Chapter 8

1
INFINITE SERIES
Table of contents
8.1. Sequences and their Limits
8.2. Introduction to Infinite Series and Geometric Series
8.3. The Integral Test and p_Series
8.4. Comparison Tests
8.5. The Ratio Test and the Root Test
8.6. Alternating Series, absolute and conditional Conver
8.7. Power Series
8.8. Taylor and Maclaurent Series
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
8.1. Sequences and their Limits
Sequences
A sequence is a succession of numbers that me listed
according to a given prescription or rule.
a1 , a2 ,..., an or an   n  Z 

an is called the general term of the sequence

Z V R
8.1. Sequences and their Limits
Example 8.1.

Find the 1st, 2nd, and 15th terms of the sequence {an},
where the general term is
2 n 1
1
an   
2

Example 8.2. Find a general term from the sequences

2, 4, 6,8,...
8.1. Sequences and their Limits
Limits of Sequences
The sequence {an} converges to
the number L, written
L  lim an
n 

if for every ɛ > 0, there is an

integer N such that
an  L   , n  N
Otherwise, the sequence diverges n
an 
n 1
8.1. Sequences and their Limits
Example 8.3.
 2n 2  5n  7 
Find the limit of each of these sequences  3 
 n 
8.1. Sequences and their Limits
Limit of a sequence from the limit of a continuous
function

Given the sequence {an}, let f be a continuous function

such that f(n) = an for n = 1,2,…

If lim f ( x)  L exists then the sequence {an} converges

x 

and nlim an  L

8.1. Sequences and their Limits
Example 8.4.
Find the limit of each of these sequences

 2n 3  4n  9 
1.  3
 3n  n  1 
 2.  1 
n

3.  
n 2  3n  n 4.
 n2  3 
 n 
 e 
 1  
n

5. 1  2  
 n  
8.1. Sequences and their Limits
Bounded, Monotonie Sequences
Tên Điều kiện Ví dụ
Increasing a1  a2  ...  an 1,1,2,3,3,5,…
Strictly increasing a1  a2  ...  an 1,2,3,4,5,…
Decreasing a1  a2  ...  an 9,7,5,5,3,1,1,…
Stricly decreasing a1  a2  ...  an 9,7,5,3,1,….
Bounded above an  M , for all n.
1 1
an  m,for all n. 0  1, , ,...  1
Bounded below
m  an  M 2 3
Bounded for all n.
for all n.
8.1. Sequences and their Limits
Theorem BMCT
A monotonic sequence {an} converges if it is bounded
and diverges if it is unbouned.

Example 8.5.

n ln n
1. lim 2. lim
n  n  1 n 
n

Remark lim r  0 
n
r 1
n 
8.2. Introduction to Infinite Series and
Geometric Series
Definition of Infinite Series

An infinite series is an expression of the form


a1  a2  ...  an  ...   ak
k 1

and ith partial sum of the series is

n
Sn  a1  a2  ...  an   ak
k 1
8.2. Introduction to Infinite Series and
Geometric Series

The series is said to converge with sum S if the sequence

of partial sums {Sn} converges to S. We write


a
k 1
k  lim Sn  S
n 


If the sequence {Sn} does not converge, the series a

k 1
k

diverges and has no sum.

8.2. Introduction to Infinite Series and
Geometric Series
1  q n
1/ an  a1 .q n 1 ; S n  a1  q  1
1 q
nq n qn 1
2 / 1  2q  3q  ...  nq
2 n 1
   q  1
q  1  q  12
1 1 1 n
3/   ...  
1.2 2.3 n(n  1) n  1
1 1 1 n( n  3)
4/   ...  
1.2.3 2.3.4 n(n  1)(n  2) 4(n  1)(n  2)
3 5 2n  1 n(n  2)
5/   ...  
1.2   2.3  n(n  1)  n  1
2 2 2 2
8.2. Introduction to Infinite Series and
Geometric Series

Example 8.6.

 
1
2   1
k
1. k 1
2.
k 1 k 1

 
1 k
3.  4 4.  k
k 2 k  2 k 3
 k 2
k 1 3
8.2. Introduction to Infinite Series and
Geometric Series
General Properties of Infinite Series

 If a k and b k converge then

 a k   bk ,  ,  : constant  also converges and

 a   b     a   b
k k k k

 If  a or  b diverges and the other converges

k k

then  a k  bk  must diverges.

8.2. Introduction to Infinite Series and
Geometric Series
Geometric Series


 ar
k 0
k
 a  ar  ar 2
 ...  ar n
 ...

a  0 and r is a constant.

