ELL100: INTRODUCTION TO

ELECTRICAL ENG.
Transformer part 1

Course Instructors:
Shouri Chatterjee, Manan Suri, Anandarup Das & Ranjan Malik
Department of Electrical Engineering, IITD
Transformer
• A transformer is an electromagnetic device which transfers electrical energy
from one circuit to another based on the principle of mutual induction.
• It is used primarily for two purposes: a) step-up or step-down voltage levels
and b) provide isolation between primary and secondary circuit.
• Transformers can have voltage ratings from several hundred volts to
hundreds of kVs. The power rating can vary between few Watts to several
GWs.
Transformer construction
• The transformer consists of two (or more) multi-
turn coils wound on the same magnetic core but
electrically insulated from each other.
• An alternating voltage is applied to the primary
winding which causes an alternating current to
flow, thus creating a alternating magnetic flux in
the core.
• Because of the alternating or changing magnetic
flux, alternating voltage is induced in the output
or secondary coil.
• By adjusting the ratio of the turns on the two
coils, output voltage can be stepped up or
stepped down.
Transformer operation
• Assume the transformer is supplied from
primary side from an external voltage
source (secondary open). It draws a
current (called magnetizing current) to
establish a flux in the core (φ).
• Assume the primary and secondary coils
shown on separate legs link the same flux
(φ).
• If the applied voltage is sinusoidal, the flux
established is given by,
  m sin t
Transformer operation
The induced emfs are,
d
e1  N1  N1m cos t  2 E1 cos t
dt
d
e2  N 2  N 2m cos t  2 E2 cos t
dt

• Thus, the ratio of emfs is the turns ratio.

E2 N 2

E1 N1

• The flux phasor lags the emf phasor by 900.

Exciting current
• The current drawn (when secondary is open)
consists of two parts, magnetizing current and
core loss current.
IE = IM + Ic
• The magnetizing current establishes the
necessary flux in the core. It is in phase with the
flux.
• The core loss current (in phase with the voltage)
represents the power dissipated in core due to
hysteresis and eddy current losses.
• In an efficient transformer the core loss is small
and IE is approximately equal to IM . IE is about
1% of the rated current of a transformer.
Transformer on load

• When the secondary is connected to the load, a secondary current starts to flow.
• The secondary current flows in such a direction that tends to oppose the
magnetic flux (Lenz’s law).
• If the magnetic flux in the core diminishes by a slight amount, additional current
from the primary is drawn such that the flux in the core is maintained.
Transformer on load

• To maintain the core flux, new net mmf must be equal to the mmf due to IM
alone i.e. mmf due to primary and secondary currents cancel each other.
N1 I M  N 2 I 2  N1 I1'  N1 I M

• Thus, N 2 I 2  N1 I1'

• Hence, I1 
'
N2
I2 N1
Transformer on load

• The phasor diagram shows the secondary current (I2) lagging behind the
secondary voltage by the load power factor angle. The reflected primary
current (N2I2/N1) is added with the exciting current (IM) to get the actual
primary current.
Example
The laminated silicon steel core of a transformer has a mean length of 0.6m and a cross section of 0.005 m2. There
are 150 turns on the primary winding and 450 turns on the secondary. The input is 200 V rms at 60 Hz. Estimate
the primary current (a) with secondary open and (b) with a resistance load of 120 ohm connected across the
secondary.
Part (a)
The maximum flux is,
2 E1 2  200
m    5 103Wb
N1 150  2  60
The maximum flux density is,
m 5 103
Bm   3
 1T
A 5 10
For silicon steel at this flux density, H= 200 A.t/m
The magnetizing current(rms value) is,
1 F Hl 200  0.6
IM     0.6 A
2 N1 2 N1 2 150
Since silicon steel has low hysteresis and eddy current loss, we can assume IE = IM =0.6A.
Example
The laminated silicon steel core of a transformer has a mean length of 0.6m and a cross section of
0.005 m2. There are 150 turns on the primary winding and 450 turns on the secondary. The input
is 200 V rms at 60 Hz. Estimate the primary current (a) with secondary open and (b) with a
resistance load of 120 ohm connected across the secondary.
Part (b)
Assume that the voltage ratio is equal to the turn ratio,
N2 450
V2  V1   200  600V
N1 150
With the resistance load connected,
V 600
I2  2   5A
R2 120
The component of primary current due to the load is,
N2 450
I1 '  I2   5  15 A
N1 150
Since the exciting current is very small and is to be added at nearly right angles to I1’, it can be
neglected and the primary current with load ≈15A.
Non idealities
• The transformer has several non idealities
• Core loss due to hysteresis and eddy current
• Wire resistance
• Leakage flux that does not link the primary/secondary winding
Hysteresis
• Each time a magnetic material is subjected to an alternating magnetic field, the effect is
irreversible.
• Starting from point 1, if H is made 0, then B does not become zero and has some
residual magnetism. If H varies alternately, the hysteresis loop is traced.
• For ferromagnetic material (steel) BH loop is small. For permanent magnet (Alnico), BH
loop is very large indicating that it requires substantial (–H) to demagnetize it.
Hysteresis for steel
• Cyclic magnetization in steel results in generation of heat.

• Hysteresis power loss in watts, Ph  K h fBmn where Kh is constant and n

varies with material (often assumed to be 1.6).

Eddy current loss
• Changing magnetic flux induces voltages in the core material itself and this induced
voltage cause localized eddy currents.
• These eddy currents result power loss in the form of heat. The power loss can be
reduced by decreasing induced voltage and increasing resistance, which can be done by
using laminated core instead of solid iron core.
• The eddy current power loss is given by,
Pe  ke f 2 Bm2
• Eddy current loss becomes significant for high frequency audio transformers, but is not
so significant for power frequency transformer.
Example
• An iron core inductor is designed to operate at 120 V at 60 Hz. Estimate the
effect on the hysteresis and eddy current losses of operating at 150 V at 50 Hz.
• Neglecting the IR drop, the induced drop must be equal to the applied voltage. We know for sinusoidal
voltage applied,
2 E1 2V1
m  
N1 N1 2f
• Hence the maximum flux density is given by, ,
V
Bm  k
f
• Under the two operating conditions, the ratio of new flux density to old flux density is,
Bm ' V ' f 150 60 3
 .  . 
Bm V f ' 120 50 2
• Assuming n=1.6, the hysteresis loss will change by a factor of
1.6
Ph ' f '  Bm ' 
1.6
 5  3 
 .       1.59
Ph f  Bm   6  2  2 2
Pe '  f '   Bm '   5   3 
2 2
• Similarly, the eddy current loss will change by a factor of            1.56
Pe  f   Bm   6   2 
 ELL100: INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRICAL ENG.
Transformer part 2

Course Instructors:
Shouri Chatterjee, Manan Suri, Anandarup Das & Ranjan Malik
Department of Electrical Engineering, IITD
Ideal transformer
• The ideal transformer has the following relationships.
Non ideal transformer
• There are several non idealities in the
transformer. To analyze their effects, and to
find their magnitudes, a two port network
model is often very useful. It is based on the
principle of mutual induction.
Transformer as a non ideal circuit

• The ideal transformer circuit can be modified to include the non idealities.
Transformer as a non ideal circuit
• In this circuit, R1 and R2 are due to
winding resistances in the primary and
secondary.
• Xl1 and Xl2 are inductance due to
leakage flux. XM is due to the
magnetizing flux.
• RC is due to hysteresis and eddy current
losses.
• Typically the series elements have very
small value, and shunt elements have
very large values.
Transformer as a circuit
• How to connect the two sides
electrically?
• Emfs must be made equal and all
voltages, currents and impedances must
be represented from one side. Then it is
possible to connect the two sides
electrically.
Transformer as a circuit • The following changes are made to
connect the two sides electrically.
• 𝐸2′ = 𝐸1
𝑁1
• 𝑉2′= 𝑉2
𝑁2
′ 𝑁2
• 𝐼2 = 𝐼2
𝑁1
𝑁1 2
• 𝑅2′ = 𝑅2
𝑁2
′ 𝑁1 2
• 𝑋𝑙2 = 𝑋𝑙2
𝑁2

• The circuit is then said to be

referred to primary (or V1 side).
Transformer as an electrically connected circuit

• The circuit is referred from the primary (V1) side.

• Note that the in this electrical circuit the output voltage (V2’) is close to input voltage
(V1) because the drop across the series element is small. The output current (I2’) is
close to input current (I1), because very little current flows into the shunt branch.
Reference side

Referred to primary Referred to secondary

• The circuit can be referred to either primary or secondary side.

Transformer as a two port network
• The two port network parameters (referred to
primary) becomes
𝑍1 = 𝑅1 + 𝑗𝜔 (𝐿1 − 𝑀)
𝑍2 = 𝑅2′ + 𝑗𝜔 (𝐿′2 − 𝑀)
𝑍3 = 𝑗𝜔 𝑀
• This on simplification gives,
𝑍1 = 𝑅1 + 𝑗𝜔 𝐿𝑙1
𝑍2 = 𝑅2′ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿′𝑙2
𝑍3 = 𝑅𝐶 ||𝑗𝜔𝑀
Determination of parameters- Open circuit and
short circuit test
• The parameter determination of a
transformer is done through open circuit
and short circuit tests. They are also useful
for determining the voltage regulation and
efficiency of the transformer.
Determination of parameters- Open circuit test
• In open circuit test, the low voltage side is
connected to a voltage source. The high
voltage side is open circuited. Rated voltage
is applied. Voltage, current and power are
measured.
• The low voltage side resistance and leakage
inductance can be neglected. The equivalent
circuit is as shown. XM and RC can be
determined.
Determination of parameters- Short circuit test
• In short circuit test, the low voltage side is short
circuited. The applied voltage on the high
voltage side is adjusted to allow rated current
flow in the circuit. Voltage, current and power
are measured.
• Since the voltage applied is small, the shunt
branch can be neglected. The equivalent circuit
is as shown.
• It is usual to take R1=R2’ and Xl1=Xl2’.
Example
• A 20 kVA 2500/250V , 50 Hz single phase transformer gave the following test
result.
• Open circuit test on l.v. side: 250V, 1.4A, 105 W
• Short circuit test on h.v. side: 104V, 8A, 320 W
• Compute the parameters of the transformer.
• The open circuit test done on l.v. side gives:
2
𝑉𝐿𝑉 2502
• 𝑅𝐶𝐿𝑉 = = = 595 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑃 105
𝑉𝐿𝑉 250
• 𝐼𝐶𝐿𝑉 = = = 0.42𝐴
𝑅𝐶 595

• 𝐼𝑋𝑀𝐿𝑉 = 𝐼2 − 𝐼𝐶2 = 1.42 − 0.422 = 1.336𝐴

𝑉𝐿𝑉 250
• Hence, 𝑋𝑀𝐿𝑉 = = = 187 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝐼𝑋𝑀𝐿𝑉 1.336
Example
• A 20 kVA 2500/250V , 50 Hz single phase transformer gave the following test
result.
• Open circuit test on l.v. side: 250V, 1.4A, 105 W
• Short circuit test on h.v. side: 104V, 8A, 320 W
• Compute the parameters of the transformer.
• The short circuit test done on h.v. side gives:
′ ′ 𝑉𝐻𝑉
• (𝑅1𝐻𝑉 +𝑗𝑋𝑙1𝐻𝑉 ) + 𝑅2𝐻𝑉 + 𝑗𝑋𝑙2𝐻𝑉 = =
𝐼
104
= 13 𝑜ℎ𝑚
8
′ 𝑃 320
• 𝑅1𝐻𝑉 + 𝑅2𝐻𝑉= 2 = 2 = 5 𝑜ℎ𝑚.
𝐼𝑆𝐶 8
′
• Hence, 𝑅1𝐻𝑉 = 𝑅2𝐻𝑉 = 2.5 𝑜ℎ𝑚
′
• Thus, 𝑋𝑙1𝐻𝑉 = 𝑋𝑙2𝐻𝑉 = 0.5 ∗ 132 − 52 =
6 𝑜ℎ𝑚
Example
• A 20 kVA 2500/250V , 50 Hz single phase transformer gave the following test result.
• Open circuit test on l.v. side: 250V, 1.4A, 105 W
• Short circuit test on h.v. side: 104V, 8A, 320 W
• Compute the parameters of the transformer.
• However, the open circuit test has been done on LV
side and short circuit test has been done on HV side.
• The parameters obtained must be referred to one
single side. Let us refer the test data to low voltage
side.
• Referred to lv side,
′ 250 2
• 𝑅1𝐿𝑉 = 𝑅2𝐿𝑉 = 𝑅1𝐻𝑉 = 2.5 ∗ 0.01 = 0.025 𝑜ℎ𝑚
2500
• Referred to lv side,
′ 250 2
• 𝑋𝑙1𝐿𝑉 = 𝑋𝑙2𝐿𝑉 = 𝑋𝑙1𝐻𝑉 = 6 ∗ 0.01 = 0.06 𝑜ℎ𝑚
2500
• Note the relative magnitudes of series and shunt
element values.
Regulation and efficiency
• Once the transformer circuit elements are determined, it is possible to
calculate efficiency and voltage regulation of the transformer.
• Efficiency is given by,
ouput output losses
Efficiency    1
input output  losses input
• Power transformers have efficiency between 98-99%.
• Voltage regulation is given by,
no load output voltage  full load output voltage
Voltage regulation 
full load output voltage

