lined with concrete seawalls, breakwaters r other 
structures meant to protect against high waves of tsunamis. Though this was 
ineffective against a 40m high tsunami as the land shifted downwards by up to 
10 m in places 
Tectonics 

○ Most insurance policies cover property loss caused by volcanic blast, airborne shock 
waves, ash etc. 
○ Many people are unprotected even in developed countries - in Japan insured losses for 
tectonic events are only 25-30%. 
○ Disaster aid through NGOs can help protect life, health, or a person's physical security .  
■ The WFP aims to provide logistic experts, provide food, appeal for funds and as 
well as combat malnutrition 
■ Icelandic Red Cross translated a guide which was swiftly printed and distributed 
in the affected area to inform inhabitants about health hazards linked to the ash  
■ However this does not always go to plan such as in the case of the 2010 Haiti 
Earthquake where the Nepalese disaster relief workers were implicated in the 
introduction of cholera. 
○ Sendai Framework aims to understand disaster risk, strengthen governance to manage 
disaster risk, investing in disaster risk reduction and a ‘build back better’ approach is used 
to aid in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction