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EIPINI Chapter 1: Introduction to Industrial Instrumentation Page 1-1
1. INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL
INSTRUMENTATION
"……… when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in
numbers, you know something about it;....."
Lord Kelvin (1824-1907), Institute of Civil Engineers, London, 3rd May 1883
1.1 MEASUREMENT
Measurement is defined as the determination of the existence or magnitude of a
variable for monitoring and controlling purposes.
Tube
Link and
gears Figure 1-1
A temperature change results in a pressure build-up within the bulb because of the
constrained thermal expansion of the filling fluid. This pressure is transmitted through
the tube to a Bourdon type pressure gauge, which converts pressure to displacement.
This displacement is manipulated by the linkage and gearing to give a larger pointer
movement. We can now recognise the following basic functional instrument elements,
using this liquid filled thermometer as an example:
EIPINI Chapter 1: Introduction to Industrial Instrumentation Page 1-3
Primary element:
The primary element is that part of the instrument that first utilizes energy from
the measured medium and produces an output depending in some way on the
measured quantity.
Note: For the liquid filled thermometer example, the bulb is the element in contact
with the measured medium. The energy it extracts from the medium in this case is heat
energy. The variable conversion from temperature to pressure is accomplished when
the heat energy absorbed by the liquid in the bulb, causes an increase in pressure
energy within the volume constrained liquid.
Data transmission element:
The data transmission element transmits data from one element to another.
Note: When the elements of an instrument are physically separated, it becomes
necessary to transmit the data from one to the other. It may be as simple as the tube in
the liquid filled thermometer example, that transmits the pressure information from the
bulb to the Bourdon tube, or as complicated as the telemetry system between a ship
and the cruiser missile it has launched.
Secondary element:
The secondary element converts the output of the primary element, to another
more suitable variable for the instrument to perform the desired function.
Note: In the thermometer example, the Bourdon tube is the secondary element (or the
variable conversion element, as it is often called). It responds with a movement when
receiving a pressure input. Every instrument need not include a second variable
conversion element, while some require several.
Manipulation element:
The manipulation element processes the information received from the primary or
secondary element and transforms the data into a more useful form.
Note: By manipulation we mean specifically a change in the numerical value of the
variable according to some definite rule, while preserving the original character of the
variable. In the thermometer example, a small movement of the Bourdon tube is
amplified by the gears to produce a large circular movement of the pointer. A variable
manipulation element does not necessarily follow a variable conversion element; it
may precede it, appear elsewhere in the chain, or not appear at all.
Functioning element:
The functioning element is that part of the instrument that is used for indicating,
recording or controlling of the measured quantity.
Note: The presentation of measured information may assume many different forms. It
could include the simple indication of a pointer moving over a scale or the recording
of a pen moving over a chart. It may also be in the form of a digital readout or even in
a form not directly detectable by human senses as in the case of a digital computer
used to perform a control function according to the value of the measured variable.
EIPINI Chapter 1: Introduction to Industrial Instrumentation Page 1-4
In summary then, the interconnection between the various functional elements for this
particular thermometer instrument, is shown in Figure 1-2. It must be stressed though,
that different instruments are not necessarily composed of all these elements or may
not adhere to the same order of interconnection, as depicted in Figure 1-2.
Primary element
Bulb (Variable conversion element: temperature to pressure)
Secondary element
Bourdon tube (Variable conversion element: pressure to motion)
Functioning element
Scale and pointer (Data presentation: indicating function performed by
moving pointer over scale)
Observer
Figure 1-2
Output span
yMIN
(0 %)
xMIN xMAX Input x (%)
(0 %) Input span (100 %)
Precision
Precision is the closeness with which repeated measurements of the same
quantity agree with each other.
Students often confuse the terms precision and accuracy but a precise instrument may
not be accurate. Precision simply means that if the measuring device is subjected to
the same input for several times and the indicated results are tightly grouped together
around some mean value (though not necessarily the true value), then the instrument is
said to be of high precision. See Figure 1-4 for an interpretation of accuracy and
precision.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the rate of change of the output of a system with respect to input
changes.
