(Alan Lawley) International Journal of Powder Meta

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EDITORIAL REVIEW COMMITTEE

P.W. Taubenblat, Chairman
international journal of
powder
I.E. Anderson, FAPMI
T. Ando
S.G. Caldwell
S.C. Deevi
D. Dombrowski
J.J. Dunkley
Z. Fang
B.L. Ferguson
metallurgy
W. Frazier
K. Kulkarni, FAPMI
K.S. Kumar
T.F. Murphy
J.W. Newkirk
P.D. Nurthen
J.H. Perepezko
P.K. Samal
H.I. Sanderow
D.W. Smith, FAPMI
R. Tandon
T.A. Tomlin
D.T. Whychell, Sr., FAPMI
Contents 44/1 January/February 2008
M. Wright, PMT
A. Zavaliangos
2 Editor's Note
INTERNATIONAL LIAISON COMMITTEE 5 PM Industry News in Review
D. Whittaker (UK) Chairman 7 PMT Spotlight On … David Rector
V. Arnhold (Germany)
E.C. Barba (Mexico) 9 Consultants’ Corner James G. Marsden, FAPMI
P. Beiss (Germany)
C. Blais (Canada) GLOBAL REVIEW
P. Blanchard (France)
G.F. Bocchini (Italy)
15 Powder Metallurgy in Italy
F. Chagnon (Canada) O. Morandi and E. Mosca
C-L Chu (Taiwan)
H. Danninger (Austria) RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
U. Engström (Sweden)
N.O. Grinder (Sweden) 22 Effect of Die Filling on Powder Compaction
S. Guo (China) D. Korachkin, D.T. Gethin, R.W. Lewis and J.H. Tweed
F-L Han (China)
K.S. Hwang (Taiwan) 35 High-Density Inconel 718: Three-Dimensional Printing
Y.D. Kim (Korea) Coupled with Hot Isostatic Pressing
G. Kneringer (Austria)
G. L’Espérance, FAPMI (Canada)
J. Sicre-Artalejo, F. Petzoldt, M. Campos and J.M. Torralba
H. Miura (Japan)
C.B. Molins (Spain) ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
R.L. Orban (Romania) 44 Economics of Processing Nanoscale Powders
T.L. Pecanha (Brazil)
F. Petzoldt (Germany) J.L. Johnson
S. Saritas (Turkey)
G.B. Schaffer (Australia) OUTSTANDING TECHNICAL PAPER FROM POWDERMET2007
Y. Takeda (Japan)
G.S. Upadhyaya (India) 55 Close-Coupled Gas Atomization: High-Frame-Rate
Analysis of Spray-Cone Geometry
Publisher
C. James Trombino, CAE A.M. Mullis, N.J.E. Adkins, Z. Aslam, I. McCarthy and R.F. Cochrane
jtrombino@mpif.org
Editor-in-Chief DEPARTMENTS
Alan Lawley, FAPMI 65 Web Site Directory
alan.lawley@drexel.edu
Managing Editor
78 Meetings and Conferences
Peter K. Johnson 79 APMI Membership Application
pjohnson@mpif.org 80 Advertisers’ Index
Advertising Manager
Jessica S. Tamasi Cover: Award of Distinction–winning parts from MPIF’s 2007 Design
jtamasi@mpif.org Excellence Awards Competition
Copy Editor
Donni Magid The International Journal of Powder Metallurgy (ISSN No. 0888-7462) is a professional publication serving the scientific and tech-
dmagid@mpif.org nological needs and interests of the powder metallurgist and the metal powder producing and consuming industries. Advertising
carried in the Journal is selected so as to meet these needs and interests. Unrelated advertising cannot be accepted.
Production Assistant Published bimonthly by APMI International, 105 College Road East, Princeton, N.J. 08540-6692 USA. Telephone (609) 452-
Dora Schember 7700. Periodical postage paid at Princeton, New Jersey, and at additional mailing offices. Copyright © 2008 by APMI International.
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President of APMI International Virginia 23261-7367. Postmaster send address changes to the International Journal of Powder Metallurgy, 105 College Road East,
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ADVERTISING INFORMATION
Executive Director/CEO, APMI International Jessica Tamasi, APMI International
C. James Trombino, CAE 105 College Road East, Princeton, New Jersey 08540-6692 USA INTERNATIONAL
jtrombino@mpif.org Tel: (609) 452-7700 • Fax: (609) 987-8523 • E-mail: jtamasi@mpif.org

EDITOR’S NOTE
N
ow in its 15th year, the MPIF Outstanding Technical Paper award recognizes
excellence in scientific/technical content and written communication.
Selected from the PowderMet2007 technical program, the recipients are
from the University of Leeds and CERAM Research in the UK. Their collaborative
study of close-coupled gas atomization, utilizing high-speed digital imaging to
monitor and analyze the spray-cone geometry, establishes an improved
understanding of the complex interactions between the gas and liquid-metal
stream in atomization.
In recognition of 2008 as a “World Congress” year, the Journal will publish a
number of global PM reviews. The first of these, prepared by Morandi and Mosca,
highlights the characteristics, history, and evolution of the PM industry in Italy,
including a perspective on the future.
There are two R&D contributions to this issue of the Journal. Korachkin et al.
describe a numerical simulation study of the effect of variations in die-fill density
Alan Lawley
on the final green-density distribution in a pressed part, and the attendant effect Editor-in-Chief
on tool stresses—both of prime importance to PM parts manufacturers. In the
other study, Sicre-Artalejo et al. assess the feasibility of fabricating high-density
parts from Inconel 718 powder utilizing three-dimensional printing. It is
demonstrated that full density can be achieved by sintering and hot isostatic
pressing of the printed parts.
In the “Engineering & Technology” section, Johnson extends the sintering and
property models for nanoscale tungsten to other nanoscale metal and ceramic
powders in order to explore processing economics. His analysis, based on
cost normalizing of properties, leads to the conclusion that the incremental
improvement in performance, compared with that of conventional metal and
ceramic powders, does not compensate for their higher cost. Usage of nanoscale
powders in “press and sinter” processing mandates a lower powder cost and/or
enhanced property performance.
Returning to the “Consultants’ Corner,” Jim Marsden provides counsel on
readers’ questions on sintering practice. In particular, his responses focus on the
importance of the furnace presinter temperature profile in the delubrication of PM
parts, and on-site generation of nitrogen–hydrogen sintering atmospheres.
First published in 2001, the PM Web Site Directory continues to expand as
e-business has become integral to the industry. This year’s directory classifies
company entries by equipment manufacturers, metal powder producers,
MIM/PIM, and others which includes PM consultants.
In late 2007, I took the opportunity to attend the workshop on “REACH”

(Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of CHemicals), a major
initiative designed to overhaul the European Union’s chemical management
regime. Impetus for the new legislation reflects ever-increasing concerns for the
protection of human health and the environment. Organized by MPIF and EPMA,
the workshop provided an in-depth analysis of the EU regulation, including
registration, testing and data requirements, substance identification, key dates,
information sources, and its effect on North American PM companies exporting to
the EU. Aptly titled “Are You Ready for REACH in North America?”, the workshop
clearly identified the technical, legal, and financial impact and attendant challenge
of REACH. It was also apparent to me that, among the powder producers at the
workshop, the degree of “preparedness” varied widely. Dare I close by commenting
that, for some companies, the new regulation may be beyond “reach”?
2 Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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PM INDUSTRY
NEWS IN REVIEW
The following items have appeared in PM Newsbytes since the previous
issue of the Journal. To read a fuller treatment of any of these items, go
to www.apmiinternational.org, login to the “Members Only” section, and
click on “Expanded Stories from PM Newsbytes.”
End of PresMet Era installed a high-temperature MIM Feedstock Producer Sold

Former PM executives Jack Healy microwave furnace at its head- Purity Zinc Metals, LLC (PZM),
and Reynald Sansoucy lament the quarters in Phoenix, Arizona. The Clarksville, Tenn., has purchased
closing of PresMet Corp., furnace offers a quick turnaround Advanced Metalworking Practices,
Worcester, Mass., in a recent of process development projects Inc. (AMP), Carmel, Ind. Founded
Worcester Business Journal arti- using metal powders and ceramics by Kishor M. Kulkarni in 1984,
cle. At the time of its purchase by for prototype parts. AMP produces feedstocks for
GKN in 2001, the plant had about metal injection molding (MIM) and
350 employees and reported sales Domfer Closing Powder Plant provides technical assistance to
of $36 million. Domfer Metal Powders Inc., MIM parts makers.
LaSalle, Québec, has halted pro-
Powder Maker Extends Gains duction and is processing its final Investor Seeks to Reopen PM
Höganäs AB, Sweden, reports an inventory of salable iron powders Parts Plant
18 percent sales gain for the third with a skeleton crew. Most of the Jim Trimmer, treasurer of P/M
quarter of 2007 to 1,489 MSEK company’s 75 employees have Tool and Die, Trotwood, Ohio, is
(about $234 million). Sales for the been terminated. seeking funding to purchase the
nine-month period ending PMG Ohio automotive PM parts
September 30 hit 4,420 MSEK Refractories Firm Relocates and plant, according to the Dayton
(about $694 million), a 14 percent Expands Business Journal. Sources dis-
increase compared to 2006. Rath Incorporated has relocated to close that PMG will close the oper-
300 Ruthar Drive, Newark, Del., ation by the end of 2007 and move
Copper Powder Maker Forms JV and will expand operations to a production to its Columbus, Ind.,
to Produce Antimicrobial 30,000 sq. ft. space. Owned by plant.
Products Rath AG, Vienna, Austria, the
SCM Metal Products, Research company is combining fabrication, China Set to Cut Tungsten
Triangle Park, N.C., has formed a manufacturing, machining, and Exports
joint venture company, Cupron sales of its insulating refractories The Chinese government will trim
Advanced Materials LLC (CAM), into one regional facility. next year’s tungsten export quota
with Cupron Inc., Greensboro, by 900 tons, reports American
N.C., to make raw materials for New Material Receives Award Metal Market. The new quota is
antimicrobial products used in Hoeganaes Corporation, 14,900 tons.
healthcare, medical, military, and Cinnaminson, N.J., received the
apparel applications. Production of International Award of Merit from QMP Reorganizes
pigmented and non-pigmented the European Powder Metallurgy QMP Metal Powders, Sorel-Tracy,
pellets made from SCM’s cuprous Association (EPMA) for AncorMax Québec, Canada, has been inte-
oxide will begin during the first 200, a new lubricant/binder sys- grated into its parent, QIT–Fer et
quarter of 2008. tem for high-density powder met- Titane Inc., Rio Tinto, and is now
allurgy (PM) parts. The award was part of the new QIT Steel and
Microwave Furnace Available for presented during the EPMA Euro Powder Division. QIT supplies
Prototype Production PM2007 International Congress in molten iron and steel to the metal
Spheric Technologies, Inc., has Toulouse, France. powder atomizing plant. ijpm
Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

5
PM INDUSTRY NEWS IN REVIEW
H.C. Starck Signs Tantalum new award recognizing lifetime Chapter 11 bankruptcy on
Supply Contract achievements in the PM indus- December 27, 2007. The compa-
H.C. Starck GmbH, Goslar, try. The new Kempton H. Roll ny makes a wide variety of auto-
Germany, has signed a 10-year PM Lifetime Achievement Award motive products as well as PM
contract to purchase 600,000 will serve as MPIF's highest-level parts and products in plants in
pounds of tantalum raw materi- individual award, expected to be the U.S., the UK, France, and
als annually from Tantalum presented every four years to one India.
Egypt JSC, which holds the min- individual, beginning next year
ing rights for the Abu Dabbab at the PM2008 World Congress GKN Updates 2007 Results
exploration area in Egypt. The in Washington. GKN plc, London, UK, reports
contract expands Starck’s raw profits for the first 11 months of
materials base for the metal as Austrian PM Company Gains 2007 show a solid improvement
well as supporting its long-term Miba AG, Laakirchen, Austria, over the same period in 2006
involvement in the tantalum reported sales of 286.8 millions with its Driveline, Aerospace,
market. euros, a three percent gain, for and OffHighway segments all
the first three quarters of its fis- ahead. Its powder metallurgy
New MPIF Lifetime cal year. After adjusting for lost business dipped marginally
Achievement Award Honors revenues resulting from the sale below 2006 due to higher raw
Founding Executive Director of PM plants in Italy and Spain, material costs in the second half
The Board of Governors of the the increase was 14 percent. of 2007 and some operational
Metal Powder Industries disruption stemming from
Federation (MPIF) has accepted a Federal-Mogul Exits Bankruptcy restructuring. ijpm
recommendation by the MPIF Federal-Mogul Corp. (FMC),
Awards Committee to establish a Southfield, Mich., emerged from
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SPOTLIGHT ON ...
DAVID RECTOR
Education: What gives you the most satisfaction in your career?
Columbia Basin Community College New projects. I enjoy the challenge of R&D.
Why did you study powder metallurgy/particulate List your MPIF/APMI activities.
materials? Unfortunately, living in the Pacific Northwest,
My great uncle, John Rector, founded Western Sintering MPIF/APMI activities are limited.
Co. (WSC), so I grew up in the PM industry. I have spent
a high percentage of my life around presses and fur- What major changes/trend(s) in the PM industry
naces. have you seen?
The biggest change I have seen is globalization. The per-
When did your interest in engineering/ centage of “American made” products that contain parts
science begin? manufactured overseas has increased
I was the kid who begged his mother to dramatically since I became familiar
buy him a 50¢ toaster at the neighbor’s with the PM industry.
garage sale, so he could take it apart
Why did you choose to pursue PMT
and figure out how it worked.
certification?
I did not finish college. PMT certification
What was your first job in PM? What
allowed me to prove that I was compe-
did you do?
tent and knowledgeable in my chosen
I remember tapping PM parts while my
field.
father worked on the furnaces during
the weekend when I was 5 or 6 years How have you benefited from PMT
old certification in your career?
I learned about several processes of
Describe your career path, companies worked for, which I previously lacked knowledge, despite growing up
and responsibilities. with iron powder behind my ears. PMT certification
I have worked at WSC most of my life. I started walking allowed me to prove my abilities in the field.
to the plant after school when I was 12 years old in
order to work in the shipping department. When I What are your current interests, hobbies, and
turned 18 I came to work full time in the shipping/ activities outside of work?
receiving department. I boxed parts, worked in the ware- I spend my summers wakeboarding and wakesurfing on
house, and set up pallets for shipment. At age 23 I the Columbia River. In winter you will find me on a
moved into the press shop, blended powder, and set up mountain snowboarding. In my free time I read vora-
tools in both mechanical and hydraulic presses. Most of ciously, play chess, shoot pool, and occasionally substi-
my time was spent as an operator. I took and passed the tute as a goalkeeper on a local recreational league
PMT I examination at age 24. I also attempted the PMT soccer team.
II examination two years later, but did not pass. I have
not retaken the test as it has not been offered since. Manager, Sintering Operations
Western Sintering Co Inc
After about five years I moved into the sintering depart- 2620 Stevens Drive
ment and have been managing the operation for over a Richland, Washington 99354-1752
year now. I am in charge of new procedures, sintering Phone: (509) 375-3096
R&D, basic maintenance, and scheduling. Fax: (509) 375-3594
Email: DRector@westernsintering.com

7
CONSULTANTS’
CORNER
JAMES G. MARSDEN, FAPMI*

Q When steam is injected into the sintering
furnace, there is concern about parts corrod-
ing and being subjected to high-temperature
and set the moisture
level to produce the rec-
ommended dew point.
reactions. What is the role of steam and the Once the system is set
injection of water vapor during the sintering up and operating in the
of powder metallurgy (PM) parts? selected dew point
As previously explained (IJPM, 2007, vol. 43, range, push the probe
A no. 1, pp. 15–16), it is crucial that the oxidant
(steam) does not enter the high-temperature zone
back into the high-heat
section and take another dew point reading. If the
of the sintering furnace. If this occurs, it will defi- dew point in the high-heat section is the same as
nitely result in high-temperature oxidation of the the first reading, backward flow of moisturized
sintered compact. This is precisely why the injec- atmosphere into the high-heat section is not occur-
tor for the steam should be located approximately ring and there should be no problem with high-
two-thirds to three-quarters of the distance from temperature oxidation.
the point of entry to the end of the preheat zone, The role of steam or water vapor injected into
and be directed at about 15° toward the point of the preheat section of the sintering furnace is to
entry. The recommended maximum dew point of add an oxidant to combine with the carbonaceous
the moisturized atmosphere is between 1.7°C and vapors produced during delubrication of the PM
7.2°C (35°F and 45°F). Although a higher mois- compact. With this method, the unit is placed as
ture content may not oxidize the compacts at the close to the injection point of the furnace as possi-
delubricating temperatures, the excessive moisture ble to assure that there is no condensation of
on the compacts could be carried into the high moisture in the supply line from the unit to the
heat zone and cause high-temperature oxidation, furnace. In addition, it is a system in which the
resulting in the formation of Fe3O4 (black/flaky water can be adjusted to compensate for compacts
oxide). This condition could result in internal oxi- containing excessive lubricant additions, or with
dation of the sintered compact. larger compacts that require more lubricant. The
When introducing moisture into the preheat moisture (H 2O) will combine with the carbona-
zone of the furnace, the following procedure should ceous vapors given of f during the lubricant
be followed: place a 6.35 mm (0.25 in.) dia. stain- removal process to form gaseous products (CO,
less steel probe down the middle of the belt into the CO2, and some hydrocarbons). Once these vapors
high-heat zone. Using a pump and dew point ana- are in the gaseous state they can be removed from
lyzer, take a dew point reading in this area, using the furnace with the furnace atmosphere, thus
the pump to make sure that a representative sam- eliminating the build-up of high-carbon stalactites
ple is obtained. If sintering in a nitrogen–hydrogen and stalagmites on the furnace components.
or nitrogen–dissociated ammonia atmosphere,
expect dew point readings between -40°C and - What is the optimum presinter temperature
51°C (-40°F and -60°F). With a nitrogen–endother-
mic atmosphere, dew points should be between
Q profile for delubricating PM parts? Does
the optimum profile vary for binder-treated
-20.5°C and -10°C (-5°F and -15°F). Next, move the materials, compared with materials in the
probe into the area where the moisture is injected absence of a binder?
*Consultant, Furnace & Atmosphere Service Technology, Inc. (F.A.S.T., Inc.), P.O. Box 43, Big Run, Pennsylvania 15715-0043,
USA; Phone: 814-427-2228; E-mail: jgmars@verizon.net

9
CONSULTANTS’ CORNER
A I assume that the reference is to a binder-

treated material in which the binder is added
to assure a homogeneous distribution of the alloy-
compacts made from powder premixes without a
binder addition.
With respect to the optimum preheat profile,
ing elements with the base powder. Although the this depends on several conditions. How many
lubricants are normally organics and the binders zones are in the preheat section? What size com-
are polymers, they are both removed in the first pacts are being sintered? What is the mass and
stage of the sintering process. Most lubricants green density of the compacts to be sintered? What
melt between 45°C and 150°C (112°F and 302°F) is the belt speed in relation to the size of the total
but do not evaporate until the compact reaches preheat section? In my opinion, the most realistic
temperatures ~300°C to 500°C (572°F to 932°F). way to determine the optimum profile in a sinter-
The lubricant should be totally removed by 550°C ing operation is to place a thermocouple in the
(1,022°F). The binders start to decompose at about middle of a compact, fully load the furnace with
150°C (302°F) and peak at ~450°C (842°F) and, compacts, and determine when the center of the
similar to the lubricant, the removal of the binder compact reaches temperatures slightly higher than
is usually complete at 550°C (1,022°F).1 those required to remove the lubricant and binder
Since both the lubricants and the binders con- from the compact during sintering.
tain relatively high percentages of carbon, they
both produce soot if there is no oxidant added to What are the state-of-the-art advantages
the furnace to combine with these vapors. In the
past, I have set up numerous furnaces with nitro-
Q and disadvantages of systems for on-site
generation of N2/H2 sintering atmospheres?
gen–hydrogen and nitrogen-diluted atmospheres.
To my knowledge, the preheat temperature profiles
are not changed when sintering compacts made
A I am most familiar with two small nitrogen
systems, namely, the molecular sieve pressure
swing absorption (PSA) and the cryogenic reduc-
from powder premixes containing binders, or with tion (LIN-ASSIST) systems. Both systems require a
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minimum usage of 171 ML (6 M ft.3) per month of residential area. Any further improvement in puri-
nitrogen to be economical. The units are usually ty requires the use of hydrogen in a deoxidation
installed and maintained under a long term con- stage with subsequent drying to produce oxygen
tract (usually 15 years) with the industrial-gas levels in the range 2 to 5 ppm.
supplier. Thus, it is prudent to be cognizant of The liquid nitrogen–assist generator uses liquid
long-term projected growth, and the ability of the nitrogen supplied from an on-site vessel to provide
unit to supply projected needs in the future. refrigeration “assist” in the cryogenic separation
The PSA unit has a purity of approximately 99.9 process that separates nitrogen from the atmos-
v/o. The unit may require that it be housed in an phere. Previous cryogenic separation technology
enclosure which would require a dedicated build- for nitrogen utilized a turbine expander to provide
ing or floor space in the manufacturing facility. this refrigeration. As with the PSA, air is filtered,
The unit is comprised of two large separation ves- compressed, and further treated to remove
sels that reduce the air, under pressure, by utiliz- unwanted components (oil and water). The com-
ing a carbon molecular sieve material. In the pressed air is cooled and then enters the cryogenic
process, air is filtered, compressed, and further air separation column where it is distilled into its
treated to remove unwanted components (air and components, including nitrogen (99.999 v/o puri-
water). The compressed air then enters a vessel ty) which is removed from the cold box and deliv-
which contains the carbon molecular sieve materi- ered to the customer by pipeline. The unit
al which absorbs the oxygen and CO2 and allows a produces oxygen levels in the range 2 to 5 ppm
nitrogen-rich stream to pass through the vessel without additional accessories. It is usually located
and be delivered to the customer by pipeline. One outside of the facility, and does not need a special
vessel takes in air while the other vessel is depres- enclosure.
surizing. This switching action results in a noisy There are other smaller, lower-volume nitrogen-
system, a minor limitation unless it is located in a generation units for rent and/or sale, such as the
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membrane system. These systems, however, are

usually low in purity and are usually not suitable
for sintering PM compacts. I would not recommend
a unit for nitrogen or hydrogen that produces oxy-
gen levels >10 ppm. Even in the sintering of cop-
per alloys, where slightly higher oxygen levels can
be tolerated, I would still be cautious of the purity.
There are two methods used to produce hydro-
gen for the volumes typically used in a PM facility.
One utilizes natural gas as the feed gas in a steam
methane reformer (SMR). The other is electrolytic
separation of water. Generally, the gas production
ranges of these technologies are 5,714–285,700
L/h (200–10,000+ ft. 3 /h) for electrolysis and
57,140–285,700 L/h (2,000–10,000+ ft. 3/h) for
smaller SMR units. Both technologies can offer
99.999 v/o purity levels with oxygen and water in
the single-digit ppm range. Economically, in the
overlapping capacity ranges, the SMR technology
affords a lower effective unit cost.
I greatly appreciate input to the answers for
these questions by Mr. Michael Stempo, Air
Liquide, and Mr. Paul Bassa, Air Products and
Chemicals, Inc. ijpm
1. R.M. German, Powder Metallurgy of Iron and Steel, 1998,

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY.
Readers are invited to send in questions for future issues.

Submit your questions to: Consultants’ Corner, APMI
International, 105 College Road East, Princeton, NJ 08540-
6692; Fax (609) 987-8523; E-mail: dschember@mpif.org
ijpm

THIS JUNE
THE PM WORLD
CONVENES IN
WASHINGTON, D.C.
2008 World Congress

on Powder Metallurgy
& Particulate Materials
June 8–12, Washington, D.C.
• International
Technical Program
• Worldwide Trade Exhibition
• Special Events
This global PM event is sponsored by:
METAL POWDER INDUSTRIES FEDERATION

APMI INTERNATIONAL
105 College Road East
Princeton, New Jersey 08540 USA
Tel: 609-452-7700 • Fax: 609-987-8523
www.mpif.org
In cooperation with:
Held in conjunction with the:

2008 International Conference
GAYLORD NATIONAL RESORT AND CONVENTION CENTER
8 on Tungsten, Refractory &
Tungsten,
g Refractoryy
On the Potomac at National Harbor, Maryland & Hardmaterials VII Hardmaterials VII
GLOBAL REVIEW
This review of the status of
powder metallurgy (PM) in
Italy covers all aspects that
POWDER METALLURGY relate to the use of powders.

It highlights activities that
make the country unique
IN ITALY in its involvement in the
technology. Today the PM
Oreste Morandi* and Enrico Mosca** industry in Italy is healthy,
and current conditions bode
well for future developments.
INTRODUCTION
In relation to structural parts, PM in Italy has a long and successful
history. Examples include innovation in the design of components
(Olivetti, split-die principle, and the development of presses to handle
special tool sets); improvement of processes to fabricate unusual
shapes with attractive properties; and the ability to cater to markets
outside the automotive sector. The novelty of the solutions included in
some of Italy’s PM products has resulted in international recognition.
Over the years Italian PM companies have won three Grand Prizes and
nine Awards of Distinction in the International Design Competition
sponsored by the Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF).
Today, the evolution of the Italian PM industry is oriented primarily
towards a strengthening of its traditional products, since there
remains room for growth of these markets, especially in relation to
structural components for mechanical applications. It is here that PM
is frequently gaining success at the expense of other metal-shaping
processes.
There are attendant problems since PM technology is relatively
mature, and some components that in the past made a substantial
contribution to the domestic output are now manufactured at produc-
tion sites located in countries with low-cost manpower. For example,
this is the case for PM refrigerator compressors parts, whose produc-
tion in Italy has experienced a precipitous decline, dating back to the
1990s.
In this Global Review, the primary characteristics, history, and evo-
lution of the Italian PM industry are described. The review illustrates
the development of the technology and related activities, including a
perspective on the future.
PRODUCTION OF STRUCTURAL PARTS AND SELF-LUBRICATING

BEARINGS
On the European scene, Italy places third at 13.5%, behind
Germany and Spain, in terms of production volume. Figure 1 gives the
output in 2005, by country, while Figure 2 shows a chronology of PM
in Italy over the last 30 years in terms of the production of structural
components and self-lubricating bearings. The figures includes copper
and stainless steel parts. From 1975 to 2000 the annual growth was
6.8%, but since 2000 there has been no major growth.
*Assinter Secretary, Casella Postale 272, 10015 Ivrea (TO) Italy; E-mail: morandi@assinter.it, **Consultant, Corso Monte Cucco 131, Torino 10141,
Italy; E-mail: en.mosca@libero.it

15
POWDER METALLURGY IN ITALY
The sector embracing general mechanical appli-

cations includes instrumentation, hardware,
mechanical devices, agricultural equipment, motor-
cycles, and scooters. This sector is of major impor-
tance, accounting for at least 20%–25% of the total.
In total, the three non-automotive sectors
account for at least 45% of the tonnage of parts
produced. This means that the automotive output
is only ~55%, compared with ~70%–80% in all the
other industrialized countries. The difference can
be attributed in part to the smaller number of PM
parts in Italian cars (usually <7 kg), compared
with an average of 9 kg in Europe. Exports repre-
Figure 1. Production of PM components in Europe in 2005 (Source: European sent >50% of the output (Table I), confirming that
Powder Metallurgy Association)
Italy is a preferred global supplier of quality PM
parts. One of the leading Italian PM parts compa-
nies has opened new plants abroad and this tem-
pers the level of exports!
Table I includes other significant data on the
Italian PM industry. Note the increase in the pro-
ductivity index over the decade 1991–2000. This
Figure 2. Production of PM structural components and self lubricating bearings in

Italy
Figure 3 shows the growth of the PM markets

in Italy, Europe, and the World, taking 1993 as
the starting point with an index of 100. The Figure 3. Market growth in Italy, Europe, and worldwide since 1993
growth of the PM industry in Italy is comparable
with that in Europe, but now there is a slowdown.
This is due primarily to the loss of low-end com-
ponents for which production has moved to com-
panies located in developing countries.
Figure 4 shows how PM production in Italy
since 1998 has been subdivided among the four
main application sectors. There is a marked
decline in the demand for domestic appliances; in
1991 this sector accounted for 12% of the total,
while now it is ~7.6% and the trend is negative.
The power tools/“do-it-yourself” sector reached
maturity in the 1990s, and today remains strong.
Applications are also found in professional power
tools, due to superior mechanical properties and
to improvements in the construction and preci- Figure 4. Production of PM components in Italy, subdivided in the four primary
applications sectors
sion of the die sets.

TABLE I. PROFILE OF THE PM INDUSTRY IN ITALY

1991 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Number of Companies 19 17 18 19 20 21 22 22 22
Number of Plants 22 21 22 23 24 25 25 25 25
Number of Employees 1,250 1,230 1,550 1,550 1,495 1,490 1,508 1,492 1,519
Production (mt) 13,000 19,000 26,630 26,350 26,500 26,670 28,270 26,311 28,952
Sales (M ) 69.7 124.0 192.6 188.5 195 198.8 210.7 204.1 223.6
Exports (M ) 28.9 5 54.2 95.1 96.1 104.9 109.5 118.2 117.6 130.8
Productivity Index 10.4 15.4 17.1 17.0 17.7 17.9 18.7 17.6 19.0
mt per Plant 591 905 1,210 1,145 1,104 1,067 1,130 1,052 1,158
is attributed to the combined effects of a positive previous experience in the traditional PM field
trend in the market, the introduction of technical began to explore the pilot-scale production of MIM
improvements in operations, and investment in parts. Today five companies are active on a rela-
machinery and automation. The average size of tively small scale, as compared with what hap-
Italian PM plants is significantly smaller than pens abroad. Now production is growing at an
those in the rest of Europe; moreover, their size accelerated rate, Figure 5. Typical components
has not undergone substantial changes as a are orthodontic brackets and dental parts, and
result of acquisitions or mergers. Such events complex structural components. These compete
occurred less frequently in Italy than in the rest of with parts fabricated by investment casting.
Europe between the mid-1980s and the mid-‘90s.
The large number of PM fabricating plants in Italy POWDER PRODUCTION
(22) compares with a relatively small number in Only one Italian company is active in this field.
the other European countries. Over the last Production and export figures since 1998 are
decade, a number of new small companies came given in Table II. Powders include atomized iron
into existence. and copper, bronze, electrolytic copper, and tin.
By examining the market for sintered compo- Significant quantities of steel shot are manufac-
nents and the evolution of PM companies in Italy, tured, together with brass, magnesium, and zinc-
it is possible to draw the following conclusions: base powders.
• Taking into account the automotive sector,
Italian PM companies were not affected signif- HARDMETALS AND FERRITES
icantly by the “ups and downs” of the car For structural parts, information is available on
industry and, much more important, most of a company-by-company basis since all the Italian
the companies succeeded in breaking into PM companies send their data to ASSINTER
new, non-automotive markets. annually, covering production, turnover, and the
• Most of the Italian fabricators of PM compo- subdivision among the four major sectors. In con-
nents and bearings are well known and
respected abroad, as reflected in the export
figures. This means that the PM industry in
Italy is healthy and, for the years to come,
prospects are encouraging.
• Excluding metal injection molding (MIM),
from an industrial perspective, pressing in
rigid dies remains the only technique used for
fabricating structural components. Other
shaping methods—for example, powder forg-
ing (PF), or hot isostatic pressing (HIP)—have
not progressed beyond the laboratory stage.
METAL INJECTION MOLDING ACTIVITIES

During the mid-‘90s some companies lacking Figure 5. Sales of MIM parts in Italy

17
TABLE II. POWDER PRODUCTION IN ITALY

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
PRODUCTION (mt)
Iron-Base Powders 4,464 4,834 5,919 6,200 6,300 7,050 9,150 8,750 10,500
Copper-Base Powders 2,932 3,262 4,044 4,150 4,375 4,730 4,350 4,350 4,600
EXPORTS (%)
Iron-Base Powders 20 16 14 22 17 20 35 30 25
Copper-Base Powders 20 25 27 30 37 36 32 32 35
trast, for hardmetals, data about this industry ing process. Steam-treating and heat-treating fur-
can only be derived from estimates. naces are also offered.
In this field 14 companies are active, with a For PM tooling and dies, several companies
turnover of about 160 M and exports of 45 M . have the requisite knowledge and are equipped to
All the powders used in cemented carbides are supply tooling as well as automation to the PM
imported. Since the value of imports of hardmetal industry. Of these companies, at least five are
products is about 90 M , the balance of payments highly specialized in this field and innovative,
is negative. being on the forefront of technological tooling and
With respect to ceramic magnetic materials, die developments.
only hard ferrite powders are produced in Italy.
Only one company is active, but its output is sig- PM ASSOCIATIONS
nificant, namely, 15,000 mt/yr, most of which is In Italy there are two organizations involved
exported within Europe. This company also pro- in the promotion of knowledge and applications
duces 8,000 mt/yr of bound ferrites for refrigera- of PM.
tor gaskets. The first association is the Centro Metallurgia
delle Polveri (CMP), a section of the Associazione
DIAMOND TOOLS Italiana di Metallurgia (AIM), founded in 1949. At
Marble and ornamental-stone quarries are that time, PM industrial activity in Italy was
found everywhere in Italy. In consequence, indus- developing to a degree that there was a need to
trial activity has allowed the country to gain a gather and disseminate technical and scientific
large share of the market for these materials. experience on the young technology. Since its
Since stones need to be cut, drilled, and polished, inception, CMP has organized a systematic activi-
a flourishing industry has developed around the ty to spread PM knowledge and to promote the
diamond tools required for these operations. More application of structural PM parts. This has been
than 170 small companies are active in this field. accomplished by organizing meetings, seminars,
Unfortunately, data covering output and turnover and refresher courses, usually oriented towards
are not available. technical people (in particular the designers of PM
parts) in end-user companies. Up to now, 10 of
PM EQUIPMENT these courses have been held, some of them in
Hydraulic compacting and sizing presses for PM cooperation with Assinter.
are available from two Italian suppliers. It is of interest to note that several seminars
Capacities are in the range 50–800 mt and the involving PM part suppliers and end users have
presses are equipped with computerized stroke been organized at major Italian PM factories.
control, force, and position. One company offers Following the lectures, all participants were
control of up to nine independent motions. Both allowed to visit the plants.
companies have established themselves in the In 1982, in cooperation with the European PM
international market and supply presses with per- Federation (at that time EPMA did not exist), AIM
formance and quality standards comparable with organized the International PM Conference in
their European competitors. Florence. In 1983 a book specifically addressing
At least six companies manufacture sintering the designers of PM parts 1 was published in
furnaces, including vacuum furnaces, offering Italian and afterwards in English.
comprehensive solutions for control of the sinter- Today CMP operates in cooperation with EPMA

and some of its members are active in EPMA

groups. For example, members cooperate as
tutors in events such as short courses (three
courses were organized in Italy) and summer
schools throughout Europe.
To further promote PM applications, and follow-
ing the example of MPIF, EPMA, and the Japan
Powder Metallurgy Association (JPMA), in 2005
CMP decided to give awards of excellence for the
best innovative parts fabricated in Italy. The first
competition was held in 2006. Examples of award
winning PM parts are illustrated in Figures 6, 7,
and 8 , for the 2007 competition.
The second organization is Assinter, a trade
association founded in 1983, initially with the aim Figure 6. Gear assembly utilized in a servo control—first place award. Carbosint
of gathering the suppliers of PM parts, and more
recently embracing all the companies involved in
PM. This includes hardmetals, powders, equip-
ment, tooling, universities, and research centers,
in order to promote awareness of PM and to offer
to end users qualified and reliable products and
services.
Every year Assinter publishes a press release,
outlining PM news and new developments.
Besides its normal functions, the main activity
(sometimes in cooperation with CMP) has been
the organization of user-oriented seminars (in six Figure 7. Sintered components utilized in a gas compressor—second place
different locations and one at Fiat), culminating in award of merit. Stame
the preparation and complimentary distribution of
technical publications (Guides) especially to
designers in end-user companies in Italian and in
English.2 These booklets have been distributed,
not only in Italy but also abroad, to end users of
PM products, university and polytechnic school
students, and secondary school (high school) stu-
dents.
Direct promotion of PM capabilities has been
accomplished extensively in Europe and recently
EPMA has borrowed from our example. For
instance, the new generation of students were
approached by organizing half-day seminars in
different locations in Italy. Currently 20 seminars
have been given to engineering students in our
polytechnic schools, and 58 seminars to high
school students. Besides the Guides, teachers Figure 8. Ratchet gear with helical grooves utilized in a brake system for trucks—
receive teaching aids, together with examples of second place award of merit. mG miniGears
typical PM components. All this material can be
used in their lectures covering PM technology. ried out by CMP and Assinter, many universities
are now offering detailed lectures on the basic
PM TEACHING AND RESEARCH technological aspects of PM as a part of their
In Italy it is not possible to obtain a degree in courses in materials engineering.
PM. However, due to the promotional efforts car- During their graduation theses (in Italy or

19
TRUST abroad, for example, in the framework of EC pro-

grams) students are encouraged to work on
research projects directly related to industrial
problems, sometimes with the help of an industri-
al tutor. Students and young graduate engineers
are also encouraged to attend refresher courses
organized by the Italian PM associations, and the
EPMA summer schools and short courses.
Besides the personal interest of teachers, PM
teaching in high schools is dependent on the
material distributed during the seminars, or
which is mailed directly to the teachers.
Major Italian PM companies have their own
research groups focusing on local problems.
Usually most of the developments requiring basic
must be knowledge are pursued in academic institutions

where, in some cases, they have the necessary
pilot equipment.
earned Seven universities and polytechnic schools, by

themselves or in cooperation, have PM research
activities financed internally and sometimes by
For 90 years, ACuPowder has been PM companies. In some cases, research, included
delivering the finest quality powders and in national or European projects, is performed in
the most conscientious service. Our customers cooperation with research institutions abroad.
know that serving their needs and solving their Examples of recent research topics include:
problems is our highest priority. • Optimization of the design of compacting dies
Bring us your toughest assignments. and evaluation of their reliability with FEM
We want to earn your trust, too. methods (Naples)
The finest powders are from ACuPowder: Copper, • High-temperature properties of aluminum
Tin, Bronze, Brass, Copper Infiltrant, Bronze and magnesium alloys; nanomaterials
Premixes, Antimony, Bismuth, Chromium, obtained by spark plasma sintering (Ancona)
Manganese, MnS+, Nickel, Silicon, Graphite • Response to sinterhardening as a function of
and P/M Lubricants. composition and characteristics of the com-
ponents; corrosion behavior of stainless steel;
and steam-treated parts (Genoa)
• Hardenability of PM parts; use of universal
hardness testing on PM materials; fractal
analysis applied to PM (Milan)
• Application of PM to the goldsmith’s art; PM
superalloys (Padua)
• Influence of infiltration processes on proper-
ties; reactive sintering of PM stainless steels;
901 Lehigh Ave., Union, NJ 07083 induction hardening of sintered parts; new
908-851- 4500, • Fax 908-851- 4597 hardmetal compositions; new materials for
diamond tools; and use of coated diamonds
(Turin)
• Sintering and heat treatment of low alloy high
6621 Hwy. 411 So., Greenback, TN 37742 strength materials; use of boron as a sinter-
865- 856- 3021 • Fax 865-856 -3083 ing aid; wear behavior of porous materials;
powder materials alternative to cobalt for the
e-mail: acupowder@acupowder.com
production of hardmetals; high temperature
web: www.acupowder.com
vacuum sintering processes; evaluation of
ISO 9001 CERTIFIED ISO 14001 CERTIFIED

When it comes to grinding or

flaking metal powders,
properties of fine grain, nanostructured and
functionally graded materials (Trento) Think Union Process
On occasion research topics are also pursued
at the universities of Rome and Udine. In 2002, a Heavy Duty Attritors
student at the Politecnico di Torino won the EPMA
Masters Category Thesis Competition with the
topic, “High-Density Sintering of Duplex Stainless
Steels.”
SC-30
FUTURE PROSPECTS The “SC” Series with
Competition becomes harder and globalization tapered tank is the
pushes countries with low-cost manpower to ideal choice for
grinding tungsten
enter the European market. But Italy has trump carbide.
cards, namely, the capability to operate in the
high-end segment of the market, less dependence
on fluctuations in the automotive sector, excellent
support from research institutions, and leader-
ship in the promotion of PM applications via the
education of present and potential end users.
Drawbacks are related to the small size of most
of the Italian PM companies and the low frequen-
cy of mergers. These tend to limit investments in
new or updated equipment necessary to pursue SDL-30
the growing demands of customers, and reduce This dry grinding
the capability to innovate in the event of rapidly “batch” mill is specially
developing opportunities in new markets. Having designed for cryogenic
grinding.
examined the situation, the short-term scene
seems to exclude abrupt changes in the business
and the national trend will follow the general evo-
lution of the market. In the long term, it will be
necessary to develop an increasing number of new
applications in all fields, otherwise a healthy sur-
vival of the PM industry in Italy is not guaranteed.
• Union Process manufactures a
REFERENCES variety of wet and dry grinding mills
1. E. Mosca, Powder Metallurgy: Criteria for Design and for size reduction, mechanical alloying and flaking of
Inspection, AMMA, Torino, 1984. metal powders
2. Assinter Publications (in English)
• “Guide to the Usage of Sintered Parts”, 1989
• Mills can be equipped for milling in inert atmosphere
• “Post-Sintered Components: Production Cycle”, 1991 or liquid nitrogen
• “Competitiveness of Sintered Components: Guide to • Full range of mills offered from lab size to full production
Technological Alternatives”, 1996 • Lab and pilot plant test facility available
• “Guide to the Design of Sintered Parts”, 1996
• “Guide to the Quality Assurance of Sintered Parts”, We provide solutions
2000 for all your grinding needs.
3. G.F. Bocchini and A. Molinari, “PM in Italy: Present
Status and Prospects”, Int. J. Powder Metall., 1996, vol.
32, no. 4, pp. 307–313. ijpm
Contact us today!
Phone (330) 929-3333

Fax (330) 929-3034
www.unionprocess.com
© 2008, Union Process, Inc. All rights reserved. 108-25
Expanding the Possibilities For Size Reduction

21
RESEARCH &
DEVELOPMENT
The paper describes a
numerical simulation study
undertaken to explore the
EFFECT OF DIE FILLING effect of variations in fill

density on the final-density
distribution achieved within
ON POWDER a pressed part and the
associated effect on tool
COMPACTION stresses. Three powders

were used in the sensitivity
study (ferrous, hardmetal,
Dzmitry Korachkin*, David T. Gethin**, Roland W. Lewis** and and ceramic) and the
James H. Tweed*** pressing kinematics
employed reflected the
compressibility of the
powder systems. Two
INTRODUCTION generic geometries were
Controlling the density of pressed parts is a crucial step in the man- considered, a plain cylinder
ufacture of sintered powder products. It is well established that any and two multilevel parts.
inhomogeneity introduced at this stage will be reflected in differential Through exploration of
shrinkage during sintering or a variation in mechanical properties, density and stress evolution
during compression, it was
depending on the powder type. Die filling may appear simple but, in
found that variations in
reality, it is a process with a multitude of complications. Previously,
die-fill density had the most
attention has been focused on the completeness of die fill. This significant effect on tool
includes work on developing measurement methods to quantify pow- stress levels, leading to
der flow together with exploring the attendant impact on die-fill densi- increases up to 64% when
ty. The Hall flowmeter1 is normally used to measure the flow rate of compared with the stress
metal powders and mixtures, but other methods have been suggested. levels achieved with a
One such approach, introduced recently, is the variable-aperture uniform die-fill density.
flowmeter. This device comprises a cup with an iris at its base, allow- Pressed-density variations
ing for a large range of openings, thereby permitting characterization were also subject to
of powders having good and poor flow properties in one device.2 Other significant changes when
compared with uniform
methods for quantifying the flow of powders with poor flow characteris-
fill-density conditions,
tics have also been developed; such powders are commonly used by
achieving variations up to
the chemical, food, and pharmaceutical sectors.3 This work also iden- 35%. The changes in
tified the consequent importance of powder flow, including the rate of density and stress level
die fill, its uniformity, and its reproducibility. were dependent on the
A number of investigations into the effect of process parameters on powder type and the initial
die filling, together with the consequent effect on fill density, have been die-fill distribution assigned
reported in the literature. For example, the effect of die-fill parameters at the initiation of
on density variations in ring-shaped compacts has been reported.4 The compression.
study examined four sections of a ring-shaped die and compared their
densities after filling under a range of fill parameters, including settling
time, feedshoe speed, number of feedshoe passages and shoe-powder
level. Also discussed were the mechanisms influencing the die-fill den-
sity. Gravity, air resistance, shoe speed, and the shear forces from the
powder in the shoe were cited as being most influential.
In other recent work, a novel die-filling test rig was considered
which consisted of a transparent die and a filling shoe.5,6 The trans-
parent design allowed for high-speed video recording of the die-filling
process. Both the quantitative and qualitative assessments of the
*Research Student, **Professor of Engineering, School of Engineering, UW Swansea, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP UK; E-mail:
D.T.Gethin@swansea.ac.uk, ***Principal Consultant, AEA Technology, Harwell, Didcot Oxfordshire OX11 0QJ, UK

EFFECT OF DIE FILLING ON POWDER COMPACTION
effect of powder characteristics and shoe motion case studies have been devised to explore the
on powder flow into a cavity were undertaken. impact of filling on the final pressed density in a
These authors then measured filling rate and the number of part geometries and powder types.
ratio of powder volume to available die-cavity vol- Although the geometries are generically similar,
ume for different configurations of die and shoe. the actual dimensions reflect parts that are made
The effect of air on die filling was explored using the respective powder types.
through additional tests in vacuum with both Powders representative of three different types
positive and negative contributions being report- were included in the case study:
ed. The concept of a critical shoe velocity as a • Hardmetal—tungsten carbide–cobalt; composi-
method of characterizing the flowability of pow- tion: 10 w/o Co-2 w/o binder PolyEthylene
ders was introduced later.6 It is defined as the Glycol (PEG)-balance WC; spherical granules
maximum shoe velocity at which the die is filled 200–500 µm.
completely and can be used for both powder char- • Ferrous—Distaloy AE; composition: 0.5 w/o
acterization and to assist in process design. graphite (C-UF4)-0.6 w/o Kenolube-balance
Work has been undertaken to explore the iron; irregular particles 25–75 µm.
impact of filling on the initial density distributions • Ceramic—zirconia; granule size 30–80 µm
within the die. While some authors were able to These powders were chosen since they differ in
determine bulk density in vertical sections of the particle size, shape, roughness, strength, and duc-
compact, detailed measurements proved to be tility. The granules are approximately spherical,
more difficult. The sintering of loose powder after but differ in size and strength, whereas the
die fill allows for the density within smaller sec- Distaloy AE is irregular and hence is likely to pro-
tions to be determined by conventional methods. mote interlocking and bridging which, together
However, handling of the die and sintering can with the ductility of the material, will result in par-
affect the density distribution. A convenient way ticle deformation at lower loads than those used to
of determining the fill-density distribution is compress hardmetal. This phenomenon is most
through the use of X-ray computerized tomogra- likely to occur at interparticle contact points and
phy (CT).7,8 Detailed information on the density will result in a reduction of the time for which
distribution throughout the compact, including rearrangement of the particles takes place. The
that at the start of compaction, can be obtained bridges vary in strength and collapse at increasing
using this technique. force levels, resulting in a phase where both parti-
Although it is acknowledged that powder-flow cle deformation and rearrangement (during the
behavior, combined with filling-system design and collapse of the bridges) occur at the same time.
process operation, can have a significant effect on The differences in particle morphology and materi-
the fill density within the die, the consequent al properties in the three powders result in differ-
effect on the final-density variation in the pressed ent extents for which these two compaction modes
powder is unknown. Only limited work has been are present. This may result in a differing sensitiv-
done to explore its impact. 9,10 The authors ity to fill density variations. Whether this is indeed
restricted their exploration to a single part shape, the case is explored in the present study.
combined with a limited number of initial density A continuum scale model was used to simulate
variations derived from visualization experiments, the compaction process; such models are now
and fill simulation using a discrete particle tech- becoming well established for powder pressing.11
nique. The present study extends this work9,10 The system used in this study was a Cam Clay
through a more-systematic exploration of part material model, chosen because it is relatively
shape; it uses fill density determined through CT easy to characterize experimentally. The equations
scans on simple and complex die shapes. used to define this model are set out in Appendix
A. Friction contact between the powder, die, and
CASE STUDIES punch surfaces was also accounted for. The mate-
Previous work11 compared experimental work rial models used in the simulation were validated
with the prediction of compact density. One find- through comparison of punch forces derived from
ing from this comparison was that agreement the simple uniaxial die-pressing test that was used
could be enhanced through an improved defini- to determine the material parameters. Material
tion of the fill density. Consequently, the following model parameters were optimized such that the

23
top punch stress levels from experiment and simu- for this geometry.
lation agreed within 20 MPa for ferrous and zirco- Another common subset of geometries consists
nia powders, and within 5 MPa for tungsten of flanged components with either an external or
carbide. The simulation assumed a uniform die-fill an internal flange. Thus two components, one
density; given that the dies used for material char- with an external flange13 and a second having an
acterization were simple cylinders (typically 10 internal flange,11 were considered. Because these
mm dia. × 20 mm high) this is reasonable. part geometries were explored extensively in two
The final requirement relates to part geometry European network projects, the first is referred to
and tool set kinematics. Details are summarized via the project acronym as “Dienet” and the sec-
for the respective case studies. ond as “Modnet.”
The Dienet geometry, with dimensions, is
Die-Fill-Density Distribution shown in Table II. The Modnet geometry is shown
Fill-density distribution can be affected by a in Table III. For the case-study results presented
number of parameters, including flowability of the in this work, the line designated “NP” (see Tables
powder, shape and orientation of the die and fill- I–III) represents a neutral plane and the kinemat-
ing shoe (wide or narrow die, steps in the die), ics are defined so that no powder flow occurs
method of filling (gravity or vacuum-assisted fill, across it.
height of powder in the hopper), use of shakes, Both flanged geometries consisted of a wide top
and number of passes of the fill shoe. 12 This part and a narrow lower part. Burch14 has shown,
study attempts to assess the effect of die-fill-den- via X-ray CT, that the die-fill density is likely to be
sity distribution, affected by the cited process lower in the narrow lower section of these two-
parameters, on the pressed density of the com- level components, Figure 1; the difference is typi-
pact. To this end, a comparison was made cally 10%.
between simulated compacts in which the die-fill Double-ended compaction kinematics were
density was uniform, and in which it was not. used for each geometry and the punch displace-
The study was initiated with a simple geometry. ments were selected to provide the required com-
If simple compacts are affected significantly by paction ratio. NP was at the center of the
the die-fill-density distribution, then it is expected cylindrical compact and was located on the sec-
that this will also have an effect on more complex tion change in both the Dienet and Modnet geom-
geometries. etry parts. Figure 2 depicts schematically the
A hollow cylindrical geometry was considered as kinematics used to achieve an NP at the levels
the first shape in the study. Hollow cylindrical designated. Also the punch travel was set such
components are a common powder metallurgy that the compaction ratio on each side of the NP
(PM) product. The presence of a core rod restricts remained the same. This minimizes the effect of
powder movement both via its physical presence, flow between the upper and lower sections within
and through friction between the rod and the pow- the compact, allowing fill effects to be explored
der. The inner and outer diameters of the hollow- independently and systematically. Practically,
cylinder geometry selected are given in Table I. kinematics may be chosen such that there will be
Wu and Cocks 10 have confir med that for significant flow in this region, but this also
geometries with a high aspect ratio there was a depends on the powder type that is being
risk of air entrapment and bridging of the powder. compacted.
This most likely occurs for powders with irregular
shapes and high surface roughness as such parti- Sensitivity Study—Cylindrical Compact
cles are most likely to interlock, promoting the Geometry
formation of bridges. This geometry may also be The simulation system used in this study is an
difficult to fill completely in a given time for lower- in-house code that runs on a PC platform. This
density materials, as light particles are prevented code has been validated for parts produced using
from entering the die by the flow of air escaping press kinematics. Generally it is found that, for a
from the die. However, in this study the focus was ferrous powder, the density variation can be pre-
on the variation of the die-fill density, rather than dicted to within 2%, and the tool forces to within
on whether or not the die could be filled complete- 10%.11
ly. To this end, Distaloy AE powder was selected The sensitivity study began with the cylindrical

TABLE I. HOLLOW-CYLINDER GEOMETRY

Nominal Compact Geometry
H (mm) 30
Inner Dia. (mm) 25.8
Outer Dia. (mm) 47.8
Fill Height (mm) 60
Assumed Fill Density (g/cm3) 3.3
Compaction Ratio 2
TABLE II. DIENET COMPACT GEOMETRY

H1 (mm) 11.36
H2 (mm) 22.72
Target Press Density (g/cm3) 7.1
Fill Density (g/cm3) 3.09
Compaction Ratio 2.2
Part Internal Radius (mm) 1.0
Fill Geometry
H1 (mm) 25
H2 (mm) 50
TABLE III. MODNET COMPACT GEOMETRY

H1 (mm) 16
H2 (mm) 13
Inner Dia. (mm) 29
Mid-Dia. (mm) 68
Outer Dia. (mm) 78
Assumed Fill Density (g/cm?) 3.3
Compaction Ratio 2
NP = neutral plane
Figure 1. X-ray CT of a filled die
geometry. Fill density was taken to be 3.3 g/cm3 that in the lower part. Mass balance was main-
in the case of uniform die fill with a compaction tained to keep the average fill density at 3.3
ratio of 2.0. For the case of nonuniform die fill, g/cm3, Figure 3. The compaction was then simu-
the compact was divided into two regions of equal lated for both the uniform and nonuniform die-fill
density, namely the top and bottom halves. The distributions. In each case identical double-ended
density in the top part was set 10% higher than compaction kinematics (Figure 2) were employed.

25
Figure 2. Compaction kinematics: (a) cylindrical compact geometry, (b) Dienet compact geometry, (c) Modnet compact geometry
of simple shape, at the end of the compaction

process, variations in the die-fill-density distribu-
tion along the axis of the compact play an
insignificant role. This is a result of the powder in
the region of lower density being initially com-
pressed until it reaches a similar density to that
in the other parts of the compact. Thereafter,
compaction proceeds normally, resulting in essen-
tially an identical final-density distribution.
Sensitivity Study—Dienet Compact Geometry

Having established that, for simple compact
geometries, the die-fill-density distribution had no
Figure 3. (a) uniform fill density, (b) two regions with balanced masses significant influence on the compact density, the
next step in the study was to consider a more
complex part shape for the ferrous, hardmetal,
and ceramic powder systems.
Ferrous Powder
After exploring the factors affecting the die-fill-
density distribution, and having analyzed the X-
ray CT scans available for dies filled using ferrous
powder, four initial density configurations were
selected, as shown in Figure 5. First, a compact
with a uniform fill density of 3.09 g/cm 3 was
modeled as the benchmark simulation. The
remaining configurations each consisted of two
regions of different density at fill: a region of high-
er density in the upper section and a region of
lower density in the lower section, so that the
Figure 4. Compaction of ring compact (a) nonuniform, and (b) uniform fill density.
Compaction stages in 10% increments starting at 10%
The resulting density distribution during the com-

paction process is plotted in Figure 4; in this fig-
ure the contour colors represent the same value
in order to allow for direct comparison.
From Figure 4 it is apparent that, in a compact Figure 5. (a) uniform fill density, (b), (c) and (d) two regions with balanced masses

density in the upper region was 10% higher than and minimum was 10.3% of the final average den-
that in the lower region (i.e., ρtop = 1.1ρbot), and sity for the compact with uniform fill density, and
the mean density remained at 3.09 g/cm3. The 35.2% for the case of nonuniform fill distribution
configuration shown in Figure 5 (b) was selected (b). For cases (c) and (d), the density range was
since it is reasonable to assume that powder flow 14.8% and 10.5%, respectively.
into the narrow lower section may be impeded by The tool forces acting on the punches are sum-
the air escaping, and by particle bridging. marized in Table IV. For case (b) there was a 10%
Configuration (c) represents a case similar to con-
figuration (b), with the assumption that a denser
state may be obtained at the top of the lower sec-
tion due to the weight of powder above it.
Configuration (d) may be produced as a result of
local densification near the top of the die, caused
by repeated passes of the feed shoe.
The compact density contour plots are shown
in Figure 6 and Figure 7. Identical levels for the
contour colors were used in all four cases.
The compact in Figure 6(a) exhibits normal
behavior for double-ended compaction. The
regions of lowest density are located along the NP
and near the die walls. Regions of higher density Figure 6. Ferrous powder Dienet geometry compact. (a) uniform die-fill density
are located at the top and bottom punch surfaces and, (b) higher initial density in top region (ρtop = 1.1ρbot )
near the die walls, where the displacement and
wall friction are maximized. The compact in
Figure 6(b) exhibits similar features. In the lower
narrow region the trends are the same, but the
density is lower. The low-density region and the
NP occupy a larger area, with the density values
being even lower than for the uniform density
case. In the upper region the density is much
higher than in the uniform case. There is a new
region of higher density at the base of the flange,
where powder was pushed along the surface of
the punch and then around the corner into the
lower narrow section. There appears to be little
powder flow from the upper section into the lower
section of the part. Compacts in Figure 7 exhibit Figure 7. Ferrous powder Dienet geometry compact. (a) higher initial density in
similar density distribution patterns to those in top region (ρtop = 1.1ρbot ) with region border in pipe section, (b) higher initial
Figure 6(b), but with slightly less pronounced density in top region (ρtop = 1.1ρbot )
regions of high and low density near the
flange–pipe interface.
In order to be able to interpret and compare the
results, a simpler density distribution diagram is
required. In order to construct such a diagram, the
density data from the simulation were interpolated
onto rectangular zones where the density in each
zone was averaged. The final diagrams are present-
ed in Figure 8. In addition to the density variation,
Figure 8 includes the punch force levels. The bal-
ance is made up from die and core rod forces that
have not been included in the tabulation. Figure 8. Block diagram illustrating density distributions: Dienet compact geome-
The density variation between the maximum try; Distaloy AE

27
TABLE IV. TOOL FORCES: DIENET COMPACT GEOMETRY; DISTALOY AE subjected to larger volume reduction in compari-
son with Distaloy AE and Zirconia and thus the
Uniform Two Regions– Two Regions– compaction ratio was 2.5 while retaining the NP,
Fill Two Regions Lower Border Upper Border as shown in Table V. The uniform and nominal
Top Punch (kN) 400 442 (+10%) 435 (+8.7%) 432 (+8%) die-fill density was set at 3.15 g/cm3. The result-
Lower Outer Punch (kN) -198 -248 (+25%) -240 (+21%) -236 +(19%) ant density distribution is presented in the form
Lower Inner Punch (kN) -228 -210 (-8%) -212 (-7%) -215 (-5.7%) of a contour plot in Figure 10.
Once the reference model had been analyzed,
increase in the force acting on the top punch and
a 25% increase in the force acting on the lower
outer punch. The force acting on the lower inner
punch was reduced by 8%. This is due to the
increased amount of material in the top section of
the part. For cases (c) and (d) the increases in top
punch force were 8.7% and 8%, respectively. The
increases in load on the lower outer punch were
21% and 19%, and the decreases on the lower
inner punch were 7% and 5.7%, respectively.
Hardmetal Powder Figure 9. (a) diagonal and (b) flat region configurations
Having compared the four die-fill-density con-
figurations for the irregular ferrous Distaloy AE
powder it was appropriate to test whether the
conclusions are valid for other powders. As noted
previously, and demonstrated in a material model
validation,15 the compaction behavior of the three
powders was different. Configuration (b) was
found to result in the most severe final-density
variation and was chosen, along with configura-
tion (a), to be simulated again for the tungsten
carbide powder. The generic Dienet geometry was
used but the dimensions were modified, together
with the kinematics, to reflect the axial dimen-
sions of a part that may be manufactured using
this powder, Table V. Additionally, a configuration
similar to that in Figure 2, with a diagonal inter-
face between the two regions, was explored, Figure 10. Hardmetal Dienet compact geometry. Uniform fill density
Figure 9. In compaction, hardmetal powders are (3.15 g/cm3)
TABLE V. HARDMETAL COMPACT GEOMETRY

H1 (mm) 10
H2 (mm) 20
Target Press Density 7.8
Assumed Fill Density 3.15
Compaction Ratio 2.5
Part Internal Radius (mm) 1.0
Fill Geometry
H1 (mm) 25
H2 (mm) 50
NP = neutral plane

two further configurations of die-fill density were minimum values are now increased significantly in
simulated, Figure 11. In each case the die-fill den- comparison with the behavior of the ferrous pow-
sity in the upper region was 110% of the fill densi- der, achieving 15.9% of the final density for uni-
ty in the lower region, with the average density form fill, 34.1% for the diagonal border case, and
remaining at 3.15 g/cm3. The results are shown 34.2% for the horizontal border case. There is an
in Figures 11 and 12. increase in the force acting on the top punch of
In comparing the results it is clear that the 29% for the diagonal region case and 36% for the
pressed-density distribution was significantly horizontal region case. For the lower outer punch
more uniform for the compact with uniform fill. the increases in force are 57% and 64%, respec-
Regions of lower density near the NP and higher tively. The forces acting on the lower inner punch
density near the punches are more prominent for are reduced by 9% and 1.5%, respectively.
nonuniform die fill. There is also a region of high- Although the patterns of density distribution
er density immediately above the pipe–flange are similar for the ferrous and the hardmetal pow-
interface. The resulting block densities and tool ders, the percentage increase in the values of the
forces are shown in Figure 13, and the attendant tool forces are different. Consistently, there is an
tool forces are summarized in Table VI. increase in the loads on the punches; however,
The density variation between the maximum and these are proportionally much larger for the hard-
metal powder than for the ferrous powder. This is
due to the higher friction coefficient between the
die wall and powder and the larger mass of mate-
rial within the flange part of the die for the hard-
metal powder, as reflected in the significant
increase in load on the outer lower punch.
Ceramic Powder
Again, the Dienet compact geometry was used
Figure 11. Final-density distribution in Dienet geometry hardmetal

compact with two regions of varying fill density (Figure 10(a))
Figure 13. Density distribution block diagram. (a) uniform fill density, (b) two
regions with diagonal border (Figure 9 (a)), and (c) two regions with horizontal
border. (Figure 9 (b))
TABLE VI. TOOL FORCES ON PUNCHES: HARDMETAL POWDER;

DIENET COMPACT GEOMETRY
Two Regions– Two Regions–
Uniform Fill Diagonal Flat
Top Punch (kN) 129 166 (+29%) 175 (+36%)
Figure 12. Final-density distribution in Dienet geometry hardmetal Lower Outer Punch (kN) -62 -98 (+57%) -102 (+64%)
compact with two regions of varying fill density (Figure 9(b)) Lower Inner Punch (kN) -83 -76 (-9%) -82 (-1.5%)

29
with fill heights identical to those used for the fer- TABLE VII. TOOL FORCES ON PUNCHES: CERAMIC POWDER; DIENET
rous powder. As before, two compacts, one with a COMPACT GEOMETRY
uniform die-fill density (configuration Figure 5(a))
and the other with two regions of different die fill Uniform Fill Two Regions
density (configuration Figure 5(b)), were considered. Top Punch (kN) 699 805 (+15%)
In both cases the mass of powder was the same. Lower Outer Punch (kN) -359 -488 (+36%)
Double-ended compaction was used with a com- Lower Inner Punch (kN) -366 -332 (-9%)
paction ratio of 2.2. The density contour plots for
both simulations are presented in Figure 14 and Similar behavior to the other powders is
the corresponding block diagrams in Figure 15. observed for this geometry. For the nonuniform-
fill part the lower section density is lower overall.
The region of low density near the NP is higher,
with a lower minimum density. There is a general
increase in density in the flange region and an
area of high density immediately above the
flange–pipe interface. The variation between the
maximum and minimum densities in the compact
is 8.3% of the final density for the compact with
uniform fill density, and 28.9% for the multi-
region case.
The tool forces acting on the punches are sum-
marized in Table VII. There is a 15% increase in
the force acting on the top punch, and a 36%
increase in the forces on the lower outer punch.
The force acting on the lower inner punch are
reduced by 9%, due to the increased amount of
material in the top section of the part, consistent
with the trends reflected in the other powder
types.
Modnet Geometry
The Modnet stepped geometry differed from the
Figure 14. Ceramic powder Dienet geometry compact. (a) uniform fill density, and Dienet geometry in that the lower section was on
(b) higher initial density in top region the outside of the part, rather than on the inside.
This is significant since more volume is occupied
by the lower section of the Modnet part than that
of the Dienet part. As the upper section of the die
is expected to have a higher density, some of the
powder from the top section is transferred to the
lower section. Thus, in the case of the Modnet
geometry there is more capacity to accommodate
powder transfer than in the Dienet geometry, as
illustrated in Figure 16.
Similar fill configurations were used for the
Modnet geometry, namely, uniform die-fill density
for the first model and the second model, with two
regions of differing fill density, balanced to pro-
duce the same mass compact as in the uniform-
fill case. Again, the difference between the density
in the upper and lower parts was taken to be
Figure 15. Block diagram of density distribution in ceramic powder; Dienet com- 10%. The border between the regions and the NP
pact geometry. (a) uniform fill density, (b) higher initial density in top region
was along the top surface of the inner lower

punch, Figure 17. significantly higher, overall. This is apparent from

Double-ended kinematics were used in both both the contour plot and the block diagram.
cases with a compaction ratio of 2.0. The results As a result of the nonuniform fill condition
are shown in Figure 18 and Figure 19. there is an increase of 6.4% in the load on the top
As with the Dienet geometry, the part with the punch, a decrease of 15% in the load on the lower
uniform-fill density exhibits a smaller variation in punch, and an increase of 13.6% in the load on
density. Most of the part appears to exhibit essen- the lower inner punch.
tially a uniform density with regions of high den-
sity in the areas of contact between the top and DISCUSSION
bottom punches and die walls. The block diagram This study has assessed the impact of die-fill-
in Figure 19(a) shows this uniformity in the densi- density distribution on pressed density. It has
ty distribution, with only the bottom section of the been demonstrated that for simple shapes, such
tube being significantly denser than the remain- as hollow cylinders, variations in die-fill density
der of the compact. However, the density of the along the direction of compaction do not affect the
compact with variations in fill density is much final pressed-density distribution significantly in
less uniform in the pressed state. The lower-den- the compacted part. However, for more complex
sity region near the NP is significantly more pro-
nounced, and the density in the upper region is
Figure 18. Ferrous powder Modnet geometry compact. (a) uniform fill density, (b)
higher initial density in top region (ρtop = 1.1ρbot )
Figure 16. Possible powder transfer direction in Dienet and Modnet compact
geometries
Figure 19. Block diagram of density distribution: ferrous powder Modnet geome-
try compact. (a) uniform fill density, (b) higher initial density in top region (ρtop =
Figure 17. Modnet geometry fill conditions; ferrous powder 1.1ρbot )

31
multilevel geometries, the differences in both the friction between the tools and the powder. This is
final-density distribution and tool forces are sig- a feature commonly seen in compacts. At the
nificant. Typically, the range of densities in the lower end of area “2,” marked “4,” there is a local
final compact are higher, with more extreme max- region of high density which is again common to
imum and minimum densities. This has implica- all three compacts. The high-density area marked
tions in relation to sintering shrinkage in “5” is a common feature in all three compacts
hardmetal and ceramic parts, and the mechanical and, like feature “3,” correlates well with predic-
performance of ferrous parts. tions from experience.
Where die-fill densities are higher in the upper The features cited are also present in the densi-
region, forces on the top and the lower outer ty distribution of the Modnet geometry compact,
punch of the Dienet geometry part are also found Figure 21. The region of lower density “1” is locat-
to increase significantly. This may lead to a ed immediately below the level of the lower inner
reduced lifespan of the punch or, in extreme cases, punch. There is a band of higher density, desig-
failure. The percentage increase varies for different nated “2,” which connects the inside top of the
powders and is most significant for tungsten car- compact with the tip of the lower inner punch.
bide, because the latter powder is the most com- However, there is not a prominent region of high
pressible and exhibits a rapid build-up of stress density around point “4,” unlike the compacts
towards the end of the compaction process. When with the Dienet geometry. This is expected
combined with the larger displacement required to because the top part of the Modnet geometry com-
compress this powder, it leads to a significant pact is bulkier. The difference between the initial
increase in stress levels on the tool set. density in the top section and the mean fill densi-
The different density levels achieved in each ty is smaller for the Modnet geometry compact
powder prohibit direct comparisons. However, than for the Dienet geometry compact, in order to
some common features are observed in all three maintain the 10% top-to-bottom variation
compacts. There is an area of low density, desig- because of the relative volumes occupied by the
nated “1” in Figure 20, just below the level of the top and bottom sections in each compact. The
lower outer punch. This is the area most distant size of the top section of the Modnet geometry
from the top and bottom punches; the presence of compact also results in a smaller distribution as
a low density area in this location agrees well with the powder is less constrained. The high-density
predictions. There is a region of higher density areas “3” and “5” are also less pronounced. The
common to all three compacts, designated “2,” former because the fill density is low in the lower
which connects the tip of the lower outer punch section, and the latter because the powder in the
to the top right corner of the compact. It is diffi- top section is less constrained, allowing for a
cult to compare the intensity of zone “2” between more uniform density distribution than in the
the different compacts because of the varying Dienet geometry compact.
densities and contour color indexing. Section “3”
is a region of higher density which is caused by
Figure 20. Comparison of density distributions. (a) ceramic, (b) ferrous, (c) hard-
metal powders (nonuniform fill condition, border region at the level of the lower Figure 21. Density distribution in green Modnet geometry compacts; ferrous
outer punch) powder. (a) uniform fill, (b) nonuniform fill

CONCLUSIONS For a die that is perfectly rigid, there is no radi-

Three powders were used to conduct a sensitiv- al displacement during pressing. Thus, the plastic
ity study on the effect of die-fill density on die- radial strain will be zero at all times; this implies
pressing performance for a range of compact that:
geometries. Simple ring geometries were found to
be unaffected by variations in die fill density in (∂f/∂σij)i=j=r = 0 (A.5)
the axial direction. As examples of multilevel
parts, final-density distributions for flanged Applying equations A.4 and A.5 to equation A.3
geometries (both internal and external flange) results in:
proved to be less uniform for a nonuniform die fill
density. σdz + 2σdr
A fill-density variation of 10% led to variations 2 (—————
0
3
–P )
(σdz + 2σdr )
in final pressed density of up to 35%, compared ∂f/∂σij = — ———————— + ————— = 0 (A.6)
3 P20 Q20
with 10% for the uniform-fill case. Tool forces
were found to be markedly influenced by density From equations A.3 and A.6, the functions P0 and
variation, achieving up to 64% increase on some Q0 are obtained as:
tools. The magnitude of the increase depended on
the variation in fill density within the cavity and 2
the powder type being compacted. (
3Pd + 2PdQd
P0 = ———————
6Pd + 2Qd ) (A.7)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3 (Pd)2 Qd
This work was funded by AEA Technology as —
Q0 =
2 2
Qd + —————— (A.8)
part of the "Minimizing Density Variations in 2Pd + —2 Qd
Powder Compacts" project for DTI’s Materials 3
Metrology program.
Therefore, for known values of and, Pd and Qd
Appendix A: Definition of Material Model can be calculated. Subsequently P0 and Q0 can be
The material model was defined using an obtained and curve fitted as functions of the den-
instrumented-die test in which a cylindrical pow- sity field. The functions are chosen to fit the form
der compact is pressed, and for which the stress of the experimental data and to satisfy limiting
state is axisymmetric. The hydrostatic and devia- conditions. There are four unknowns K1 to K3
toric stresses defined as P and Q are given by: and Qmax:
ρ – ρ0 K
P = (σz + 2σr)/3 (A.1)
( (
P0 – K1 ln – ————
ρ – ρmax )) 2
(A.9)
Q = σz – σr (A.2)
K3P0
For a Cam-Clay material model:
Q0 = Qmax tanh ———
Qmax ( ) (A.10)
The experiment allows the determination of die-

σdz + 2σdr 2
(
—————
3
– P0 ) (σdz + 2σdr )2
wall friction. Further material model data com-
f = ———————— + ————— –1 = 0 (A.3) prise elastic parameters. Although these are not
P20 Q20 particularly important in compaction, they must
be supplied to complete the material data set. The
where σ dz and σ dr and are the axial and radial full set of material data parameters used is given
stresses, respectively, during die pressing in Table A.1, including the initial and theoretical
In the absence of additional information, it is maximum density.
commonly assumed that the model is associated
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33
TABLE A.1 MODEL PARAMETERS

Distaloy AE Powder
Qmax K1 K2 K3 ρ0 ρ^ E ν µ
271.05 60.45 1.311 1.8 3.10 g/cm3 7.4 g/cm3 8.0E + 04N/mm2 0.3 Variable1
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in Powder Metallurgy and Particulate Materials, compiled Achievements”, Powder Metallurgy, 2006, vol. 49, no. 1,
by J.J. Oakes and H.H. Reinshagen, Metal Powder pp. 8–10.
Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ, 1998, vol. 3, part 14. S.F. Burch, Unpublished results from the MPM5.2 proj-
10, pp. 77–87. ect, AEA Technology, 2004.
8. S.F. Burch, J.H. Tweed, A.C.F. Cocks, I.C. Sinka and C-Y 15. D. Korachkin, “Measurement Methods for the
Wu, “Measurement of Density Variations in Compacted Determination of Powder Properties for Compaction
Parts and Filled Dies using X-ray Computerised Modelling”, PhD Thesis, University of Wales, 2006. ijpm
Tomography”, Powder Metallurgy World Congress &

RESEARCH &
DEVELOPMENT
The feasibility of fabricating
high-density parts from
Inconel 718 powder using
HIGH-DENSITY three-dimensional printing

(3DP) was assessed. Parts
were subsequently hot
INCONEL 718: THREE- isostatically pressed (HIPed)
to achieve full density. After
DIMENSIONAL PRINTING optimization of the particle-

size distribution, parts were
fabricated by means of the
COUPLED WITH HOT 3D-printing process utilizing
two different devices in
ISOSTATIC PRESSING order to examine the influ-

ence of the binder. Printed
parts were sintered in high
José Sicre-Artalejo*, Frank Petzoldt**, Mónica Campos*** and vacuum at 1,563K (1,290°C)
José M. Torralba**** or 1,573K (1,300°C) and
characterized in terms of
density and microstructure.
Finally, sintered parts were
INTRODUCTION HIPed at 1,473K (1,200°C)
Nickel–chromium-base superalloys exhibit a wide range of mechani- and 142 MPa, followed by a
cal properties, with excellent corrosion resistance, oxidation resist- second HIPing cycle at
ance, and resistance to damage-inducing mechanisms that operate at 1,483K (1,210°C) and 206
MPa for 3 h in argon to
high temperatures.1,2 Since superalloys are utilized in high-perform-
achieve full density.
ance applications, it is important to develop new cost-effective produc-
tion methods.
This study evaluates the capability of the 3DP process to fabricate
parts from nickel-base superalloy powder. Utilizing this technique,
large complex green parts can be fabricated from metallic powders in a
time frame of hours.3 3DP is a process in which parts are created
directly from computer models.1 A solid object is created by printing a
sequence of two-dimensional layers. The formation of each layer
involves the spreading of a thin layer of powder, followed by the selec-
tive joining of the powder in the layer by ink-jet printing of a binder
material. These printed parts do not reach their pore-free density after
sintering, and post-sintering treatments such as HIPing are required.
If the printed parts exhibit closed porosity after sintering, encapsula-
tion prior to HIPing can be avoided.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Gas-atomized Inconel 718 powder of two different sizes was used
(Table I and the scanning electron microscope (SEM) images in Figure
1). The nominal composition of the alloy is listed in Table II.
To enhance the 3DP process, coarse and fine powders were blended
to increase both the apparent density and tap density. The coarse pow-
der was blended with different amounts of fine powder ranging from 10
w/o to 100 w/o of fine powder. Application of the 3DP process with
powder blends exhibiting a high tap density was expected to enhance
the sintered part density. The powders were blended in a Turbula™
*PhD Student, ***Lecturer, ****Professor, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Avda. Universidad
30, E-28911 Leganés, Madrid, Spain; E-mail: jsicre@ing.uc3m.es, **Head of Department of Powder Metallurgy, Fraunhofer IFAM, Wiener Strasse
12, D-28359 Bremen, Germany

35
HIGH-DENSITY INCONEL 718: THREE-DIMENSIONAL PRINTING COUPLED WITH HOT ISOSTATIC PRESSING
TABLE I. PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF POWDER TABLE II. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF POWDER (w/o)
Fine Powder (F) Coarse Powder (C) * Ni Cr Fe Nb(+Ta) Mo Ti Mn Al Si Other Elements (Max)
10 w/o -6.1 µm 1.8 w/o +53 µm 52.6 18.8 Bal. 5.3 3.2 0.93 0.12 0.49 0.28 0.08 C, 0.006 B, 0.015 S,
50 w/o -12.8 µm 98.2 w/o -53 µm 0.015 P, 0.30 Cu
90 w/o -21.8 µm
* Based on ASTM B 214
Figure 1. As-received superalloy powders: (a) coarse powder, (b) fine powder. SEM/secondary electron images
model T 2F mixer at a moderate speed for 45 min. from the reservoir to the build box creating a layer
Thermomechanical analysis (TMA) was utilized of powder with the desired thickness.
to monitor the changes in volume expansion of the Subsequently, the nozzles in 3DP-1 or inkjets in
alloy, as affected by the proportions of coarse and 3DP-2 deposited the binder, as dictated by the
fine powder in the blends. TMA analyses were con- CAD model. In both 3DP processes, the thickness
ducted in the expansion mode on a Perkin-Elmer of the powder layer was ~125 µm.4 Once the pow-
TMA thermomechanical analyzer under an atmos- der layer was printed, it was dried for 20 s in the
phere of flowing argon. Powder samples (5 mm in 3DP-1 device, and for 50 s in the 3DP-2 device.
height) were heated from 303K (30°C) to 1,598K Each 3DP device used a specific polymeric com-
(1,325°C) at 10 K min-1 with a dwell time of 1 h mercial binder, namely Primal WS-24E and PM-B-
and then cooled to 303K (30°C) at 10 K min-1. The SRX for 3DP-1 and 3DP-2, respectively. The
experiment was performed without the application difference in the two binders arises from the depo-
of force to monitor changes in length due to the sition mechanism(s) operative in each device. The
thermal cycle. This resulted in a similar response amount of binder in the final material was ~10
to that observed utilizing dilatometry. v/o; it was deposited at a rate of 2 layers per min
After characterization of the powders, the 3DP for the prototype geometry selected.
process was initiated. Two different 3D-printing The resulting 3DP green parts were sintered
devices were used, namely Prometal™RTS-300 under a high vacuum of 4.05 x 10-10 MPa (4 x 10-
and Prometal™RX-1 (hereafter referred to as 3DP- 6 mbar) at 1,563K (1,290°C) or at 1,573K
1 and 3DP-2, respectively). The two devices are (1,300°C) for 2 h in a single-step sintering
based on the same functional principle, but a dif- process. Two different heating rates were exam-
ferent binder was used in each process. The print- ined, namely 5 K/min and 10 K/min, to monitor
ing device consisted of two boxes, the reservoir the possible influence of debinding on sintered
box and the build box. The powder was spread properties.

Characterization of the printed parts included rial is necessary (in this case ~100 µm). When
an evaluation of the shrinkage after sintering and considering the particle size of the powders, opti-
the density, as determined by the Archimedes’ mization of the particle-size distribution is also
immersion (ethanol) method. Microstructures necessary. This was accomplished by evaluating
were analyzed by means of light optical blends of the fine and coarse powders from 100
microscopy (OM) and SEM. Samples for metallo- w/o coarse (C) to 100 w/o fine (F). As seen in
graphic analysis were prepared following standard Figure 2, the size distribution shifts slightly to
techniques: progressive silicon carbide grinding, smaller sizes when the level of fine powder added
surface polishing (3 µm diamond paste), and elec- increases from 0 w/o to 30 w/o.
trolytic etching in 5 w/o oxalic acid. Figure 3 shows the influence of particle-size
Sintered parts were HIPed in a model AIP6-30H distribution on apparent density and tap density.
press (American Isostatic Presses, Inc.). The first Since the powder is spread over the preceding
HIPing cycle was 1,473K (1,200°C) under 146 powder layer during the 3DP process, it is impor-
MPa for 3 h, as previously reported.10 Both heat- tant to know how much material was deposited.
ing and cooling rates were 10K/min. The To this end, tap density was monitored as a func-
microstructures of the HIPed parts were analyzed tion of the particle-size distribution of the powder
using LOM and SEM. The final density was meas- blends, since apparent density is strongly affected
ured by means of a helium pycnometer. After ana- by particle size; it decreases as the particle size of
lyzing the density and microstructure, a second the blend decreases.6 In contrast, a convincing
HIPing cycle was imposed, which consisted of explanation cannot be provided for the changes in
heating to 1,483K (1,210°C) under 206 MPa for 3 tap density that result from adding fine powder to
h in argon, using the same heating and cooling coarse powder. Since the 30F70C and 20F80C
rates as in the initial cycle. Samples for metallo- powder blends exhibited the highest tap densities
graphic analysis were prepared using the follow- of all the samples, they were printed along with
ing standard techniques: progressive silicon 100C powder as a reference.
carbide grinding, surface polishing (3 µm dia- Another criterion for selection of the powder
mond paste), and etching in Kalling’s reagent.5 blends to be printed is based on thermal analysis.
Powder blends with lower amounts of fine powder
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION exhibited between 13% and 16% unidirectional
Optimization of Powder Mixtures shrinkage, as shown in Figure 4. In addition to
To optimize the 3DP process, a particle size apparent density and shrinkage, it is also neces-
similar to the layer thickness of the printed mate- sary to recognize that powder blends with higher
levels of fine powder (80F20C and 90F10C powder
blends) are not suitable for 3DP.7,8
Figure 2. Effect of addition of fine powder to coarse powder on particle-size Figure 3. Effect of increasing the level of fine powder in blends of coarse and fine
distribution powder on apparent density and tap density

37
with the binder, was expected, due to its small

particle-size distribution. Initially, 100C powders
were printed which resulted in a lack of wetting
during printing of the first layers. In consequence,
binder droplets were present confirming incom-
patibility between the binder and metal powder.
However, after the first five layers were printed,
the process continued successfully. Figure 5(a)
shows a printed layer of IN-718 coarse powder in
which deficiencies in the 3DP process are evident.
The next sample tested was a 20F80C powder
blend. Lack of wetting by the binder at the onset
of the process was more severe in this case, as
seen in Figure 5(b). Large drops of binder
remained without wetting of the powder. The 3DP
process was enhanced by optimizing the spread-
Figure 4. Shrinkage of powder blends at 1,598K as a function of particle-size ing speed (slower rate) and increasing the curing
distribution time, as seen in Figure 5(c).
Finally, 30F70C powder blends were printed. In
3DP Processes the absence of wetting by the binder, 3DP was
Based on previous work7 on the 3DP process not possible. The binder droplets were large, as
using 3DP-1, incompatibility of the 100C powder seen in Figure 5(d). Under these conditions, each
Figure 5. Photographs of 3DP process utilizing Prometal™RTS-300. (a) 100C powder, (b) and (c) 20F80C powder blend, (d) 30F70C powder blend

box bed containing the powder. The temperature of

the build-box bed was 80°C, whereas it should
have been 150°C. To prevent energy loss, a ceram-
ic plate was placed on the base of the build box
which increased the temperature of the build-box
bed to 130°C. In this model, more accurate shapes
were obtained, although the shapes were still not
perfect. The printing performance of the 100C
powder and the 30F70C powder blend was signifi-
cantly better than that of the 20F80C powder
blend. The latter exhibited stability problems both
during and after curing. The other two powder
blends could be printed, with no shape distortion.
Figure 6. Sintered samples: (a) correct 3DP conditions on blend 100C, (b)
skewed profile from lack of binder wetting. Powder blend 20F80C Sintering of Printed Parts
Figure 7 shows the influence of the process
layer did not spread over the previous layer. The parameters studied on the density of the as-sin-
particle-size distribution of this powder blend was tered printed parts, and on shrinkage after sinter-
small, reducing the compatibility of the binder ing. As expected, the as-sintered density
and the metal powder. increased as the sintering temperature increased
Utilizing the 3DP-2 printer, the binder did not and the heating rate decreased. In both cases,
cure sufficiently in the first printed layer. This higher densities were achieved with the 20F80C
resulted in a small misplacement of the subse- powder blend after sintering at 1,563K (1,290°C)
quent layers, and a skewed sample profile, as and 1,573K (1,300°C). The presence of fine pow-
illustrated in Figure 6. The skewed profiles are der in the powder blend enhances densification
attributed to heat-flow losses through the build- during sintering due to the higher particle sur-
Figure 7. Effect of heating rate, sintering temperature, and binder type on relative density and shrinkage of powder blends. (a) 3DP-1 mode,
(b) 3DP-2 mode, (c) 3DP-1 mode, and (d) 3DP-2 mode

39
face:volume ratio, which increases the driving number of scattered γ’ precipitates (circled in
force for sintering. A high density was obtained Figure 8). At 1,573K (1,300°C), micrographs
and complete densification appears to be a viable exhibit large pores which appear to be the result
target for this powder blend. Nonetheless, porosity of overheating during sintering. This reflects an
is still evident, but is less for 3DP-2 than for 3DP- excessive presence of liquid phase during sinter-
1, as seen by comparing Figure 8 and Figure 9. ing, which could not rediffuse into the solid parti-
Characterization of the microstructures of the cles. Literature on the sintering of Inconel
3DP-1 parts shows that the phases present vary includes evidence of a liquid phase >1,463K
with the sintering temperature. The heating rate, (1,190°C).9,10 Thus, there will always be a small
or the proportions in the powder blends, do not amount of liquid present which favors mass
influence the resulting microstructures. transport mechanisms leading to higher densifica-
Notwithstanding discrepancies in the literature tion, at the chosen sintering temperatures.
concerning the precipitation kinetics in Inconel However, if the amount of liquid formed is exces-
718, the primary microstructural effects on sive, it could be detrimental to properties because
mechanical properties in this alloy system are of rediffusion.
attributed to the presence of γ’ (intermetallic Based on the microstructures of the sintered
Ni3TiAl) precipitates, and to γ" (intermetallic Ni3Nb) 3DP-2 parts major changes are observed com-
precipitates which are unstable >923K (650°C) pared with 3DP-1. First, the expected quantities
and are associated with the presence of iron. of γ’ and γ" precipitates (circled in Figure 9) appear
Parts sintered at 1,563K (1,290°C) exhibit a at 1,563K (1,290°C).11 Second, sintering tempera-
high density of small γ" precipitates, and a smaller ture does not affect the final microstructure sig-
Figure 8. Representative microstructures of 20F80C powder blend: (a) and (b) sintered at 1,563K, (c) sintered at 1,573K with heating rate 5 K/min and 3DP-1 mode. OM
Figure 9. Representative microstructures of 100C powder (a) sintered at 1,563K, heating rate 5K/min, (b) sintered at 1,573K and 5K/min, and (c) sintered at 1,563K,
heating rate 10 K/min and 3DP-2 mode. OM

nificantly. As with 3DP-1, the sintering tempera- decreases significantly as the proportion of fine
ture does not change the number of precipitates, powder in the powder blend increases.
only their size and amount. The level of porosity Specifically, with 20 w/o and 30 w/o of fine pow-
der, pores and grains are round, which suggests
that sintering occurred during the final stage.
Hot Isostatic Pressing

The densification that occurred after the first
HIPing cycle is shown in Figure 10. Complete den-
sification of the two powder blends was not
achieved. From Figure 11 it is observed that pores
remain that were not closed during the first
HIPing cycle.
Subsequently, a second HIPing cycle was
imposed. To attain maximum process efficiency,
four samples with the highest as-sintered densi-
ties for both binders were selected. As observed in
Figure 12, the pore-free density (8.19 g/cm3) of
Figure 10. Pore-free density (%) of 3DP parts for two powder blends after HIPing
at 1,473K and 146 MPa for 3 h Inconel 718 was reached after the this second
HIPing cycle, for samples with different initial as-
sintered densities. The variation in density of the
as-HIPed specimens was within the range of the
deviation associated with the precision of the
equipment. The HIPing cycles were performed in
an argon atmosphere. This procedure superficial-
ly oxidized the parts but did not affect the inter-
nal microstructure, as seen in Figure 13. These
SEM images also confirm the absence of porosity,
and hence the achievement of the pore-free densi-
ty of the superalloy.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The binder used in the 3DP process, and the
binder deposition device, influence the final
density, microstructure and the shape profile
Figure 11. Representative micrograph of HIPed sample 20F80C (1,473K and of the sintered parts.
146 MPa for 3 h) showing porosity. SEM/backscattered electron image 2. Comparing the two processes, 3DP-1 resulted
in printed parts with superior shape stability
and a higher final sintered density than 3DP-2,
but with different microstructures. The latter
mode resulted in excellent microstructures and
properties, but inferior shape stability.
3. Sintering temperature had a significant effect
on the final microstructure in the 3DP-1 mode,
but had little effect in the 3DP-2 mode.
4. The optimal sintering parameters were 1,563K
(1,290°C) for 2 h in vacuum with a heating rate
of 5 K/min; this resulted in sintered density
levels ~97% of the pore-free value.
5. No differences were found in the size or the
Figure 12. Density of sintered 3DP parts for two powder blends after HIPing at distribution of γ’ precipitates after sintering or
1,483K and 206 MPa for 3 h
HIPing. However, the homogeneity in the distri-

41
Figure 13. Representative micrographs illustrating fully dense printed and sintered parts. (a) and (c) 3DP-1 mode of 100C , (b) and (d) 3DP-2
mode of powder blend 30F70C. SEM/backscattered electron images
bution of the γ" precipitates improved after REFERENCES

HIPing. 1. D. Godlinski and H. Pohl, “Rapid Manufacturing of Dense
Stainless Steel Parts by 3D-Printing”, Euro PM 2003,
6. It is possible to fabricate fully dense 3DP parts
European Powder Metallurgy Association, Shrewsbury,
using HIPing. Pore-free density was achieved in UK, 2003, vol. 2, pp. 131–136.
parts printed in both the 3DP-1 and 3DO-2 2. A. Thomas, M. El-Wahabi, J.M. Cabrera and J.M. Pardo,
modes. There is no significant influence of “High Temperature Deformation of Inconel 718”, Journal
binder type after HIPing, from particle size, or of Materials Processing Technology, 2006, vol. 177, pp.
469–472.
from sintering temperature on HIPing
3. D. Dimitrov, “Advances in Three Dimensional Printing—
response. The HIPing parameters that resulted State of the Art and Future Perspectives”, Rapid
in pore-free density were 1,483K (1,210°C) and Prototyping Journal, 2006, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 136–147.
206 MPa for 3 h. It is expected that other com- 4. D. Godlinski and G. Veltl, “Three Dimensional Printing of
binations of HIPing parameters would result in PM-Tool Steels”, Euro PM 2005, European Powder
Metallurgy Association, Shrewsbury, UK, 2005, vol. 3, pp.
pore-free density of the superalloy parts.
49–54.
5. Y. Murata, M. Morinaga, N. Yukawa, H. Ogawa and M.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Kato, “Solidification Structures of Inconel 718 with
The authors thank Dr. Monge, Department of Microalloying Elements”, 3rd International Special
Physics, Carlos III University of Madrid, for pro- Emphasis Symposium on Superalloys 718, 625, 706 and
Various Derivatives, edited by E.A. Lorea, The Minerals,
viding the equipment necessary to complete this
Metals & Materials Society, Warrendale, PA, 1994, pp.
project. 81–88.

6. ASM Handbook, Powder Metal Technologies and 9. K. Hajmrle and R. Angers, “Sintering of Inconel 718”, Int.
Applications, vol. 7, Ninth Edition, 1998, ASM J. Powder Metall. & Powder Tech., 1980, vol. 16, no. 3, pp.
International, Materials Park, OH. 255–266.
7. M. Turker, D. Godlinski, H. Pohl and F. Petzoldt, “Rapid 10. G. Appa Rao, M. Srinivas and D.S. Sarma, “Effect of
Prototyping of Inconel Alloys by Direct Metal Laser Solution Treatment Temperature on Microstructure and
Sintering and Three Dimensional Printing”, ibid reference Mechanical Properties of Hot Isostatically Pressed
no. 4, vol. 3, pp. 93–98. Superalloy Inconel 718”, Mater. Sci. Tech., 2004, vol. 20,
8. D. Godlinski and S. Morvan, “Steel Parts with Tailored pp. 1,161–1,170.
Materials Gradients by 3D-Printing Using Nano- 11. S. Azadian, “Aspects of Precipitation in Alloy Inconel 718”,
Particulate Ink”, Mater. Sci. Forum, 2005, vols. 492–493, 2004 PhD Thesis, Luleå University of Technology,
pp. 679–684. Sweden. ijpm

43
ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
Nanoscale powders can
enhance densification and
enable sintering of compo-
ECONOMICS OF nents at lower-than-

conventional temperatures
with refined microstructures.
PROCESSING However, nanoscale
powders often come at a
NANOSCALE POWDERS cost premium and retention

of nanosized grains after
processing is difficult. In
John L. Johnson* this paper, sintering models
developed for nanograined
tungsten are extended to
other metal powders and
INTRODUCTION ceramics to predict sintered
Despite predictions for widespread use of nanoscale powders (con- densities and grain sizes
sisting of particles with dimensions <100 nm), their implementation for various compaction
via press-and-sinter processing remains limited. Powder cost, contami- pressures, sintering temper-
nation, handling difficulties, low packing densities, and rapid grain atures, and sintering times.
growth during sintering all present barriers to their use. Prior mod- Property maps are devel-
els1,2 for nanoscale tungsten identified a potential processing path uti- oped as functions of the
lizing clean powders, ultrahigh compaction pressures (>1 GPa), and initial particle size. The
properties are then normal-
low sintering temperatures that preserve nanosized grains. Such new
ized based on powder cost
processes must show a substantial cost or performance benefit in
to identify the particle sizes
order to displace established powder metallurgy (PM) press-and-sinter and compositions that
processes. This paper extends the sintering and property models for provide optimal price/
nanoscale tungsten to other metals and ceramics and considers the performance value.
processing economics through analysis of powder costs, compaction
costs, and sintering costs in comparison with the performance bene-
fits. These models are not meant to be scientifically rigorous, but do
show trends that provide clear guidance in the economic utilization of
nanoscale powders.
SINTERING MODEL
Following the approach of German and Olevsky,1,2 a sintering model
was constructed to calculate the apparent density, green density, sin-
tered density, and grain size as functions of particle size. The sintered
density and grain size are then used to predict properties.
Apparent Density
The high surface area and interparticle friction of nanoscale pow- Presented at PowderMet2007
ders result in agglomeration and low packing densities.3 The depend- and published in Advances
ence of the fractional apparent density ρA on the particle size can be in Powder Metallurgy &
expressed by the relation: Particulate Materials—2007,
log ρA = log ρ0 + a log D (1) Proceedings of the 2007
International Conference on
where ρ0 is the fractional packing density of a 1 µm powder, a is a con- Powder Metallurgy &
stant, and D is the median particle size in µm. Particle shape and sur- Particulate Materials, which
face condition impact the packing behavior, so each powder is are available from the
different. In this analysis, values of 0.143 for ρ0 and 0.21 for a were Publications Department of
used, based on values derived from tungsten particle-packing data.1,2 MPIF (www.mpif.org).
*R&D Director, ATI Alldyne, 7300 Highway 20 West, Huntsville, Alabama 35806, USA; E-mail: jjohnson@alldyne.com

ECONOMICS OF PROCESSING NANOSCALE POWDERS
Green Density utes.1,2 In the current study, the densification

The density of metallic nanoscale powders factor for other materials was predicted by substi-
increases with compaction pressure, but the rate tuting an appropriate activation energy, but leav-
of densification declines with increasing pressure ing the other terms constant.
as the particles work harden. Densification also
decreases with the hardness of the particles. For Grain Growth
tungsten powders, the fractional green density ρg The final grain size G depends on peak sinter-
can be expressed by the empirical equation:3 ing temperature, hold time, initial grain size, and
the effects from porosity and pore drag in con-
( ( 1.545 P
ρg = 1 + ρA 1-exp ——— -—
D1/7 C )) (2) formity with the relation:5
ρg 1/2
where ρA is the fractional apparent density, D is
the median particle size in µm, P is the com-
G = D + Kt1/3 ———
( ) ( )
1- ρs
-QG
exp ———
T
(6)
paction pressure in MPa, and C is a function of where D is the initial particle size, K is a collection
material strength. In this paper, C is estimated as of material constants, t is the isothermal time at
nine times the annealed hardness H0 of the pore- absolute temperature T, ρg is the fractional green
free material. density, ρS is the fractional sintered density, and
QG is the activation energy for grain growth.* For
Sintered Density tungsten, K = 23.5 µm/s 1/3 and Q G = 11,430
The sintered density ρs depends on the green when time is in s, temperature is in K, and grain
density ρ g and the linear sintering shrinkage size is in µm. In this paper, the grain size for other
∆L/Lg in conformity with the relation: materials was predicted by substituting an appro-
priate activation energy, but leaving K constant.
ρg
ρs = ————— (3) As an example of the model predictions, the
( )
3
∆L green density, sintered density, and grain size are
1- —— plotted in Figure 1 as functions of particle size for
Lg
two different cases. In the first case, the tungsten
The sintering shrinkage displays an asymptotic powder is pressed at 250 MPa and sintered at
characteristic as the compact nears full density. 2,000°C for 60 min. The low apparent density of
Following the master sintering curve treatment of nanoscale powders results in a low green density,
Su and Johnson,4 this behavior can be represent- which cannot be sintered to high density. The
ed by a sigmoid function as given by the relation: density also decreases with large particles due to
their slower sintering kinetics, leaving an optimal
∆L f2 particle-size range of 1 to 3 µm for near-full den-
—— = f1 + ———————— (4)
Lg
( )
f3 - Y
1 + exp ———
f4
sity. The grain size of nanoscale powders sintered
at 2,000°C is substantially larger than the initial
particle size. In the second case, a pressure of
where f1 = 0.01, f2 = 0.165, f3 = 0.104, f4 = 0.015, 1,280 MPa is used to compact the tungsten pow-
and Y is a densification factor that can be calcu- der. A much higher green density is attained and
lated from an Arrhenius-type equation, namely: nanoscale powders are predicted to sinter to near-
full density at only 1,000°C, while preserving a
1
Y = ——
Dv
exp
( Q
Bstw - ——
T ) (5)
refined grain structure. In both cases, once the
particle size becomes too large to press and sinter
to full density at the specified conditions, grain
where D is the particle size, w and v depend on growth becomes negligible and the grain size is
the diffusion mechanism, Bs is a material param- determined by the initial particle size.
eter, t is the sintering time, Q is the activation In general, the properties of refractory metals,
energy for diffusion,* and T is the sintering tem- such as tungsten and molybdenum, are much
perature. For tungsten, BS = 0.0054, Q = 3652, v
*As defined in equations (5) and (6), Q and QG are normal-
= 0.44, and w = 0.33 when the particle size D is in ized to the gas constant (or Boltzmann’s constant). Thus, the
µm, temperature T is in K, and time t is in min- units of the two activation energies are K.

45
Figure 1. Two examples of model predictions for the effects of tungsten particle size on green density, sintered density, and grain size
more sensitive to particle size than other metals. hardness of the annealed pore-free material, θ is a
The properties of ceramics are even more sensitive material constant, and G is the grain size in µm.
to particle size since they cannot be pressed to The abrasive-wear loss of hard materials is
high green densities due to their high hardness linked to hardness and can be estimated from the
and brittle nature. relation:1,2
PROPERTY MAPS W = W0 exp (-βH) (9)

Properties are governed primarily by grain size
where W is wear loss measured in cm3, H is the
and sintered density. Here, the properties of
hardness in kg/mm2, and values for the parame-
nanograined materials are predicted by extrapo-
ters W0 and β are 28 cm3 and 0.00418 kg/mm2,
lating conventional models to the nanoscale.
respectively.
Nanoscale powders may provide unique but
unknown benefits that are not predicted by these
Fracture Strength
models. For example, while hardness is predicted
Like hardness, fracture strength follows a
to increase with decreasing grain size, fracture
Hall–Petch dependence on grain size. For metals
toughness usually decreases, but nanograined
the “best fit” model for room-temperature strength
materials may provide some unique combinations
σ (in MPa) is:1,2
of hardness and toughness. The conventional
models establish baseline properties expected of σ = 3Hσs5 (10)
nanoscale powders and a means of quantifying
any unpredicted property improvements found in where H is the hardness in kg/mm2 and σs is the
future experimental work. fractional sintered density. For ceramics, the fol-
lowing equation was used:
Elastic Modulus
The elastic modulus is calculated from:6
E = E0ρs3.4 (7)
σ = ρs
( θ
σ0 + ——
G ) (11)
where σ0 is the fracture strength of the pore-free

where ρS is the fractional sintered density and E0 material, θ is a material constant, and G is the
is the elastic modulus of the pore-free material. grain size in µm.
Hardness/Abrasion Resistance Ductility/Fracture Toughness

Room-temperature hardness follows the Hall– The ductility of sintered metals depends prima-
Petch relation 7 and can be predicted from the rily on their densities and can be expressed by the
relation: empirical equation:6
ε0ρs3/2
H = ρs
( θ
H0 + ——
G ) (8) εmax = ————————
1+160 (1-ρs)2
(12)
where ρS is the fractional sintered density, H0 is the where ρS is the fractional sintered density and ε0

is the ductility of the pore-free material. This conductivity can be calculated directly from the
same relation is used for ceramics but with frac- Koh and Fortini relationship:
ture toughness in place of ductility.
ρs
λ = λ0 —————— (15)
Electrical Resistivity 1+11(1-ρs)2
Electrical resistivity R increases with porosity
and generally follows the structure-independent where λ0 is the thermal conductivity of the pore-
semi-empirical relationship obtained by Koh and free material.
Fortini:8 Baseline properties of pore-free materials are
summarized in Tables I and II. The values are
1+11(1-ρs)2 based on material properties given by the CES
R = R0 —————— (13)
ρs Selector Version 4.5 software (Granta Design
Limited).
where ρs is the fractional sintered density and R0 As examples of the property model predictions,
is the electrical resistivity of the pore-free material. the properties of tungsten are plotted in Figure 2
as functions of particle size for the two cases
Thermal Conductivity shown in Figure 1. For tungsten powder pressed
The thermal conductivity λ of metals can be at 250 MPa and sintered at 2,000°C, the proper-
calculated from the electrical resistivity R using ties follow density and peak at approximately 1 to
the Wiedemann–Franz relationship:9 3 µm. Higher strengths and hardnesses are possi-
ble with nanoscale powders and ultrahigh com-
LT paction pressures.
λ = —— (14)
R Property maps can be constructed by plotting the
properties as functions of each other. Utilizing this
where L is the Lorenz number and T is the method, it is possible to identify unique property
absolute temperature in K. For ceramics, thermal combinations. Plots of modulus, hardness, ductility,
TABLE I. BASELINE METAL PROPERTIES

Metal W Fe Cu Ni Ti Mo Re Ta Nb Al
Q (K) 3,652 2,000 1,800 2,000 2,200 3,200 3,500 3,100 2,800 1,100
QG (K) 11,430 7,000 5,000 7,000 8,000 10,000 11,000 11,000 10,000 4,000
K (µm/s1/3) 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5
E0 (GPa) 400 204 145 214 116 325 470 186 105 70
H0 (VHN) 250 75 50 80 120 150 260 50 80 25
Θ (VHN⋅µm1/2) 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 80
ε0 (%) 15 35 50 50 25 30 25 50 50 40
R0 (µΩ⋅m) 0.053 0.097 0.017 0.068 0.42 0.054 0.19 0.125 0.14 0.027
L (10-8 W⋅Ω/K2) 3.04 2.47 2.28 2.2 3.15 2.61 2.98 2.47 2.68 2.2
TABLE II. BASELINE CERAMIC PROPERTIES

Ceramic Al2O3 Cr2O3 TiC WC SiC B4C MoSi2 TiN
Q (K) 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500
Q G (K) 11,430 11,430 11,430 11,430 11,430 11,430 11,430 11,430
K (µm/s1/3) 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5
E0 (GPa) 1,200 100 435 680 400 450 440 435
H0 (VHN) 400 250 3,000 2,500 2,600 4,400 1,200 2,500
Θ (VHN⋅µm1/2) 400 100 200 100 100 100 100 200
σ0 (MPa) 200 200 400 700 350 550 200 400
ε0 (MPa⋅m1/2) 4 4 2.5 3 4 4 2 2.5
R0 (µΩ⋅cm) 1.0⋅1022 1.0⋅1022 2.0⋅102 1.0⋅102 1.0⋅1010 1.0⋅108 1.5⋅101 2.0⋅102
λ0 (W/(µ⋅K)) 38 30 25 80 100 40 30 20

47
Figure 2. Two examples of model predictions for the effect of tungsten particle size on various properties
Figure 3. Property maps for metals of modulus, hardness, wear resistance, ductility, electrical resistivity, and thermal conductivity as functions of
strength
electrical resistivity, thermal conductivity, and wear other. For example, modulus, hardness, and abra-
resistance as functions of strength are given in sion resistance correlate directly with strength,
Figure 3 for ten different metals. Most properties while ductility is inversely related. Interesting com-
either correlate or inversely correlate with each binations can be identified for electrical resistivity or

Figure 4. Property maps for ceramics of modulus, hardness, wear resistance, fracture toughness, electrical resistivity, and thermal conductivity as
functions of strength
thermal conductivity and strength. Lower-strength dicted properties can be divided by the powder
copper and aluminum tend to be the best electrical prices to normalize them.
and thermal conductors. The unique combination The cost of powders over a wide range of parti-
of high strength and high conductivity of tungsten cle sizes was analyzed. Differences in impurity
is evident from Figure 3. levels can have a large effect on powder costs.
Plots of modulus, hardness, fracture tough- Powder costs also vary due to fluctuations in
ness, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, material prices, especially metal prices (in recent
and wear resistance as functions of strength are years), but in general they follow a power law rela-
given in Figure 4 for eight different ceramics. The tionship with particle size. Plots are shown in
properties of ceramics show similar correlations Figure 5 for metals and ceramics. This is mostly
with each other as metals. In general, ceramics related to the greater cost of creating higher sur-
provide high modulus, high hardness, good wear face area. Some exceptions exist if a low-cost
resistance, and a wide range of electrical and chemical process route is feasible. For example,
thermal conductivities, but poor fracture tough- coarse tungsten powder (>10 µm) is not lower in
ness. The high strength of tungsten carbide sets it cost than 1 µm powder and can even be more
apart from the other ceramics. expensive because of longer processing times or
additives to grow the particles. The cost of refrac-
COST-NORMALIZED PROPERTY MAPS tory metal powders produced via chemical
The range of properties of the different materi- processes generally does not decrease as the par-
als shown in Figures 3 and 4 results from the ticle size increases above a few micrometers. In
range of sintered densities achieved of the differ- contrast, metals such as copper, iron, and titani-
ent particle sizes. While some applications require um continue to decrease in cost until they
maximum values for certain properties and will approach the cost of wrought metal. On the other
pay a premium for them, the most common appli- end, making nanoscale powders generally
cations will only pay for materials that provide the requires alternative techniques such as gas-phase
optimal price/performance value. As a first esti- synthesis or exploding wires and these processes
mate of the value for nanoscale powders, the pre- are generally much more costly. Some of the cost

49
Figure 5. Power law relationships between powder cost and particle size: (a) metals and (b) ceramics
Figure 6. Cost-normalized properties of tungsten. Pressures and temperatures refer to compaction and sintering parameters
is related to the lower volumes of powder pro- µm, their value drops. This finding is in agree-
duced and the inefficiencies of new processes, but ment with the current market structure in which
nanoscale powders are unlikely to match the cost the most commonly used powders have particles
of conventional powders. sizes of 0.8 µm to 3 µm. The higher strength and
Dividing the predicted properties by the powder hardness levels possible with nanoscale powders
cost enables plotting of cost-normalized proper- compacted at ultrahigh pressures are offset by
ties. Examples are shown for tungsten in Figure 6 the higher powder cost. For tungsten nanoscale
for the two cases given in Figure 2. For powders powders to be economically useful on a large
pressed at 250 MPa and sintered at 2,000°C, peak scale, they will need to be produced at lower cost,
values occur at ~1 µm for strength, ductility, and or provide a much larger improvement in property
thermal conductivity, indicating the optimal value performance than is predicted from the models
proposition. As the particle size decreases below 1 used in this study.

Figure 7. Cost-normalized properties of iron. Pressures and temperatures refer to compaction and sintering parameters
As another example, the cost-normalized prop- sures provide a negligible incremental value in
erties of iron are shown in Figure 7. Unlike tung- comparison to a coarser particle size. This simple
sten, no peaks are seen, thus coarse powders economic analysis shows why conventional press-
provide the best value proposition. Even property and-sinter ferrous PM uses coarse powders and
improvements with ultrahigh compaction pres- exposes the hurdles that nanoscale powders must
Figure 8. Maps of cost-normalized properties versus cost-normalized strength for metals

51
Figure 9. Maps of cost-normalized properties versus cost-normalized strength for ceramics
overcome to provide superior value. tion. To fully analyze the costs of processing
As with the absolute properties, cost-normal- nanoscale powders, a cost model was constructed
ized property maps can be produced by plotting based on the approach developed by German10–13
the cost-normalized properties as functions of for powder injection molding (PIM).
each other. The plots in Figure 8 show the high- German’s cost model for PIM was modified for
strength-per-cost ratio of iron and why it is so die compaction. The model contains over 150
widely used for structural applications. The value variables, so realistic assumptions were made in
of copper for thermal conductivity is also obvious. relation to overhead costs such as rent, mainte-
From the plots in Figure 9 for ceramics, tungsten nance, interest rate, facility use, electric rate,
carbide and alumina provide the optimal value for depreciation, and load balance. Ranges for these
high-volume, cost-sensitive applications. Other variables were evaluated where appropriate. Input
metals and ceramics have niche applications only values for the various models were obtained from
where high absolute performance is required at current databases and supplemented, as needed,
premium cost. from external sources. Each unit operation was
independently audited for costing rates and sensi-
COST MODELS tivity analyses were conducted to determine the
Powder costs are only a portion of the cost of most significant factors. The part geometry is a
producing PM parts. Compaction and sintering key attribute that affects cost in several ways. To
costs must also be considered. The use of ultra- illustrate the cost model concepts, a ring geome-
high compaction pressures to consolidate try with a 2.54 mm OD, 1.27 mm ID, and a height
nanoscale powders requires large presses with of 0.85 mm was assumed.
high tonnage, which results in high compaction Compaction costs are calculated as a function
costs. The low apparent density of nanoscale pow- of material, particle size, compaction pressure,
ders also results in a long stroke, which slows and part size. A press was selected from a data-
down production rates. Nanoscale powders have base of six presses, based on the tonnage
the potential to sinter at lower-than-conventional required to achieve desired pressures. The hourly
temperatures, reducing energy consumption and operating cost was calculated based on the capital
possibly allowing for lower-cost furnace construc- cost, floor space, utility costs, maintenance costs,

and labor costs. The cycle time was calculated Sintering costs were calculated based on the
based on the stroke rate and the stroke distance, sintering temperature required to achieve a densi-
which depends on the apparent density of the ty of 96% of the pore-free level. The sintering tem-
powder and the compaction pressure. The green perature depends on material, particle size, and
density was calculated as an output variable for green density. A furnace was selected from a
input into the sintering cost model. database of nine furnaces, based on the required
A plot of compaction cost as a function of parti- sintering temperature. Sintering costs were nor-
cle size for different compaction pressures for the malized per unit volume and the number of ring
ring geometry is shown in Figure 10. This plot is parts that could be sintered per unit volume was
not material specific, but the resulting green den- calculated. The hourly operating cost was calcu-
sity for a given combination of particle size and lated from the capital cost, floor space, utility
compaction pressure depends on material hard- costs, maintenance, and labor costs. A 12 h sin-
ness. The compaction cost is dependent on parti- tering cycle was assumed.
cle size only at ultrahigh pressures. Ultrahigh The sintering temperature required to achieve
pressures provide little benefit for ceramics, full density increases with coarser powders and
which cannot be pressed to high densities due to lower compaction pressures. Sintering costs dras-
their lack of ductility. The cost of compaction of tically increase at particle sizes which cannot be
metals and ceramics is small compared to the raw sintered in conventional furnaces. In some cases,
material cost. a lower green density requires slightly smaller
particle sizes to enable the use of conventional
furnaces. The effect of particle size on sintered
part cost for various metals is shown in Figure
11. Powder costs dominate sintered part costs.
Lower sintering temperatures due to finer pow-
ders do not offset higher powder costs except in
special cases.
CONCLUSIONS
Powder costs generally follow a power law rela-
tionship with particle size. Ultrahigh pressure
compaction and low-temperature sintering of
nanoscale powders provide a means of producing
refined microstructures that result in improved
hardness and strength. Ultrahigh compaction
Figure 10. Effect of particle size and compaction pressure on compaction cost pressures are more costly than conventional pres-
sures, but the compaction cost is small relative to
powder cost. A reduction in sintering cost due to
lower sintering temperatures of nanoscale pow-
ders does not offset their higher powder cost.
Analysis of the value proposition of nanoscale
powders by cost normalizing their properties
shows that the incremental improvement they
provide in performance does not compensate for
their higher cost. For nanoscale powders to be
useful for press-and-sinter PM, they will need to
be produced at much lower cost, or provide a
much larger improvement in property perform-
ance than predicted by conventional models.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author gratefully acknowledges Randall M.
Figure 11. Effect of particle size and material on sintered part cost
German for sharing his spreadsheet models and

53
Harald Lemke for insightful discussions and guid- ness of Ultrafine and Nanocrystalline Hard Materials”, Int.
ance on the economic analysis. J. Refract. Met. Hard Mater., 1999, vol. 17, pp. 141–152.
8. J.C.Y. Koh and A. Fortini, Inter. J. Heat Mass Transfer,
1973, vol. 16, pp. 2,013–2,021.
REFERENCES 9. J.E. Parrot and A.D. Stuckes, Thermal Conductivity of
1. R.M. German and E. Olevsky, “Mapping the Compaction Solids, 1975, Pion, London.
and Sintering Response of Tungsten-Based Materials into 10. R.M. German, “The Impact of Economic Batch Size on the
the Nanoscale Size Range”, Int. J. of Refract. Met. Hard Cost of Powder Injection Molded (PIM) Products”,
Mater., 2005, vol. 23, pp. 294–300. Advances in Powder Metallurgy and Particulate Materials—
2. R.M. German and E. Olevsky, “Strength Predictions for 2003, edited by R. Lawcock and M. Wright, Metal Powder
Bulk Structures Fabricated from Nanoscale Tungsten Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ, 2003, part 8, pp.
Powders”, Int. J. of Refract. Met. Hard Mater., 2005, vol. 146–159.
23, pp. 77–84. 11. R.M. Ger man, “Engineering Economics of Powder
3. R.M. German, Particle Packing Characteristics, 1989, Injection Molding Component Production: Part II,
Metal Powder Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ. Feedstock Costs”, P/M Science and Technology Briefs,
4. H. Su and D.L. Johnson, “Master Sintering Curve: A 2003, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 11–16.
Practical Approach to Sintering”, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 12. R.M. Ger man, “Engineering Economics of Powder
1996, vol. 79, pp. 3,211–3,217. Injection Molding Component Production: Part III,
5. R.M. German, Sintering Theory and Practice, 1996, John Production Costs”, P/M Science and Technology Briefs,
Wiley and Sons, New York. 2003, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 14–22
6. R.M. German, Powder Metallurgy and Particulate Materials 13. R.M. Ger man, “Engineering Economics of Powder
Processing, 2005, Metal Powder Industries Federation, Injection Molding Component Production: Part IV, Price
Princeton, NJ. Sensitivity”, P/M Science and Technology Briefs, 2004, vol.
7. V. Richter and M.V. Ruthendorf, “On Hardness and Tough- 6, no. 1, pp. 5–10. ijpm

OUTSTANDING
TECHNICAL PAPER:
POWDERMET2007
The geometry of the spray
cone during atomization of
Ni31.5Al68.5 in a close-
CLOSE-COUPLED GAS coupled gas atomizer

operating with a generic die
and nozzle design has been
ATOMIZATION: studied utilizing high-speed
digital video techniques.
HIGH-FRAME-RATE Details of the region extend-

ing 5 cm from the spray
nozzle at frame rates of up
ANALYSIS OF SPRAY- to 18,000 frames/s were
recorded. The material was
CONE GEOMETRY sprayed at a temperature

~1,830 K (corresponding to
a superheat ~200 K),
Andrew M. Mullis*, Nicholas J. E. Adkins**, Zabeada Aslam***, wherein sufficient thermal
I. McCarthy**** and Robert F. Cochrane***** radiation was emitted for
images to be recorded with-
out any additional lighting.
In order to quantitatively
INTRODUCTION analyze the large number of
Close-coupled gas atomization is a technique widely used for the still frames that result (up to
production of fine metal powders by the disruption of a molten metal 65,536), image processing
stream via impinging high-pressure gas jets. Despite the widespread routines capable of automat-
ing this process have been
commercial utilization of this technique the mechanisms leading to
developed and used to
break-up of the melt stream are not well understood. This is due to
measure the optical bright-
the complex nature of the physical interaction between the gas jets ness and the position of the
and the melt stream, and the commercial sensitivity intrinsic to pro- optical-intensity maximum
prietary atomizer die and nozzle designs. This has led to little of the material passing
detailed consideration of this process in the open scientific literature, though a narrow window at
although a number of semi-empirical relationships between median a fixed distance from the
particle size and various atomization-process parameters have been nozzle tip. The results of
proposed.1,2 Melt-flow rate, gas-flow rate and die pressure are all this analysis show that the
known to affect particle size, although probably the most useful com- spray cone consists of a jet
bination of these parameters is the gas:metal (mass) ratio, GMR. that precesses around the
center axis of the atomizer
Models have been proposed which relate median particle size to
in a regular manner at a
GMR, the most widely quoted of which is that due to Lubanska,3
frequency ~360 Hz. In order
which correlates particle size with (1 + GMR)1/2. to understand the origin of
For many potential powder metallurgy (PM) applications, both a this motion, further experi-
small median particle size and a narrow size distribution in the prod- ments were conducted with
uct are desirable. While considerable progress has been reported on a laboratory-scale analogue
improving the efficiency with which the impinging gas jets disrupt the atomizer which atomizes a
melt stream, hence reducing the mean particle size,4,5 most atomizer water jet. It was found that
designs produce a distribution of powder sizes which span one order of the frequency of precession
magnitude or more.5 is essentially independent
During normal operation of the close-coupled gas atomizer an irregular of the atomizing-gas pres-
sure, but does depend upon
pulsation in the spray cone can often be observed at frequencies suffi-
the geometry of both the die
and nozzle.
The award for this technical paper will be presented at the 2008 World
Congress on Powder Metallurgy & Particulate Materials in Washington, D.C.
*Reader in Solidification Processing, ***Research Fellow, ****Research Student, *****Senior Lecturer, University of Leeds, Institute for Materials
Research, Clarendon Road, Leeds, LS2 9JT UK; E-mail: a.m.mullis@leeds.ac.uk, **Technology Manager, CERAM Research, Queens Road, Penkhull,
Stoke-on-Trent ST4 7LQ UK

55
CLOSE-COUPLED GAS ATOMIZATION: HIGH-FRAME-RATE ANALYSIS OF SPRAY-CONE GEOMETRY
ciently low to be detectable by the human eye, a to use this geometry for this experimental study for
phenomenon reported in the literature6 and observ- a number of reasons. Firstly, the simple jet geome-
able during our atomization experiments. This is try means that the gas flow is amenable to relative-
attributed to fluctuations in the aspiration pressure ly straightforward numerical modeling. Secondly,
that result from the impinging gas jets. Specifically, unlike the convergent–divergent jets used to pro-
it has been suggested that it may be related to an duce supersonic gas flow, the simple cylindrical jet
oscillation between an open and closed wake down- can be operated over a wide range of pressures
stream of the focus of the gas jets.6,7 allowing us to investigate characteristics of the
Recently, significant progress has been made atomization process as a function of pressure.
towards understanding close-coupled gas atom- The melt was superheated by 200 K, giving a
ization utilizing high-speed imaging techniques.6,8 melt temperature prior to ejection of 1,813 K. At
These have proved to be particularly fruitful when this temperature the melt stream is sufficiently
combined with Fourier analysis of the resulting bright that filming can take place using the radi-
images.6 In particular, it has been reported that, ant light from the melt, even at high frame rates.
in addition to the low-frequency pulsing of the Consequently, no external light sources were
melt, a much higher-frequency oscillation6 or pre- used. The melt was ejected from the guide tube
cession9 of the jet is also observed. It has been under a constant overpressure of 40,000 Pa,
suggested that this may be a direct consequence while the gas-jet pressure was maintained at a
of irregular wetting of the melt-delivery nozzle, constant pressure of 3.5 MPa with pure argon.
producing a filament of melt that rotates around These operating conditions gave a melt-flow rate
the tip of the nozzle in a regular manner.10 If pre- of 15.75 × 10 -3 kg s -1 and a gas-flow rate of
cession is indeed due to the presence of an irregu- 48.65 × 10-3 kg s-1 at a GMR of 0.324.
lar rotating filament, this would suggest that Imaging of the melt spray cone was performed
instantaneously the metal sees only a small frac- using a Kodak Ektapro 4540mx high-speed digital
tion of the available gas jets, thereby dramatically motion analyzer, operating at a frame rate of
decreasing the GMR and potentially reducing the 18,000 frames/s. The motion analyzer was fitted
efficiency of the atomization process. As such, an with high-magnification optics which allowed full
understanding of the physical processes leading frame images (covering a distance ~5 cm from the
to this effect is important in order to optimize the die) to be imaged at a working distance of 25 cm.
spray atomization process, Each frame was 256 ¥ 64 pixels in size, with an
In this study, we describe high-speed digital eight-bit grayscale depth per pixel. Frames were
imaging experiments performed during the atom- stored separately as high-quality TIFF images
ization of Ni31.5Al68.5 (Ni-50 w/o Al, an industrial without interlacing in 1 Gb of fast memory, giving
catalyst, hereafter referred to as Raney-nickel), a total storage of 64,000 frames, which corre-
and the subsequent Fourier analysis of the image sponded to a total recording time of 3.64 s.
sequences. These were then compared with A typical sequence of five consecutive frames
images produced in a laboratory-scale analogue from the imaging is shown in Figure 2. Here,
atomizer that atomizes a water jet. because the imaging is performed using radiant
light from the hot melt, the spray cone appears light
METAL ATOMIZATION AND IMAGING METHODS
Atomization experiments were conducted at
CERAM Research on 6 kg batches of Raney-nickel.
A simple model die of the discreet jet type with 18
cylindrical jets arranged around a tapered melt-
delivery nozzle at an apex angle of 45° was used in
these experiments. The design, shown schematical-
ly in Figure 1, is similar to the USAG11 and Ames
HPGA-I4 designs that have been widely discussed
in the literature. Although this design is known to
be inefficient in atomizing the melt stream, as the
cylindrical jets produce choked flow and limit the
velocity of the gas jets to Mach 1, we have chosen Figure 1. Close-coupled atomization die and nozzle—schematic

undertaken previously by Ting et al.,6 in which

their images were divided into 10 equally sized
rectangular regions. A two-dimensional Fourier
transform was then performed on the resulting
regions of the image. Here we have adopted a
somewhat different approach aimed at quantify-
ing the fluctuations in the amount of material
being instantaneously atomized, and the position
of the center of the spray cone. The method
adopted here is designed to analyze the distribu-
tion of material passing through a narrow window
oriented normal to the spray direction.
We start by defining a window four pixels high
which spans the entire 64 pixel width of the image,
Figure 2. Sequence of images of the atomization of Raney-nickel. positioned at an arbitrary height, h, from the spray
Each frame is separated by 1/18,000 s nozzle, as shown schematically in Figure 3.
The grayscale intensity in each group of four
against a dark background. It is apparent from the pixels is averaged to create an intensity distribu-
images that the spray cone is highly inhomoge- tion plot of the material passing through the win-
neous, with a number of bright regions (correspon- dow in each frame. From this we calculate two
ding to a higher density of melt droplets) that can statistics. The first is the mean intensity level, (-I),
be tracked moving downwards from frame to frame. for the material passing through the window,
On the assumption that the droplets which com- which is given by:
64
ΣI
prise these bright agglomerations are co-moving - = ——
1
with the feature itself, it is possible to estimate the I j (1)
64 j=1
vertical component of the velocity of the melt spray.
where j is an index that uniquely defines each of
Depending upon the particular feature selected,
the 64 pixels in the width of the image and Ij is
there was considerable variability in velocity, with
the intensity for that location obtained from the
calculated values ranging up to 30 m s-1.
intensity distribution plot. The second statistic we
It is also apparent that there are considerable
calculate is:
fluctuations in the amount of material instanta- 64
neously being delivered from the nozzle, particu-
larly when a number of images are combined into
Σ
j=1
- = ————
Ij × j
j 64 (2)
a movie. Moreover, these fluctuations vary over a
range of timescales, an observation that has been ΣI
j=1
j
made a number of times previously.6,7 We have
which corresponds to the center location of the
also observed in our experiments that the position
of the center of the plume appears to oscillate
around the vertical projection of the spray nozzle
in a regular manner. However, it is not possible to
determine by eye from the images whether this
apparent oscillation is indeed a lateral oscillation
of the jet position or a rotation of the jet.
In order to analyze these fluctuations quantita-
tively we have performed a Fourier analysis on
each of the 64,000 frames in order to build up a
time sequence describing the history of these fluc-
tuations over the time filming interval.
FOURIER IMAGE ANALYSIS METHODS

Fourier analysis of images resulting from high- Figure 3. Fourier analysis procedure used to analyze high-speed video images—
speed filming of spray atomization has been schematic

57
spray cone, calculated from a weighted average of much lower frequency variation. The high-fre-
all the intensities in the image. For a symmetrical quency oscillation is shown on an expanded scale
spray cone in which the center of the spray is ver- in Figure 4(b), although this sequence covers only
tically below the nozzle, this procedure gives a 0.05 s of filming. In addition, on Figure 4(b), indi-
value for -j of 32. vidual mean intensities from consecutive frames
-
Both statistics, I and -j, have been calculated for are shown in order to demonstrate that the high-
the entire 3.64 s of filming using an automated frequency oscillation is unrelated to the frame
batch image processing system programmed in rate at which the camera is operating.
MATLAB,12 giving two time sequences each of which Figures 5(a) and 5(b) show the equivalent time
is 65,536 elements long. In addition, each time sequence for the weighted mean center position, -j.
sequence has been subjected to Fourier analysis. This shows a similar high-frequency oscillation
(again not resolved in Figure 5(a)), although in this
RESULTS: METAL ATOMIZATION EXPERIMENTS case there is little evidence of the low-frequency
-
An overview of the time sequence for the mean variation evident in the I data. The Fast Fourier
intensity is shown in Figure 4(a). This shows that Transforms (FFTs) of the time sequences for -I and
there is a high-frequency oscillation, which on - are given in Figures 6(a) and 6(b). Both show a
j
this scale is not resolved, superimposed upon a high spectral power with a sharp peak in the
Figure 4. Time-series of gray level intensity (a) over entire 3.64 s of a filming run and (b) in more detail over 0.05 s showing that the oscillation is
unrelated to the camera frame rate
Figure 5. Time-series of melt center position (a) over entire 3.64 s of filming run, (b) in more detail over 0.05 s showing that the oscillation is
unrelated to the camera frame rate

Figure 6. Fourier spectra of time-series corresponding to (a) gray level intensity and (b) position of center of jet
vacinity of a frequency ~360 Hz, which in the case lation is mirrored in the intensity, we believe that
of -j corresponds to the regular oscillation of the we are observing a steady rotation of the jet
spray about the vertical direction. The other fea- around the vertical direction, as previously
-
ture noted regarding the FFT analysis is that I has reported by Anderson.10 Periods of high intensity
considerable spectral power at low frequencies in the radiant light are attributed to the jet being
which is not apparent in the sequence for -j, which directed towards the viewing window in the atom-
corresponds to the irregular pulsing in the amount izer (along the viewing angle), while periods of low
of material at the die nozzle previously reported. intensity correspond to the jet being directed
This low-frequency spectral power is shown in away from the viewing window (180° from the
more detail in Figure 7; it is evident that the main viewing angle). Moreover, if this model is correct
-
power occurs at frequencies of 2.2 Hz, 2.7 Hz, 4.1 we would expect the time sequences for I and -j to
Hz, 5.5 Hz, 8.8 Hz, and 15.1 Hz, although be shifted in phase relative to each other, with the
numerous other frequencies are also present sug- peaks and troughs in -j occuring at 90° and 270°
gesting that the oscillation may be chaotic. from the viewing angle, Figure 8.
With regard to the apparent oscillation of the
spray about the vertical position, it is not possible
to determine whether this is due to a lateral oscil-
lation in the jet position or a rotation of the jet by
eye. However, because the frequency of the oscil-
Figure 8. Model for precession of atomization jet, giving the observed

Figure 7. Fourier analysis of recorded intensity from spray atomiza- anti-phase correlation in gray-level intensity and jet-center position
tion, showing low-frequency components of the oscillation time series—schematic

59
is shown schematically in Figure 10. Four to six

standard bottles of compressed air were connect-
ed together using armored steel hose, which fed a
single, high-pressure regulator capable of deliver-
ing a minimum of 4.0 MPa pressure on the outlet
side at a flow rate of up to 4 kg min-1. This was
delivered (via an electronic switching valve), to the
plenum chamber of the die. Water, at an over
pressure of ª40,000 Pa was delivered to the nozzle
via a pumped header tank. The die and nozzle
arrangement is housed within a Perspex cubicle
which served to contain the water mist produced
during atomization. Illumination was provided by
two high-power halogen lamps mounted in the
Figure 9. Spray cone showing how a precessing jet could lead to base of the unit.
intensity and position maxima 90° out of phase—schematic The top region of the enclosure was blacked out
with the exception of a camera viewing port to
As shown in Figure 9, this does indeed appear provide contrast in the high-speed video images.
to be the case, confirming that the spray is a jet The die-and-nozzle arrangement was mounted at
that precesses around the surface of a narrow the top of the enclosure.
cone at a near regular angular velocity of 360 rps. During atomization of Raney-nickel, the melt
Similar high-frequency oscilations in the jet posi- delivery nozzles were enclosed in hot-pressed
tion have been observed during the atomization of boron nitride in order to resist the highly aggres-
304 stainless steel.7 sive metal. With no such requirement during the
analogue atomization experiments on water, we
ANALOGUE ATOMIZATION EXPERIMENTS used either brass or, in some instances, Perspex
In order to further understand the features which provides a transparent nozzle so the liquid
observed during the atomization of Raney-nickel, flow can be observed.
we have commissioned an analogue atomizer Figure 11 shows an early sequence of consecu-
whereby we can atomize a water stream using the tive images taken of water atomization in the ana-
same die and nozzle design as that used for metal logue atomizer, using the high-speed camera at a
atomization. The design of the analogue atomizer frame rate of 18,000 frames/s. Note that the liq-
uid stream was illuminated in reflected light
rather than radiant light, although by using a
black enclosure the appearance was similar to liq-
Figure 11. Sequence of images of atomization of water. Each frame

Figure 10. Analogue atomizer—schematic is separated by 1/18,000 s

uid-metal atomization. The pressure used in this l-1. Figure 12 shows a sequence of consecutive
run was 2.0 MPa, as opposed to 35 MPa during frames from the high-speed camera resulting from
atomization of Raney-nickel. Due to the lower this addition. All other parameters were held
density of water, the mass ratio of gas to atomized identical between the runs depicted in Figures 11
fluid is actually higher by a factor of 2.25. It is & 12. It is clear from these images that wetting of
clear, even from the raw images, that in this case the nozzle tip was achieved.
the fluid is non-wetting as it emerges directly from The corresponding Fourier analysis of the time-
the 2 mm dia. aperture in the nozzle. Moreover, series data from the entire image sequence is
when subject to Fourier analysis the images shown in Figures 13(a) and 13(b). Note also that
reveal no precession and indeed very little pulsing in this and all the Fourier analyses of the ana-
of the material delivered to the nozzle tip. logue atomizer there is an artifact at 100 Hz,
To determine whether this behavior, which is which is due to flicker in the illumination at a fre-
significantly different from the behavior of the quency of 2 x UK mains AC. Although some differ-
Raney-nickel when atomized, was due to the ences can be observed between these traces and
nature of the fluid or to the reduced operating the traces for Raney-nickel atomization, notably
pressure, we subsequently added a powerful sur- that the peak spectral power is (a) moved to a
factant (sodium dodecyl sulphate) to the sys- higher frequency and (b) is more diffuse, it is clear
tem’s water reservoir at a concentration of 0.1 g that there is now definite evidence of both preces-
sion and low-frequency pulsing. Consequently we
may conclude that precession of the spray jet
appears to be a direct consequence of the wetting
of the nozzle tip. In the absence of wetting, a
steady vertical jet breaking up into droplets is
observed.
Having demonstrated that the precession of the
spray cone can be recreated in the analogue atom-
izer, we have attempted to understand the factors
that influence the observed precessional motion.
Our first series of experiments was designed to
elucidate the dependence of the observed frequen-
cy of rotation on the gas pressure used for atom-
ization. To this end, high-speed video was taken of
the analogue atomizer running at pressures from
Figure 12. Sequence of images of atomization of water with 0.5 MPa to 4.0 MPa at intervals of 0.25 MPa.
surfactant to aid tip wetting. Each frame is separated by 1/18,000 s
Two of the resulting Fourier analyses characteris-
Figure 13. Fourier spectra of time-series corresponding to (a) gray-level intensity and (b) position of center of jet, for water atomized with surfactant

61
Figure 14. Fourier spectra of time-series corresponding to melt-center position (a) 7.5 bar and (b) 20 bar, showing virtually no dependence of fre-
quency of precession on operating pressure
tic of these experiments are shown in Figure 14(a) in the resulting flow dynamics. In particular, for
and 14(b). The two frequency spectra are virtually drilled holes we note a considerable eccentricity
identical and, indeed, over the pressure range con- on some of the holes (e = 0.92 is typical, corre-
sidered, we believe that to within experimental sponding to a variation in the hole diameter of 40
error there is no variation of precessional frequen- mm) whereas for the spark eroded holes this fig-
cy with atomization gas pressure. ure was significantly closer to 1 (e = 0.97), which
One variable that we have identified that does presumably, in part, reflects the fact that no
appear to have an effect on the nature of the pre- torque is imparted to the work piece during cut-
cession is the engineering tolerance applied dur- ting. Figure 15(a) and 15(b) show the Fourier
ing the die-manufacturing process. Two dies were spectra resulting from high-speed imaging experi-
manufactured to the same engineering drawings. ments on the analogue atomizer using these two
In one, the holes were produced by conventional dies, with all other parameters held constant. The
drilling, and in the other by spark erosion. atomizing-gas pressure in both cases was 4.0
Although notionally identical, the method of pro- MPa. The die produced by spark erosion produced
ducing the holes, which are close to the minimum spectra with (a) a much more tightly focused peak
diameter that can be produced by conventional at around 1,000 Hz than the die produced by
drilling, appears to make a significant difference drilling, and (b) the low-frequency components,
Figure 15. Fourier spectra of time-series corresponding to gray-level intensity for dies fabricated by (a) drilling and (b) spark erosion

although still present, were confined to a smaller

frequency range.
Finally, we have investigated the extent to which
the actual geometry of the nozzle affects the
observed precession of the spray jet. In addition to
the original nozzle design with a flat tip we have
also examined three other geometries, which are
depicted in Figure 16. The nozzle designated Type 1
is the original design with a flat annular ring 1.45
mm wide at the tip and a straight guide tube to
deliver the melt to the tip. Type 2 flares the guide
tube at an angle of 30°, but retains a flat section at
a reduced width of 0.7 mm. Type 3 also flares the
guide tube at 30° but brings this to a sharp edge at
the circumference of the nozzle, eliminating the flat
tip entirely. Type 4 is similar to Type 3 and elimi-
nates the flat tip but flares the guide tube on a
Figure 16. Geometry of the four melt nozzles investigated. Dimensions in mm hemispherical radius of 2.5 mm. The Fourier spec-
Figure 17. Fourier spectra in gray level corresponding to atomization with different nozzle geometries: (a) Type 1, (b) Type 2, (c) Type 3, and (d)
Type 4

63
tra in the gray-level intensity resulting from high- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

speed filming of atomization experiments at 4.0 This work was funded by the European
MPa, under otherwise identical conditions, are Commission (contract number NMP-CT -2004-
shown in Figures 17(a) through 17(d). 500635) under the Sixth Framework Programme
Clear dif ferences in the spectra can be as part of the IMPRESS project “Intermetallic
observed, with the Type 1 nozzle giving the most Materials Processing in Relation to Earth and
diffuse high-frequency peak and the Type 4 nozzle Space Solidification,” coordinated by the
the sharpest high-frequency peak. In terms of the European Space Agency.
width of the peak, Type 2 & 3 nozzles performed
in a similar manner, although the peak was shift- REFERENCES
ed to higher frequencies for the Type 3 nozzle, 1. D. Bradley, "Atomization of a Liquid by High-Velocity
Gases: II", J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 1973, vol. 6, pp.
which contains no flat area at the tip. In terms of
2,267–2,272.
powder production, it is difficult to draw definite 2. A. Lawley, Atomization, The Production of Metal Powders,
conclusions regarding the quality of the resulting 1992, Metal Powder Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ.
powders, although we can differentiate between 3. H. Lubanska, "Correlation of Spray Ring Data for Gas
these nozzles by their spectra. Atomization of Liquid Metals", J. Metals, 1970, vol. 22, pp.
45–49.
4. I.E. Anderson, R.S. Figliola and H. Morton, "Flow
CONCLUSIONS Mechanisms in High-Pressure Gas Atomization", Mater.
The compexity of the close-coupled gas-atomiza- Sci. Eng. A, 1991, vol. 148, pp. 101–114.
tion process is well documented and is apparent in 5. I.E. Anderson and R.L. Terpstra, "Progress Toward Gas
the results presented here. Similar to other Atomization Processing with Increased Uniformity and
Control", Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2002, vol. 326, pp. 101–109.
studies6 we have observed an irregular pulsing in
6. J. T ing, J. Connor and S. Ridder, "High-Speed
the amount of material that is instantaneously Cinematography of Gas-Metal Atomization", Mater. Sci.
delivered to the die nozzle, for which models have Eng. A, 2005, vol. 390, pp. 452–460.
been proposed by T ing et al. 7 We have also 7. J. Ting, M.W. Peretti and W.B. Eisen, "The Effect of Wake-
observed that the spray cone consists of a jet that Closure Phenomenon on Gas Atomization Performance",
Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2002, vol. 326, pp. 110–121.
precesses with a regular angle around the surface
8. S.P. Mates and G.S. Settles, "A Study of Liquid Metal
of a narrow cone. This observation, although made Atomization Using Close-Coupled Nozzles, Part 2:
elsewhere,6 has received relatively little attention. Atomization Behavior", Atomization and Sprays, 2005, vol.
The origin of this precession is not yet fully under- 15, pp. 41–59.
stood. It is clear that the precession is a direct 9. A.M. Mullis, N.J. Adkins, Z. Huang and R.F. Cochrane,
"Quantitative High Frame Rate Analysis of the Spray Cone
consequence of wetting of the melt-delivery nozzle,
Geometry During Close-Coupled Gas Atomization ", Proc.
although the frequency appears to be independent 3rd International Conference on Spray Deposition & Melt
of the atomization-gas pressure. Some characteris- Atomization, 2006, CD proc., University of Bremen,
tics of the precession, particularly its regularity Bremen, Germany.
(half-width of the primary frequency peak) and the 10. I.E. Anderson, R.L. Terpstra, J.A. Cronin and R.S.
Figliola, "Advances in Powder Size Control and Ultrafine
presence of low-frequency components, appear to
Powder Production by Gas Atomization", Oral presenta-
be related to the engineering tolerances associated tion, ibid ref. no. 9.
with the die-manufacturing process, but this also 11. V. Anand, A.J. Kaufman and N.J. Grant, Rapid
appears to have little effect on the primary fre- Solidification Processing, Principles & Technologies II, edit-
quency of rotation. In contrast, the geometry of the ed by R. Mehrabian, B.H. Kear and M. Cohen, 1978,
Claitor, Baton Rouge, LA, pp. 273–286.
melt-delivery nozzle appears to have a significant
12. MATLAB is a trademark of The MathWorks Inc. ijpm
effect on both the regularity of the precession and
its primary frequency.

2008 WEB SITE

DIRECTORY
ANTER CORPORATION Always in close partnership

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2008 WEB SITE DIRECTORY
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competent partner for the metal part preparation or special fixtur- TN, is a major U.S. producer of
powder, ceramics and tungsten ing required. Resonant Acoustic metal powders. Products include:
carbide industry and have sold Method NDT uses a simple impact antimony, bismuth, brass,
more than 1,800 pf powder and resulting acoustic resonance bronze, bronze premixes, chromi-
presses. to test parts as fast as one part um, copper, copper oxide, copper
Range of powder presses and per second. NDT-RAM detects premixes, diluted bronze premix-
adapters: defects such as cracks, chips, es, graphite, high-strength
- Hydraulic CNC presses from missed processes and porosity on bronze, infiltrant, manganese,
600 up to 20,000 kN 100% of manufactured parts. MnS+, nickel, phos copper, sili-
- Hybrid CNC up to 2,500 kN con, silver, tin, tin alloys and PM
- High-speed mechanical presses THE ROSE CORPORATION lubricants. New products include
from 30 up to 450 kN www.therosecorp.com powders for MIM, thermal man-
- Controlled punch adapters agement. "Green Bullets," lead-
The Rose Corporation, located in
(CPA) with up to eight integrated free solders, copper brazing,
Reading, PA, an exclusive licensee
CNC press axes plastic fillers and cold casting.
of the Drever Company, is a lead-
ing manufacturer of thermal AMERICAN CHEMET
SURFACE COMBUSTION, INC. equipment specializing in powder
www.surfacecombustion.com CORPORATION
reduction, sintering and bright
Surface Combustion offers a annealing. In addition, we offer www.chemet.com
diverse product offering for batch custom furnaces for heat treat- American Chemet Corporation,
and continuous furnace designs ment, forging and reheating along founded in1946, is a manufactur-
for atmosphere, non-atmosphere, with controlled-atmosphere-gen- er of copper powders, copper
or vacuum processing of ferrous erating equipment. Whether the oxides, zinc oxide and dispersion-
and/or nonferrous components/ requirement is consultation, new strengthened copper. Chemet's
materials. Surface also produces equipment, turnkey installation, oxide-reduced copper powders
the industry's most popular custom design or equipment excel in such applications as: iron
endothermic and exothermic gas upgrade, our skilled personnel powders addition for PM, friction
atmosphere generators. and 150,000 sq. ft. manufactur- materials, MIM, lubricants, braz-
ing facility can be your single- ing, sintered tungsten, diamond
THE FURNACE BELT COMPANY source solutions. cutting tools, carbon brush and
LTD. catalyst.
www.furnacebeltco.com THERMAL TECHNIC
www.thermaltechnic.com AMETEK SPECIALTY METAL
A Certified ISO 9001:2000, PRODUCTS
custom belting manufacturer Thermal Technic provides excep-
specializing in high-temperature tional-quality alloy muffles and www.ametekmetals.com
powder metal sintering applica- wire-mesh belts to manufacturers Major producer of stainless steel
tions. Round or flattened wire belt of PM parts and manufacturers of and high-alloy powders for PM, fil-
specifications include; balanced, powder. Our muffles and belts are tration, MIM, and thermal spray.
double balanced, rod reinforced, designed for the individual cus- Fully dense consolidation capabili-
compound and many others, in tomer’s specific process. With this ty via proprietary pneumatic iso-
friction or chain-drive configura- attention to detail, our goal is to static forging (PIF) process to make
tions. Industries served include; provide belts and muffles that bars, rods, and specialty shapes
copper brazing, metals heat treat- extend service life and minimize from a wide variety of alloys. Full
ing, food handling & processing, costly furnace shutdowns. range of thermal management
foundry, agriculture, mines, products like AlSiC, copper-tung-
packaging & pharmaceuticals. sten, copper-molybdenum, and
Full range of flat wire belting. See copper clad-copper/molybdenum
us @ www.furnacebeltco.com copper heat sink for telecommuni-
cation, advanced radar systems,

and other high-heat-dissipation ECKA GRANULES OF AMERICA HENGYUAN METAL & ALLOY
requirements. L.P. POWDERS LTD.
www.ecka-granules.com www.hengyuanpowders.com
ARC METALS CORP.
ECKA Granules is the leading Hengyuan Metal & Alloy Powders
www.arcmetals.com manufacturer for nonferrous Limited supplies a variety of fine
ARC Metals is the industry leader metal powders. The product range and ultrafine metal and alloy
in the production of remill includes aluminum, magnesium, powders for powder metallurgy
materials. ARC Metals also offers copper, calcium, tin, lead, zinc, and metal injection molding
custom blending and full metal- silicon and their alloys as well as applications. (1) Copper and cop-
lography with in house technical ready-to-press blends. Production per-alloy powders, stainless steel
support. techniques include milling and powders. (2) Ferro-molybdenum,
grinding, electro-deposition, air, ferro-manganese, low-carbon
ASBURY GRAPHITE MILLS, INC. water, and gas atomization, gran- ferro-chromium, high-carbon
www.asbury.com ulation for melting and recycling ferro-chromium, ferro-phospho-
Asbury Graphite Mills, Inc., and processing. rus, ferro-boron, ferro-titanium
its Southwestern Graphite and other ferroalloy powders.
Division continue to be the world ERAMET MARIETTA, INC.
leader in supply of quality and www.emspecialproducts.com HOEGANAES CORPORATION
consistency of graphite and car- Eramet Marietta, Inc., produces a www.hoeganaes.com
bon powders for admix applica- complete range of chromium- Hoeganaes Corporation, world
tions. Since the inception of the metal and carbide powders that leader in ferrous powder produc-
powdered metal industry, Asbury are used in a broad range of tion, has been a driving force
has been providing both natural applications. Included are ther- within the PM industry for 55
and synthetic graphite products mal sprays, powder metallurgy years. The company has seven
for every application. Asbury also parts, consumable electrodes for manufacturing facilities in the
offers graphite-based lubricants welding, hard-facing applications, USA and Europe to meet cus-
and sintering trays to the indus- sputtering targets, and infiltrants. tomers' needs worldwide. It con-
try. For strength and dimensional Eramet’s unique electrolytic and tinues to invest in manufacturing
stability, choose Asbury. vacuum facilities at Marietta, capacity to support industry
Ohio, produce an environmentally growth while providing design,
BASF CORPORATION friendly product that meets the process and material system edu-
www.basf.com/cip chemistry and sizing require- cation worldwide. Hoeganaes
Carbonyl Iron Powders: BASF has ments of these diverse applica- holds these certifications: ISO
the most diversified range of tions. For more information, visit 14001, ISO/TS 16949, and ISO
Carbonyl Iron Powders and is a www.emspecialproducts.com 9001, QS 9000.
leader in product innovation. In
cooperation with a broad range of ECKART AMERICA INCO SPECIAL PRODUCTS
customers, BASF has successfully CORPORATION www.incosp.com
developed differentiated grades www.eckart.net Inco Special Products is a dedicat-
geared to the individual needs of Eckart, the world’s leading pro- ed business unit of CVRD Inco,
specific niche applications. BASF ducer of aluminum powders and the World's Leading Nickel
powders are widely used for pastes, now offers the SDF series Company. Refineries in North
iron-nickel and low-alloy steels, of products, produced in the USA, America and Europe produce car-
as well as in MIM master alloy by Eckart America Corporation bonyl nickel powders of various
techniques. based in Louisville, KY. The shapes, sizes and morphologies to
Aluminum SDF series features a the ISO9002 standard; PM prod-
CRUCIBLE RESEARCH full line of powder; this product ucts include INCO T123 PM, the
www.crucibleresearch.com line provides a range of particle- powder metallurgy industry Ni
Crucible Research is a manufac- size distribution designed to meet powder standard; T255, a fine, fil-
turer of high-quality, spherical most market needs. Our products amentary Ni powder for increased
prealloyed metal powders includ- supported with responsive techni- dimensional control; and T110
ing titanium, nickel, copper, cal support to provide customers PM, a new extra-fine Ni powder for
cobalt, and iron-base alloys. They with cost-effective solutions high-performance applications.
provide technical expertise and across a wide range of applica-
partnership in programs from tions. Eckart America Corporation
new alloy development through is registered ISO 9000 vs 2000.
powder production and compo- Phone 502-775-4842.
nent manufacturing.

69
INDUSTRIAL METAL POWDERS self-lubricating bearings (bronze OM GROUP (OMG)

(INDIA) PVT. LTD. and iron), structural parts (iron, www.omgi.com
www.imp.net.in stainless steel, bronze and brass) OM Group is a leading, vertically
Industrial Metal Powders is an and metal powders (copper, integrated international producer
ISO 9001 company and one of the bronze premix, prealloyed bronze and marketer of value-added,
largest manufacturers of elec- and tin). Using modern methods metal-based specialty chemicals
trolytic iron powders in the world and quality management systems and powders. With more than 30
with 30 years of experience. It Metalpó has had since its early years of experience in cobalt
manufacturers high-purity pow- years the acknowledgment for powders, OMG serves the needs of
der (Fe – 99.5/minimum) for dia- highest level of quality. This has not only hardmetal and diamond
mond tools, magnetic core, food earned the Metalpó quality man- tool industries but also PM,
grade FCC for fortification. agement system the ISO batteries, magnets and many
9001/2000 and ISO TS 16949 other specialty applications.
KOBELCO METAL POWDER OF assessments. Headquartered in Cleveland, Ohio,
AMERICA, INC. OM Group operates manufactur-
NORTH AMERICAN HÖGANÄS,
www.kobelcometal.com ing facilities in the Americas,
INC.
Kobelco Metal Powder of America, Europe, Asia and Africa. For more
www.nah.com information, visit our Web site at
Inc., a subsidiary of Kobe Steel,
Ltd., is a major U.S. producer of North American Höganäs, Inc., a http://www.omgi.com.
high-quality, water-atomized fer- subsidiary of Höganäs AB, is a
rous powders, prealloy powders supplier of iron-based metal pow- QMP AMERICA
and premixes for use in the PM ders and stainless steel powders www.qmp-powders.com
and related industries. An designed for a broad spectrum of QMP, registered to ISO 9001, ISO
ISO/TS-16949 certified company, applications, including compo- 14001, and ISO/TS 16949, pro-
Kobelco offers complete produc- nents, friction, welding, brazing, vides a full product line of iron
tion and laboratory facilities for thermal coating, soft magnetic and steel powders in the
testing and development activities. composites, electro photographic Americas, Europe, and Asia.
and numerous chem/met appli- ATOMET standard grades and
MAGNESIUM ELEKTRON cations. Production takes place in prealloys, binder treated
POWDERS four strategic locations: FLOMET™ mixes, diffusion-bond-
www.magnesium-elektron.com Stony Creek Plant, located in ed ATOMET DB powders, machin-
Magnesium Elektron Powders, a Hollsopple, PA, is the world's able (sulphur-free) grades,
world leader in the manufacture most integrated production sinter-hardening grades, and soft
of magnesium particulate, is a resource for atomized iron and magnetic composite materials are
producer of both ground and steel powders. available to customers worldwide.
atomized powders. Ground prod- St. Marys Plant, located in St.
ucts include standard and ultra- Marys, PA, is a mixing facility SCM METAL PRODUCTS, INC.
high-purity magnesium chips and which is capable of producing www.scmmetals.com
granules, coarse and fine pow- small to truckload-size custom With manufacturing facilities in
ders, and magnesium/aluminum mixes. the U.S. and China and a global
alloy powders. Our atomized and Niagara Falls Plant, located in distribution network, SCM sup-
ground powders are specially Niagara Falls, NY, produces a plies a wide array of powdered
sized and shaped for a number of comprehensive range of products metal powders including copper,
applications including powder ranging from friction materials, copper oxide, copper flake, pre-
metallurgy and Military powder metallurgy and soft mag- mixed and prealloyed bronze,
Countermeasure Flares. For more netics, to food additives and gen- alloyed brass, tin, and copper-
information visit our Web site: eral chemical use. alloy pastes for brazing and infil-
www.magnesium-elekton.com trating. SCM also offers a wide
Johnstown Plant, located in
array of MIM powders including
METALPÓ IND. E COM. LTDA. Johnstown, PA, produces a broad
stainless steel and copper. Visit
range of products including stain-
www.metalpo.com.br us at www.scmmetals.com.
less steel powders, iron-alloy pow-
Since its opening, in 1967, ders, nickel-alloy powders,
Metalpó has had its activities TITAN METAL POWDERS
electrolytic iron powders and
pointed to powder metallurgy as a chips, manganese and silicon pow- www.titanmetalpowders.com
nonferrous powders and sintered ders, and GLIDCOP® dispersion- Titan Metal Powders produces or
parts producer. Typical Metalpó strengthened copper products. supplies a wide variety of metals
powder metallurgy products are and alloys, either as powder in an

assortment of micron sizes or as strength and dimensional stabili-

other physical forms. We can offer MIM/PIM ty. It is well suited for both batch
product customization through and continuous PIM operations.
our wide range of manufacturing ADVANCED METALWORKING www.basf.com/catamold.
and processing capabilities and PRACTICES, LLC.
services. Standard products www.advancedmetalworking.com DSH TECHNOLOGIES, LLC
include: molybdenum, ferro- Producer of high-quality feedstock www.dshtech.com
molybdenum, tungsten, ferro- for MIM since 1988—longer than MIM consultants with in-house
tungsten, cobalt, rhenium, nickel, any other supplier. ADVAMET® capabilities of debinding and sin-
nickel-boron, nickel-niobium, alu- feedstocks are available for many tering in production-scale equip-
minum, aluminum silicon, sili- steels and stainless steels and ment. Services offered include:
con, ferro-silicon, chromium, some nonferrous compositions. Consulting: DSH consults on all
chromium carbide, ferro-chromi- We can customize feedstocks for aspects of the MIM process, from
um, ferro-niobium, ferro-boron, different target shrinkages. On- R&D and prototype development,
and ferro-vanadium. We also buy, time shipments of feedstocks in to the set-up of turnkey produc-
process and upgrade scrap. tonnage quantities. Test lots for tion operations and facilities.
new customers or new applica- Partnering/Joint Venture: DSH
UMICORE tions. Visit our Web site for more can partner with you for either
www.umicore.com information about the consistent new-product development or
Umicore Tool Materials is a busi- quality of our feedstocks, discus- could be your outsourcing
ness line of Umicore, serving the sion of dimensional precision, and resource for your R&D project
markets of diamond tools and background. from start-up to full production.
hardmetal applications. We offer a Toll Debinding & Sintering: DSH
wide range of cobalt powders, AMETEK SPECIALTY METAL will debind and sinter your parts,
nickel powders and prealloyed PRODUCTS be they samples or production
alternatives (from our Cobalite www.ametekmetals.com runs.
range). Being a worldwide market Major producer of stainless steel
leader, we see successful use of and high-alloy powders for PM, DYNAMIC ENGINEERING INC.
our products in tools for stone- filtration, MIM, and thermal www.dynamicengr.com
cutting and construction, as well spray. Fully dense consolidation Dynamic Engineering designs and
as hardmetal or cemented carbide capability via proprietary pneu- manufactures precision produc-
applications. Our products pro- matic isostatic forging (PIF) tion injection molds for powder
vide the perfect solution to create process to make bars, rods, and and plastic. Established in 1977.
bonds with other constituents like specialty shapes from a wide vari- Manufacturing powder injection
diamonds or tungsten carbide. ety of alloys. Full range of thermal molds since 1988. Dynamic's
Due to our extensive application management products like AlSiC, molds have produced parts that
know-how and R&D facilities, we copper-tungsten, copper-molyb- were awarded the MPIF/MIM
can provide you with the neces- denum, and copper clad-cop- "Part of the Year" at least five
sary technical support. per/molybdenum copper heat times. Servicing the Dental,
sink for telecommunication, Medical, Telecommunications,
UNITED STATES BRONZE advanced radar systems, and Automotive, Firearms and
POWDERS, INC. other high-heat-dissipation Consumer industries. Wide-
www.usbronzepowders.com requirements. ranging experience including
Major global producer of nonfer- multi-shot (two or more) molds for
rous metal powders and flakes, BASF CORPORATION PIM. Specializing in molds for
including aluminum, aluminum www.basf.com/catamold small, complex parts.
premixes, copper, copper alloys, BASF Catamold® is a ready-to-
bronze premixes, nickel silver, mold feedstock for MIM and CIM. FLOMET LLC
infiltrants, and tin. The company Our material portfolio includes www.flomet.com
has 3 manufacturing facilities in various low-alloy steels, stainless FloMet is an ISO 9001:2000 regis-
the U.S., one in France, and one steels, tool steel, soft magnetic tered manufacturer of precision,
in the UK. alloys, super alloys, special alloys high-volume metal components
(Ti, W, others) and oxide ceram- through metal injection molding
ics. New grades will be developed (MIM). Materials include stainless
as needed for our customers. steel, metal-to-glass sealing
Catamold ® incorporates catalytic alloys, copper alloys, controlled
debinding and offers high green expansion alloys and others.

71
Markets served include medical, PHILIPS ADVANCED METAL quality MIM parts, in medium-
electronics, fiber optics, hermetic SOLUTIONS to-high volumes. We offer low-
packaging, orthodontics, con- www.philips.com/ams alloy steels, stainless steels, and
sumer products and other OEMs Philips Advanced Metal Solutions, soft magnetic materials for many
who use high-volume metal com- global development center for markets, including automotive,
ponents. Our 20 years of experi- Philips Lighting, is a specialist ordnance, and medical applica-
ence puts cost-saving parts into producer of tungsten and molyb- tions. Please visit our Web site at
production. denum components serving many www.remingtonpmpd.com to
applications in various industries. learn more about MIM technology
MATERIALS PROCESSING, INC. and our MIM product offering.
We combine our technical expert-
www.mpi-pim.com ise in alloying, material engineer-
MPI is the industry leader in fab- SCHWARZKOPF
ing and shaping technologies like
ricating large, complex-shaped TECHNOLOGIES LLC
lasering & MIM with our underly-
powder injection molded parts ing philosophy—“designed around www.plansee-usa.com
from hardmaterials. MPI, founded you.” This enables us to deliver Schwarzkopf Technologies is now
in 1999, fabricates difficult-to- the refractory metal products that PLANSEE USA and continues to
form advanced materials (hard- you need in a reliable and cost- deliver the world’s best furnace
metals, cermets, high- effective way. Please visit solutions.
temperature materials) using the www.philips.com/ams Schwarzkopf Technologies is
PIM process. Our focus is in the known within the U.S. and
area of high-wear- and abrasion- PLANSEE USA Canada as the industry leader in
resistant components that are www.plansee-usa.com developing, designing, and manu-
complex shaped (nozzles for oil Schwarzkopf Technologies is now facturing high-temperature fur-
and gas industry, knives for the PLANSEE USA and continues to nace products to perform better
plastic industry, twist blades, deliver the world’s best furnace and last longer.
etc., made from hardmetals). MPI solutions. As an independent subsidiary
is capable of fabricating both Schwarzkopf Technologies is we have contributed to the suc-
small and large hardmaterial known within the U.S. and cess of the PLANSEE Group—
parts by PIM. MPI works with Canada as the industry leader in going forward we will be operating
customers to tailor a grade of developing, designing, and manu- jointly under one name.
hardmaterial to provide solutions facturing high-temperature fur- Our customers will be able to
for their wear- and abrasion- nace products to perform better benefit even more from synergies
related applications. and last longer. generated within the Group,
As an independent subsidiary demonstrating our uncompromis-
NETSHAPE TECHNOLOGIES, INC. ing commitment to delivering the
we have contributed to the suc-
www.netshapetech.com cess of the PLANSEE Group— highest-quality products.
A manufacture of engineered, going forward we will be operating
complex, high-strength compo- SELEE CORPORATION
jointly under one name.
nents using powder metallurgy Our customers will be able to www.selee.com
and metal injection molding! benefit even more from synergies SELEE Corporation, a member of
NetShape is a Lean-focused, global generated within the Group, the Porvair Group, manufactures
supplier with 5 PM and 1 MIM demonstrating our uncompromis- high-temperature, low-mass kiln
operations worldwide, including a ing commitment to delivering the furniture in seven different ceram-
facility in Suzhou, China. highest-quality products. ic compositions to meet your
Industry-leading technologies application’s specific needs. We
include high-performance materi- REMINGTON ARMS COMPANY, make both open-cell foam kiln fur-
als, unmatched shape complexity, INC., Powder Metal Products niture as well as micro-porous kiln
tolerances and part size. Our inno- Division furniture. We are also a distributor
vative Conversioneeing® process www.remingtonpmpd.com for Ferro Process Temperature
and strong engineering support The Powder Metal Products Control Rings. Our manufacturing
offer unmatched value and sup- Division has been a MIM parts facility is located in the beautiful
port for converting parts to PM. producer since the mid-1980s Blue Ridge Mountains in
and continues to supply Hendersonville, North Carolina,
Remington and a number of com- U.S.A. Certified ISO 9001:2000
mercial customers with high- and ISO 4001:2004.

technology incl. tooling, com- ture, research and use of metal

OTHER paction and sintering. PM materi- powders.
als technology, properties and Metal Powder Report is the only
ALLEGHENY COATINGS applications, PM semi-finished, monthly international magazine
www.alleghenycoatings.com fully dense and hard materials. covering the powder metallurgy
Allegheny Coatings, located in Services offered: Market industry.
Ridgway, PA, is an ISO 9001 reg- research, technical forecasting
istered applicator of coatings and and technology assessments; PLASMA PROCESSES, INC.
platings for use on powdered met- business developments; global www.plasmapros.com
als. These applications provide for licensing and technology transfer; Plasma Processes, Inc. (PPI) is an
lubricity, as well as corrosion, international strategic partner- ISO 9001:2000 certified business
heat, and wear resistance. Resin ship formation; reviews of inter- specializing in advanced materials
and inorganic impregnation are national development trends; and coating technologies. PPI's
also available. In addition, industrial applications of PM Powder Alloying &
Allegheny Coatings offers unique products and selection of PM Spheroidization™ technology
coating services such as part materials; international recruit- transforms flaky, angular pow-
masking, cyclical corrosion ment consultancy. ders into spheres & spherical
testing, and a variety of chrome- alloys. In addition, PPI develops,
free coatings. Web site: JENIKE & JOHANSON, INC. applies and validates coating
www.alleghenycoatings.com. www.jenike.com solutions for thermal protection,
Jenike & Johanson, in business electrical isolation, wear and cor-
APEX ADVANCED over 40 years, is an experienced rosion resistance and dimensional
TECHNOLOGIES consulting and engineering firm restoration, in addition to the
www.apexadvancedtechnologies.com that specializes in powder flowa- manufacture of net-shape compo-
Apex is the leader in innovative bility and engineering system for nents by vacuum plasma and
development for lubricants and powders. We have a full service El-Form™ electrodeposition
binders in the powdered metal powder test lab to determine pow- processes.
industry. We analyze the needs of der flow properties and behavior.
the industry and through innova- We troubleshoot existing systems PRINCETONONE
tion develop unique solutions that and design new processes to www.PrincetonOne.com
create value for the client and store, transport, feed, and reliably PrincetonOne is one of the world’s
industry at large. Our products deliver powder consistently. We most successful recruiting firms
include Superlube®, Enhancer, a provide modeling, functional serving the powder metal industry
high-strength binder, and our design, detailed design, and and related industries. Brian
near-full-density systems for courses on powder flow to clients Orges, Industry Practice Manager,
powdered metal. worldwide. has placed professionals within
the powder metal industry for the
CHEMETALL KITTYHAWK PRODUCTS past 15 years, and continues to
www.chemetall.at www.kittyhawkinc.com be one of the top performers with-
Chemetall Ges.m.b.H. Kittyhawk Products—qualified in his company and the industry
Metal sulfides are employed in experts in the field of hot isostatic providing retained, priority and
powder metallurgy. Synthetic sul- processing. HIP is an affordable contingency search to his clients.
fides such as tungsten or tin sul- process of unique benefit in solv-
fides as well as multi-phase ing complex design problems PSM INDUSTRIES, INC.
sulfides of various particle shapes while increasing the strength of www.psmindustries.com
and sizes decisively improve the properties. Together with our sis- A symphony of PM solutions. Our
machinability of sintered parts. ter company, Synertech P/M Inc., 6 manufacturing divisions will
Sintered parts are used in high- we offer unmatched net-shape find an answer to your most
performance applications where capabilities with powder metal pressing PM problem. Specialties
resistance to high loads and tem- parts design and manufacture. include high-dense high-speed
peratures is demanded. steels, high-shape-complexity
METAL POWDER REPORT MIM and PM, steel-bonded car-
GLOBAL PM CONSULTANTS Metal Powder Report covers the bides, tungsten carbides, high-
www.globalpm.net powder metallurgy industry conductivity copper, and a wide
Specializing in: PIM technology, worldwide. Each issue carries variety of other specialties. Come
metal powder production technol- up-to-date news and features on visit our Web site at www.psmin-
ogy. Structural parts production technical trends in the manufac- dustries.com.