 The geometric series  diverges if r  1
k
ar and
k 0 
a
converges if r  1 with sum  ar  k

k 0 1 r
Example 8.7.
 4
k
 k 
5
1.  k 1 2.  2k
k 0 3 k 1 3
8.2. Introduction to Infinite Series and
Geometric Series
Applications of Geometric Series

Example 8.8. Write 15.423 as a rational number

Example 8.9.
Suppose it is known that a certain pollutant is released
into the atmosphere at weekly intervals and is dissipated
at the rate of 2% per week. How much pollutant will
accumulate in the “long run”?
8.3. The Integral Test and p_Series
Divergence Test

If klim

ak  0 then the series a
k 1
k must diverge

Example 8.10.

k

k 1 2k 2  3k  7
8.3. The Integral Test and p_Series
The integral test

If ak  f (k ) for k  1, 2,... where f is a positive,

continuous, and decreasing function of x for x ≥ 1, then


a k and  f ( x)dx
1
either both converge or both diverge.


1
Example 8.11.  2
k  2 k ln k
8.3. The Integral Test and p_Series
p-Series Criterion

1
The p_series 
k 1 k p
converge if p > 1 and diverge if

p ≤ 1.


1
Example 8.12. 1. 
k 1 k53


 1 3 
2.   k  
k 2  4 2k 
8.4. Comparison Tests
Direct Comparison Test
 Suppose 0  ak  ck for all k > N.
If c
k converges, then a k also converges.
 Suppose 0  d k  ak for all k > N.
If d k diverges, then a
k also diverges.

Example 8.13.
 
1 sin 2 k
1.  2.  2
k 1 k  k k 1 k
8.4. Comparison Tests
Limit Comparison Test
Suppose if ak  0 and bk  0 for all sufficiently large k
ak
and that klim
 b
L 0  L  
k
Then  a and  b either both converge or diverge.
k k

Example 8.14.
 
1  1 
1.  k 2.  k 1  cos 2 
k 1 2  1 k 1  k 
k e
 
 k 
3.  4. k
k 1
k 1 1  7 e k
 e 2k
k 1
8.5.The Ratio Test and the Root Test
Ratio Test
ak 1
Given the series  ak with ak  0 , klim
 a
L
k
The ratio test states the following:
 If L < 1, then a k converges.
 If L > 1 or if L is infinite, then a
k diverges.
 If L = 1, then the lest is inconclusive.

 k  k
3 k
Example 8.15. 1.  2. 
k 1 k ! k 1  2 k  !
8.5.The Ratio Test and the Root Test
Root Test
Given the series k
a with ak  0 , lim
k 
k a  L
k

The ratio test states the following:

 If L < 1, then  ak converges.
 If L > 1 or if L is infinite, then a k diverges.
 If L = 1, then the lest is inconclusive.
 
1 1
Example 8.16. 1.  2. 
 ln k 
k k
k 1 k 1  1
4 1  
k

 k
8.6. Alternating Series, absolute and
conditional Convergence
Alternating Series
1) Odd-indexed terms are negative


  1 ak   a1  a2  a3  .....
k

k 1

2) Even-indexed terms arc negative



  1
k 1
ak  a1  a2  a3  .....
k 1

where in both cases ak > 0.

8.6. Alternating Series, absolute and
conditional Convergence
Alternating Series Test _ Leibniz Criterion
 
An alternating series   1 ak or   1
k k 1
ak converges
k 1 k 1

if both of the following two conditions are satisfied

1. lim ak  0
k 

2. ak  is a decreasing sequence, that is ak 1  ak for all k.

 1
k 1
Example 8.17. 
1.   alternating harmonic series 
k 1 k
 1 
ln k
  1   1
k 1 k k 1
2. e 3.
k 1 k 1 k
8.6. Alternating Series, absolute and
conditional Convergence
Error Estimates for Alternating Series

Suppose an alternating series

 

  1   1
k k 1
ak or ak
k 1 k 1

satisfies the conditions of the alternating series lest and

has sum S then
S  Sn  an1

where Sn is the nth partial sum of the series

8.6. Alternating Series, absolute and
conditional Convergence
Example 8.18.
 1
k 1

Consider the convergent alternating series

k 1 k4

a) Estimate the sum of the series by taking the sum of the

first four terms. How accurate is this estimate?
b) How many terms of the series are necessary to
estimate its sum with three decimal- place accuracy?
What is this estimate?
8.6. Alternating Series, absolute and
conditional Convergence
Absolute and Conditional Convergence
 The series  ak is absolutely convergent if the related
series  ak converges and ak   ak

 The series  a is conditionally convergent if  a

k k

converges but  a diverges.

k


sin k
Example 8.19. 
n 1 k
2
8.6. Alternating Series, absolute and
conditional Convergence
The generalized ratio test
ak 1
Consider  ak with ak  0 for n  1 and klim
 a
L
k
The ratio test states the following:
 If L < 1, then  ak converges absolutely.
 If L > 1 or if L is infinite, then a k diverges.
 If L = 1, then the lest is inconclusive.