• Voltage regulation denotes the drop in output voltage when the

transformer is loaded. Voltage regulation can be positive or negative.
Extra material
Transformer as a two port network
• There are several non idealities in the
transformer. To analyze their effects, and to
find their magnitudes, a two port network
model is often very useful. It is based on the
principle of mutual induction.
• In the transformer shown, flux φ1 links the
primary winding.
• The self induced emf magnitude is therefore,
𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝜑1
𝑒1 = 𝐿1 = 𝑁1 (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
where L1 is the self inductance of winding 1.
𝑑𝜑1
Thus, 𝐿1 = 𝑁1 (2)
𝑑𝑖1
Transformer as a two port network
• Assume flux φ12 links the secondary winding.
• The mutually induced emf magnitude in
secondary winding is therefore,
𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝜑12
𝑒12 = 𝑀12 = 𝑁2 (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
where M12 is the mutual inductance between
winding 1 and 2.
• From (2) and (3),
𝑀12 𝑁2 𝑑𝜑12
= (4)
𝐿1 𝑁1 𝑑𝜑1
Transformer as a two port network
• If the flux φ1 links the whole of secondary
winding, i.e. there is no leakage, then from (4),
𝑀12 𝑁2 1
= = (5)
𝐿1 𝑁1 𝑎
where ‘a’ is the turns ratio of the transformer.
• If there is a leakage flux such that φ12=k1φ1
where k1 is a fraction, then
𝑀12 𝑁2
= 𝑘1 (6)
𝐿1 𝑁1
Transformer as a two port network
• In a similar way for the secondary winding it
can be said that,
𝑀21 𝑁1 𝑑𝜑21
= (7)
𝐿2 𝑁2 𝑑𝜑2
• If φ21=k2φ2 where k2 is a fraction, then
𝑀21 𝑁1
= 𝑘2 (8)
𝐿2 𝑁2
• From (6) and (8),
𝑀12 𝑀21
𝑘1 𝑘2 =
𝐿1 𝐿2

• Defining 𝑘 = 𝑘1 𝑘2 and 𝑀 = 𝑀12 = 𝑀21 ,

𝑀
𝑘= (9)
𝐿1 𝐿2
Transformer as a two port network
• K is called the coefficient of coupling. Its value
is close to 0.97-0.98 indicating that in a good
transformer there is a very small magnitude of
leakage flux.
• Note that under condition of zero leakage flux,
𝐿1 𝑁12
= 2 = 𝑎2
𝐿2 𝑁2
This equation shows that if we develop an
equivalent circuit of transformer, the actual
secondary impedance gets modified. It gets
‘reflected’ on the primary side with a factor of
‘a2’.
Transformer as a two port network

• The equivalent two port network of the

transformer is thus given by the circuit above.