73
QUALA-DIE, INC. for PM due to the differences ULTRA INFILTRANT

www.quala-die.com between iron-carbon, Fe-Cu, Fe- www.ultra-infiltrant.com
Quala-Die, Inc. is the leader in Ni, low-alloy, as-sintered, copper- Ultra Infiltrant is a wrought,
powder metal tooling and preci- infiltrated, steam-treated, homogeneous copper-based alloy
sion machining. From design hardened, sinter-hardened, and that offers significant benefits
through production Quala-die powder-forged components. over powder-form copper infil-
can provide you with superior trants. Benefits like less waste,
SINTER-PACIFIC
service and quality. improved productivity and
(a Div. of International Sintered
increased strength. Ultra
RESCO PRODUCTS, INC, Components Pty Ltd)
Infiltrant is available in custom
(Shenango Advanced Ceramics, www.sinter-pacific.com configurations to accommodate
LLC) Sinter-Pacific was established in virtually any automated process.
www.rescoproducts.com October 1993 with a focus on pro- Ultra Infiltrant was designed for
New Castle Refractories and viding our Asia Pacific customers copper infiltration of ferrous PM
Shenango Advanced Ceramics with cost-effective design parts in today's cost-competitive
have now joined the Resco solutions using powder metal manufacturing environments,
Products family. Resco Products is technology from the world’s best. where the handling of fragile
a leading supplier of refractories Diversification has now provided green infiltrant slugs is difficult
in North America serving major PM products, specialty dry bear- and can lead to excessive waste.
industries such as steel, copper, ing technology, PM processing
nickel, aluminum, hydrocarbon machinery & equipment along
processing and cement with a full with NDT solutions for our PM PRODUCTS OR
line of refractory products. customers.
PARTS PRODUCERS
RYER, INC. SUPERIOR GRAPHITE CO.
ACE IRON & METAL CO., INC.
www.ryerinc.com www.superiorgraphite.com
Ace Iron & Metal is a full-service
Ryer, Inc., is a manufacturer, Superior Graphite specializes in metal recycling company in busi-
developer and supplier of custom thermal purification, advanced ness since 1945. We purchase all
and standard feedstocks for the sizing, blending, and coating types of powder metal scrap
metal injection molding industry. technologies, providing value- inclusive of green, sinter-floor
We offer the widest range of parti- added graphite and carbon-based sweeps, and all maintenance
cle sizes, material types and de- solutions globally. Combining 90 scrap, along with furnace scrap.
binding methods in the MIM years of experience and advanced We can be contacted via our
industry. As a custom com- technologies into every facet of e-mail address or our toll free
pounder, Ryer can match your the organization, a wide range of number. aceiron@chartermi.net
current material shrink specifica- markets are served such as:
tions and flow characteristics. agriculture, battery/fuel cells, ALPHA SINTERED METALS, INC.
Ryer Feedstocks are inspected, ceramic armor, carbon parts, www.alphasintered.com
tested and documented to assure ferrous/nonferrous metallurgy,
friction management, hot metal Alpha Sintered Metals, Inc., is a
you receive consistent, pre- designer and manufacturer of
dictable results with "batch to forming, polymer/composites,
powder metals, lubricity, and multilevel, high-precision,
batch" repeatability. structural powdered metal
performance drilling additives.
components, such as spur, bevel,
SHAPE-MASTER TOOL and helical gears; sprockets;
COMPANY TIMCAL GRAPHITE & CARBON
cams; and flanges. These
www.shapemastertool.com www.timcal.com
components are used primarily in
Shape-Master Tool manufactures TIMCAL Graphite & Carbon is small engines, transmissions and
polycrystalline cubic boron nitride committed to produce highly spe- mechanical drive applications for
(PCBN) cutting tools for PM cialized graphite and carbon the outdoor power equipment
machining. With a metallurgical materials for today's and tomor- (including lawn and garden),
engineer on staff, Shape-Master row's powder metallurgy indus- automotive, and general industri-
understands PM and nuances of tries. TIMCAL Graphite & Carbon al markets. With our experienced
PM machining optimization. We is a global leader in realizing cus- engineers and metallurgical staff,
don't offer a single solution for all tomer solutions in graphite and Alpha Sintered Metals, Inc., a has
PM alloys because it's simply not carbon applications and is a mem- been producing quality powdered
possible. Shape-Master utilizes ber of IMERYS, a world leader in metals parts for over 40 years.
over eight different PCBN grades adding value to minerals. ASM is ISO Certified.

ALLREAD PRODUCTS LLC BODYCOTE HIP plex multi-level parts and two-
www.allreadproducts.com www.bodycote.com and three-piece construction
Allread Products is a very versa- Bodycote is the world's leading parts sintered as one.
tile company which will manufac- provider of metallurgical services.
FMS CORPORATION
ture large or small volumes of Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) of PM
parts. Our pressing capabilities components is just one of the www.fmscorporation.com
range from 4 ton presses up to many services that Bodycote FMS Corporation is a precision
100 ton presses. We process mul- provides, from CAM designs and manufacturer of high-perform-
titudes of materials including fer- fabrication to powder filling ance sintered metal components,
rous and ferrous alloys, most evacuation, sealing and HIP. serving the off-road vehicle, aero-
nonferrous, stainless steel, alu- space, computer and home appli-
minum, and Teflon. Our second- CMW INC. ance industries, among others.
ary department is quite extensive www.cmwinc.com Material capabilities include high-
including 6 CNC machines and a CMW creates high-performance performance, high-density steels,
number of small automatic metallurgical products and sup- stainless steel, soft magnetic
machines for special applications. ports customers worldwide with materials, and many nonferrous
Along with these capabilities we innovative service, metallurgical alloys. Production capabilities
also do assembly of various parts. expertise and application knowl- include in-house tool design and
edge. CMW operates in three pri- manufacture, conventional and
ASCO SINTERING CO. mary business units: electrical wire EDM, compaction from 2 to
www.ascosintering.com contacts, high-density tungsten 1,100 tons, high-temperature
Manufacturer of precision com- metals and resistance welding vacuum sintering, CNC machin-
plex multilevel structural pow- consumables. Our company has ing, grinding, lapping, resin and
dered metal parts & assemblies. been recognized repeatedly for its oil impregnation.
Experienced sintered metal engi- safety, quality and continuous
KEYSTONE POWDERED METAL
neering & metallurgical staff. improvement programs. Our
COMPANY
Serving the automotive, lock, high-density tungsten metals are
hardware, lawn & garden, irriga- produced from powdered metals www.keystonepm.com
tion, medical, hand tools, com- by liquid-phase sintering tech- Keystone Powdered Metal
puter & cutlery industries. niques. Applications range from Company is a leading powder
Capabilities include tool design, gyroscopes and ballasts to radia- metal parts supplier to the auto-
tooling, metallurgy, warm com- tion shielding and die-cast tool- motive OEMs, automotive Tier I
paction, high-temperature sintering. Markets include aerospace, and Tier II manufacturers.
ing, sinter hardening, heat treat, military, high-performance elec- Keystone provides its customers
resin impregnation, deburring, tronics and more. with highly engineered products
secondary machining, assembly & which utilize the industry’s most
plating. Materials include low- COMPAX, INC. advanced technologies and mate-
alloy, diffused, copper, carbon & www.compaxinc.com rial systems. Primary products
infiltrated steels, 300 & 400 Compacting equipment from 2 include planetary carriers, pinion
stainless steels, brass, nickel tons to 250 tons. High-tempera- gears, parking gears, transmis-
silver, Monel®, soft magnetics, ture sintering capability up to sion sprockets, engine-timing
copper & bronze. 3,000°F (1,650°C). Short-, medi- sprockets and assembled one-way
um-, and high-volume capabilities. clutches for use in automotive
ATLAS PRESSED METALS Secondary operations including powertrain applications.
www.atlaspressed.com drilling, turning, grinding, impreg-
LOVEJOY SINTERED
Atlas Pressed Metals has been a nation, deburring, tapping and
SOLUTIONS LLC
producer of powdered metal assembling. Materials include
components since 1976. Atlas stainless steel, nickel steel, copper www.lovejoy-LSS.com
specializes in production of high- steel, iron, low-alloy steel, copper, Low-volume, high-density, com-
performance bearings, structural brass, bronze, aluminum, nickel plex parts producer of ferrous-
and gear components using iron, silver, tungsten, 50/nickel/50 based components including soft
iron alloys, soft magnetic alloys, iron, copper-infiltrated steels and magnetics. Presses range from
stainless steel, bronze, brass and many specialty alloys. 65T to 1,000T, ISO 9001 certified.
custom materials. Types of parts include gears, In-house CNC equipment
magnetic pole pieces, cams, includes turning, boring, drilling,
thrust bearings, bushings, com- tapping, broaching. Also coining,

75
sizing, deburring, tool design, offering complete customer- room environments. Visit our Web
with CAD/CAM and Pro-E. Full focused solutions for high-per- site www.mottcorp.com for our
range of gauging inspection formance automotive complete line of porous metal
equipment, gear-inspection components. Extensive engineer- capabilities and products.
equipment including CMM. Fully ing research and development
automated from press to sinter. stands behind each and every NETSHAPE TECHNOLOGIES, INC.
Parts include stators, rotors, product. Metaldyne is the largest www.netshapetech.com
gears, counterweights, rings, etc. powder forged connecting rod A manufacture of engineered,
Aspect ratios reaching 10:1. provider in the world, manufac- complex, high-strength compo-
turing more than 50 million per nents using powder metallurgy
METALPÓ IND. E COM. LTDA. year. Metaldyne also designs and and metal injection molding!
www.metalpo.com.br manufacturers a variety of other NetShape is a Lean-focused,
Since its opening, in 1967, powder metal products for auto- global supplier with 5 PM and 1
Metalpó has had its activities motive manufacturers around the MIM operations worldwide,
pointed to powder metallurgy as a world. including a facility in Suzhou,
nonferrous powders and sintered China. Industry-leading technolo-
parts producer. Typical Metalpó METCO INDUSTRIES gies include high-performance
powder metallurgy products are www.metcopm.com materials, unmatched shape com-
self-lubricating bearings (bronze Metco Industries, Inc., has mold- plexity, tolerances and part size.
and iron), structural parts (iron, ing capabilities up to 400 ton Our innovative Conversioneeing®
stainless steel, bronze and brass) including multi-action for ferrous process and strong engineering
and metal powders (copper, and nonferrous applications. support offer unmatched value
bronze premix, prealloyed bronze Advanced secondary machining and support for converting parts
and tin). Using modern methods facility on site for quicker response to PM.
and quality management systems to customer demands. Celebrating
Metalpó has had since its early 25 years of PM excellence in the NOVAMET SPECIALTY
years the acknowledgment for automotive, lawn & garden, recre- PRODUCTS CORPORATION
highest level of quality. This has ational vehicle, healthcare and www.novametcorp.com
earned the Metalpó quality man- commercial markets. Novamet Specialty Products
agement system the ISO Corporation, a CVRD Inco
9001/2000 and ISO TS 16949 MI-TECH METALS, INC. Company, is a producer of spe-
assessments. www.mi-techmetals.com cialty metal and metal oxide pow-
Mi-Tech Metals, Inc., located in ders. Carbonyl nickel powders are
METAL POWDER PRODUCTS Indianapolis, Indiana, produces classified to narrow size ranges
COMPANY tungsten heavy alloy and copper for a variety of applications,
www.metalpowderproducts.com and silver tungsten composite including metal injection molding.
Metal Powder Products Company materials. Additional materials The Novamet family of Type 4SP
is an international provider of include tungsten carbide and nickel powders is the preferred
custom-engineered powder metal- pure molybdenum and tungsten. MIM industry choice. Four size
lurgy product solutions to cus- Mi-Tech maintains inventory to ranges are available, -400 mesh, -
tomers in a variety of industries. meet immediate requirements and 20 micron, -20 + 10 micron and -
MPP has developed a number of our extensive machine shop man- 10 micron.
innovations in material formula- ufactures parts to p????
tion, sintering, densification, pow- PHILIPS ADVANCED METAL
der metallurgy joining techniques, MOTT CORPORATION SOLUTIONS
and value-added secondary oper- www.mottcorp.com www.philips.com/ams
ations. MPP is the largest manu- Mott Corporation has been pro- Philips Advanced Metal Solutions,
facturer of powder metal viding unique solutions in the global development center for
aluminum structural parts in development and application of Philips Lighting, is a specialist
North America. porous metal media since 1959. producer of tungsten and molyb-
Mott partners with customers in denum components serving many
METALDYNE SINTERERED many industries to engineer and applications in various industries.
COMPONENTS design porous metal products We combine our technical expert-
www.metaldynepowdermetal.com with very specific tolerances and ise in alloying, material engineer-
Metaldyne, An Asahi Tec compa- attributes. Mott is ISO 9001:2000 ing and shaping technologies like
ny, is a world leader in the Certified and also maintains lasering & MIM with our underly-
Powder Metallurgy (PM) industry, Class 100 and Class 10,000 clean ing philosophy—“designed around

you.” This enables us to deliver steels, high-shape-complexity turer of highly engineered techno-
the refractory metal products that MIM and PM, steel-bonded car- logically differentiated powertrain
you need in a reliable and cost- bides, tungsten carbides, high- components, systems, and
effective way. Please visit conductivity copper, and a wide assemblies.
www.philips.com/ams variety of other specialties. Come
visit our Web site at www.psmin- STERLING SINTERED
PLANSEE USA dustries.com. TECHNOLOGIES
www.plansee-usa.com www.sterlingsintered.com
Schwarzkopf Technologies is now SCHWARZKOPF Sterling Sintered Technologies, an
PLANSEE USA and continues to TECHNOLOGIES LLC ISO 9001-2000 company, is an
deliver the world’s best furnace www.plansee-usa.com innovative leader in the manufac-
solutions. Schwarzkopf Technologies is now ture of powdered metal compo-
Schwarzkopf Technologies is PLANSEE USA and continues to nents. The Sterling team works
known within the U.S. and deliver the world’s best furnace with customers to concurrently
Canada as the industry leader in solutions. design parts and processes for
developing, designing, and manu- Schwarzkopf Technologies is them. This approach has allowed
facturing high-temperature fur- known within the U.S. and Sterling Sintered and its cus-
nace products to perform better Canada as the industry leader in tomers to develop new applica-
and last longer. developing, designing, and manu- tions and push PM technology to
As an independent subsidiary facturing high-temperature fur- the forefront of our industry. Let
we have contributed to the suc- nace products to perform better Sterling Sintered do this for you.
cess of the PLANSEE Group— and last longer. For additional information explore
going forward we will be operating As an independent subsidiary our Web site at www.sterlingsin-
jointly under one name. we have contributed to the suc- tered.com
Our customers will be able to cess of the PLANSEE Group—
benefit even more from synergies going forward we will be operating VOLUNTEER SINTERED
generated within the Group, jointly under one name. PRODUCTS, INC.
demonstrating our uncompromis- Our customers will be able to
www.volunteersintered.com
ing commitment to delivering the benefit even more from synergies
generated within the Group, Established 1981, family
highest-quality products. owned/operated
demonstrating our uncompromis-
ing commitment to delivering the Press Range 20–200 Ton
PLANSEE SE Materials include iron, prealloyed
highest-quality products.
www.plansee-group.com steels, brass, bronze, stainless
The Plansee Group is one of the SMC POWDER METALLURGY Parts include gears, bearings,
world’s leading suppliers of pow- www.smcpowdermetallurgy.com structurals, cams, etc.
der metallurgical products and Secondary operations – copper
components. The industrial port- SMC Powder Metallurgy is a 57- infiltrating, brazing, coining, bur-
folio of Plansee Group is struc- year young PM manufacturer, nishing, drilling, tapping, turning,
tured into three divisions: diverse in the materials supplied, oil impregnation, deburring
PLANSEE High Performance the business markets served, and Inspections/QC ISO 9001 certi-
Materials, CERATIZIT Hardmetals the parts manufactured. SMC fied, Rockwell hardness, gear
& Tools and PMG PM–Products. Powder Metallurgy manufactures tester, optical comparator, surface
Ignoring differing shares of the in a modern 112,000 sq. ft. facili- finish, crush tester
ownership, the Group achieved ty located in Galeton, Specialties complex, close-toler-
worldwide sales of over 1.4 billion Pennsylvania, dedicated solely to ance parts, short lead times for
euros in the 2006/07 fiscal year, the manufacturing of powder tooling and production
and employed a total of 8,800 metal components. SMC Powder
people. www.plansee-group.com Metallurgy is TS-16949 certified WESTERN SINTERING CO. INC.
company. For additional detail,
www.westernsintering.com
PSM INDUSTRIES, INC. please visit our Web site at
www.smcpowdermetallurgy.com. Manufacturer of custom powder
www.psmindustries.com metal parts. Presses to 300 tons.
A symphony of PM solutions. Our STACKPOLE LIMITED Steel, stainless steel, and copper-
6 manufacturing divisions will www.stackpole.com base materials.
find an answer to your most Complete secondary facilities and
pressing PM problem. Specialties Our mission is to be recognized heat treat in-house.
include high-dense high-speed as the world's premier manufac-

77
MEETINGS AND
CONFERENCES
2008 BASIC PM SHORT COURSE PMP III

July 21–23 THIRD INTERNATIONAL
State College, PA CONFERENCE—PROCESSING
3RD INTERNATIONAL MPIF* MATERIALS FOR PROPERTIES
CONFERENCE ON STRUCTURE, December 7–10
PROCESSING, AND PROPERTIES Bangkok, Thailand
PM SINTERING SEMINAR
OF MATERIALS www.tms.org/meetings/
September
February 14–16 specialty/pmp08
TBA
Dhaka, Bangladesh
MPIF*
PM08 INTERNATIONAL
5TH INTERNATIONAL 2009
CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION
CONFERENCE ON ADVANCED
February 20–21
MATERIALS AND PROCESSING
Chennai, India POWDERMET2009:
September 3–6
www.pmai.in/pm08 MPIF/APMI INTERNATIONAL
Harbin, China
icamp.hit.edu.cn/ CONFERENCE ON POWDER
PIM2008 METALLURGY & PARTICULATE
March 10–12 MATERIALS
Long Beach, CA SUPERALLOYS 2008
September 14–18 June 28–July 1
MPIF* Las Vegas, NV
Champion, PA
www.tms.org/Meetings/ MPIF*
SAE WORLD CONGRESS &
EXPOSITION specialty/superalloys
2008/home.html THERMEC 2009: SIXTH
April 14–17
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
Detroit, MI
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ADVANCED MATERIALS AND
www.sae.org
ALUMINUM ALLOYS PROCESSES
September 22–26 August 25–29
HIP ’08—THE 9TH
Aachen, Germany Berlin, Germany
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
HOT ISOSTATIC PRESSING www.dgm.de
May 6–9
EURO PM2008 SDMA 2009/ICSF VII—4TH
Huntington Beach, CA
September 29–October 1 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
www.hip2008.com
Mannheim, Germany SPRAY DEPOSITION AND MELT
2008 WORLD CONGRESS ON www.epma.com/pm2008 ATOMIZATION/7TH
POWDER METALLURGY & INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
PARTICULATE MATERIALS MATERIALS SCIENCE & SPRAY FORMING
June 8–12 TECHNOLOGY 2008 CONFERENCE September 7–9
Gaylord National Hotel & EXHIBITION Bremen, Germany
Washington, DC October 5–9 www.sdma-conference.de/
MPIF* Pittsburgh, PA
www.matscitech.org/2008/
2008 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE home.html 2010
ON TUNGSTEN, REFRACTORY &
HARDMATERIALS VII SINTERING 2008
June 8–12 PM2010 WORLD CONGRESS
November 16–20
Gaylord National Hotel October 10–14
La Jolla, CA
Washington, DC Florence, Italy
www.ceramics.org/sintering
MPIF* 2008
19TH AEROMAT CONFERENCE &

EXPOSITION *Metal Powder Industries Federation
105 College Road East, Princeton, New Jersey 08540-6692 USA
June 23–26
(609) 452-7700 Fax (609) 987-8523
Austin, TX
Visit www.mpif.org for updates and registration.
www.asminternational.org/ Dates and locations may change
aeromat

MAYBE NOW’S THE TIME TO JOIN APMI INTERNATIONAL…

Here’s just a sample of the benefits you receive as an APMI member
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ADVERTISERS’
INDEX
ADVERTISER FAX WEB SITE PAGE

ACE IRON & METAL CO. INC. ________________(269) 342-0185 ______________________________________________6
ACUPOWDER INTERNATIONAL, LLC ___________(908) 851-4597______www.acupowder.com______________________20
AMETEK SPECIALTY METAL PRODUCTS ________(724) 225-6622______www.ametekmetals.com ____________________8
ARBURG GmbH + Co KG ____________________(860) 667-6522______www.arburg.com __________________________4
BÖHLER UDDEHOLM _______________________(603) 883-3101______www.bucorp.com _________________________11
CM FURNACES, INC. _______________________(973) 338-1625______www.cmfurnaces.com _____________________10
ELNIK SYSTEMS ___________________________(973) 239-6066______www.elnik.com___________________________12
HOEGANAES CORPORATION _________________(856) 786-2574______www.hoeganaes.com______INSIDE FRONT COVER
INTERNATIONAL POWDER METAL DIRECTORY __+44 1743 369660 ____www.ipmd.net ___________________________14
NORTH AMERICAN HÖGANÄS INC. ____________(814) 479-2003______www.nah.com_____________INSIDE BACK COVER
QMP ____________________________________(734) 953-0082______www.qmp-powders.com ___________BACK COVER
SCM METAL PRODUCTS, INC.________________(919) 544-7996______www.scmmetals.com_______________________3
UNION PROCESS __________________________(330) 929-3034______www.unionprocess.com____________________21
ADVERTISER’S REQUEST FOR INFORMATION FAX FORM

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You buy more than metal powder
NAH 2004/02
RHAPSODY, Copenhagen
– you buy knowledge!
Photo Ronnie Nilsson

Metal powders open up new possibilities for creative
technical solutions. Powder components require little
or no subsequent machining, achieve nearly 100%
material utilization, and deliver numerous perfor-
mance benefits – including the lowest total unit cost
for the manufacturer.
These are just some of the reasons why over 40 million

powder components are produced every single day.
Actually, you find more and more of them in cars,
computers, household machines and electrical tools.
Have the advantage on your side,

contact North American Höganäs, Inc. today.
North American Höganäs Inc., 111 Höganäs Way, Hollsopple, PA 15935-6416, USA, Phone +1 8144793500, Fax +1 8144792003, www.nah.com

(Alan Lawley) International Journal of Powder Meta

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EDITORIAL REVIEW COMMITTEE

jtrombino@mpif.org Tel: (609) 452-7700 • Fax: (609) 987-8523 • E-mail: jtamasi@mpif.org

In late 2007, I took the opportunity to attend the workshop on “REACH”

2 Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

SCM's products include:

International: powder injection molding. If you wish to produce

End of PresMet Era installed a high-temperature MIM Feedstock Producer Sold

Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

PM INDUSTRY NEWS IN REVIEW

PURCHASER & PROCESSOR

Powder Metal Scrap

Ferrous & Non-Ferrous Metals

1403 Fourth St. • Kalamazoo, MI 49048 • Tel: 269-342-0183 • Fax: 269-342-0185

6 Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

JAMES G. MARSDEN, FAPMI*

Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

A I assume that the reference is to a binder-

CM Furnaces, long recognized as an industrial leader in performance-proven, high

10 Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

Manufactured with 3rd Generation Powder Metallurgy Technology,

For info please visit

Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

membrane system. These systems, however, are

1. R.M. German, Powder Metallurgy of Iron and Steel, 1998,

Readers are invited to send in questions for future issues.

12 Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

2008 World Congress

METAL POWDER INDUSTRIES FEDERATION

Held in conjunction with the:

POWDER METALLURGY relate to the use of powders.

PRODUCTION OF STRUCTURAL PARTS AND SELF-LUBRICATING

Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

POWDER METALLURGY IN ITALY

The sector embracing general mechanical appli-

Figure 2. Production of PM structural components and self lubricating bearings in

Figure 3 shows the growth of the PM markets

16 Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

POWDER METALLURGY IN ITALY

TABLE I. PROFILE OF THE PM INDUSTRY IN ITALY

METAL INJECTION MOLDING ACTIVITIES

Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

POWDER METALLURGY IN ITALY

TABLE II. POWDER PRODUCTION IN ITALY

18 Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

POWDER METALLURGY IN ITALY

and some of its members are active in EPMA

Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

POWDER METALLURGY IN ITALY

TRUST abroad, for example, in the framework of EC pro-

must be knowledge are pursued in academic institutions

earned Seven universities and polytechnic schools, by

20 Volume 44, Issue 1, 2008

POWDER METALLURGY IN ITALY

When it comes to grinding or

Phone (330) 929-3333

© 2008, Union Process, Inc. All rights reserved. 108-25

Expanding the Possibilities For Size Reduction

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