 1 k
k
Example 8.20.  2


k 1  2k  !
8.6. Alternating Series, absolute and
conditional Convergence
Rearrangement of Terms in an Convergent Series

If the series  ak converges absolutely with sum S, then

any rearrangement of the terms also converges absolutely
to S. But this is not true with the series converges
conditionally.

 1
k 1
Example 8.21. 

k 1 k
8.7. Power Series
Power Series
A power series in (x – c) has the form


 a  x  c  a0  a1  x  c   a2  x  c   ....
k 2
k
k 0

a1, a2, a3 … are the coefficients of the power series.

If c = 0, the series has the standard form as an extension
of a polynomial in x.


a x
k 0
k
k
 a0  a1 x  a2 x  ....
2
8.7. Power Series

 R: radius of convergence

 (-R, R): interval of convergence

 Interval of convergence + convergence or divergence

at the endpoints → convergence set.

8.7. Power Series
Example 8.22.
Find convergence set of the following power series

  
xk x2k
1.  2.  k ! x k
3. 
k 0 k ! k 0 k 0 k

 1
k
 k 
x
4.  k  2k  1  x  3 
k
5.
k 0 3 k k 0
8.7. Power Series
Term-by-Term Differentiation and integration of
Power Series
A power series with radius of convergence R > 0 and if

f ( x)   ak x k for x  R
k 0
then for |x| < R we have
'
 
  
1) f '( x)    ak x k     ak x k    kak x k 1
'

 k 0  k 0 k 0

 
 
ak k 1
2)  f ( x)dx    ak x dx  
k
x C
k 0 k 0 k  1
8.7. Power Series
Example 8.23.
Let f(x) be a function defined by the power series
 k
x
f ( x)  
k 0 k !

Show that f ( x)  f '( x) for all x deduce that f ( x )  e

x

Example 8.24.

x k 1
Show that    ln 1  x  for 1  x  1
k 0 k  1
8.7. Power Series

Example 8.25.

Find

1. S ( x)  2 x  4 x  6 x  ...  (1)  2n  x
3 5 n 2 n 1
 ....

x x 2 x3 xn
2. S ( x)  1     ...   ....
2 3 4 n 1
8.8. Taylor and Maclaurent Series
Taylor’s Theorem
If f(x) and all its derivatives exist in an open interval I
containing c, then for each x in I
''
' f (c) 2
f (x ) f (c) f (c) x - c x -c
2!
(n )
f (c) n
x -c Rn (x )
n!
(n 1)
f (zn ) n 1
where the remainder function Rn (x ) x c
(n 1)!
for some zn that depends on x and lies between c and x.
8.8. Taylor and Maclaurent Series
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
f(x) is represented by its Taylor series in I if and only if
lim Rn (x ) 0 for all x in I
n

Taylor Series
' f '' (c) 2 f (n )(c) n
f (c) f (c) x c x c x c ....
2! n!
Maclaurin Series

f '' (0) 2 f (n )(0) n

f (0) f ' (0)x x x
2! n!
8.8. Taylor and Maclaurent Series
8.8. Taylor and Maclaurent Series

Example 8.26.
Find the Maclaurin series for f ( x )  e3 x

Example 8.27.

Find the Maclaurin series for g ( x)  cos x

2
8.8. Taylor and Maclaurent Series

Example 8.28.
1 x
Find the Taylor series for f ( x)  at x = 1
1 x

Example 8.29.

Find the Taylor series for f ( x)  ln 5 x at x = 1.

8.8. Taylor and Maclaurent Series

Example 8.30.

Find the Maclaurent series for f ( x)  1  x 2 and use

this series compute 2 correct to four decimal places.

Example 8.31.

k
Find the sum 
k 1 2 k
8.8. Taylor and Maclaurent Series
Remark
1. The Taylor series of f may converges to f on the
interval of absolute convergence, -R < x – c < R.
2. The Taylor series of f may converges only at x = c,
in which case it certainly does not represent f on any
interval containing c.
3. The Taylor series of f may have positive radius
(even R = ∞) but it may converge to a function g that
does not equal f on the interval -R < x – c < R.
8.8. Taylor and Maclaurent Series

Example 8.32.
  x12
e , x  0
Find the Maclaurin series for f ( x)  

 0, x0