For a linear calibration curve, the sensitivity or gain K of an instrument is constant but
will vary for a non-linear curve. The sensitivity at any particular input x, may be
expressed as the slope of the line tangent to the calibration curve at that point.
Δy
K= . Equation 1-1
Δx
Example 1-1: What is the sensitivity of a linear instrument that records the following
values? 0 ºC = 12.3 V and 45 ºC = 24.3 V
Answer: From Equation 1-1:
Δy
K= = 24.3 − 12.3 = 12
Δx 45 − 0 45
= 0.2667 volt per ºC
Gross errors:
Gross errors are mistakes made, for instance, by the operator in gross misreading
of a scale. These errors can be minimized by care and self-discipline.
Systematic errors:
Systematic errors affect all readings in such a way that the error of measurement
has a fixed sign throughout the whole range of the instrument. These errors are
usually caused by an error in the instrument, poor calibration, improper technique
of the operator or loading of the instrument. Normally systematic errors are
corrected by careful recalibration of the instrument.
Random errors:
Random errors occur because of unknown and unpredictable variations that exist
in all measurement situations. This results in slightly different values obtained for
each repeated measurement (scattered evenly about the mean value) of the same
input. The influence of random errors on the integrity of measurements can be
reduced with statistical methods and refined experimental techniques.
EIPINI Chapter 1: Introduction to Industrial Instrumentation Page 1-8
Non linearity
Non-linearity is the maximum deviation from a straight line connecting the zero
and full-scale calibration points.
Drift
Drift is the change in instrument indication over time while the input and ambient
conditions are constant.
Figure 1-6
EIPINI Chapter 1: Introduction to Industrial Instrumentation Page 1-9
Hysteresis
Hysteresis is the difference between the readings obtained when a given value of
the measured variable is approached from below and when the same value is
approached from above.
Dead band
Dead band is the largest change of input to which the instrument does not
respond due to friction or backlash effects
Example 1-3
A displacement sensor has an input range of 0.0 to 3.0 cm. Using the calibration
results given in the table, calculate:
a) the input and output span.
b) the maximum non-linearity as a percentage of f.s.d. (full scale deflection).
c) the sensitivity of the instrument at an input of 1.0 cm.
60
50
Maximum non-
40 linearity ≈ 47-33
= 15 mV
30
20
10
x – displacement
0
in cm
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
The maximum deviation from the straight line connecting the range values
appears to occur when the displacement is 1.7 cm. The non-linearity at this
point is approximately 48 – 33 = 15 mV. Non-linearity expressed as percentage
of full scale is (15/58)×100 ≈ 26 %.
c) Sensitivity at x = 1 cm, is equal to the slope of the line tangent to the curve
Δy
at x = 1 cm. ∴K = = 60 − 4 = 29.5 mV/cm
Δx 1.9 − 0
EIPINI Chapter 1: Introduction to Industrial Instrumentation Page 1-11
Table 1-1
EIPINI Chapter 1: Introduction to Industrial Instrumentation Page 1-12
* The user’s choice entry in the table may be used to denote a particular meaning, and
the user must describe the particular meaning(s) in the legend accompanying his
drawing.
The letter Y in the second position has an extended meaning of variable manipulation,
and some of this instrument functions are given in table 1-2.
Symbol Function
Σ Δ × ÷ Add, subtract, multiply and divide
Xn ± Raise to power, square root, bias
K -K Proportional reverse proportional
> < > < High select, low select, high limit, low limit
∫ D or d/dt Integral, derivative
Convert X to Y with X and Y selected from:
X/Y P=Pressure, E=Voltage, I=Current, H=Hydraulic
O=Electromagnetic or sonic, A=Analog, D=Digital
Table 1-2
Instrument supply or
connection to process
Pneumatic signal
Electrical signal
Hydraulic signal
Electromagnetic, sonic
or radioactive signal
Example 1-4
A 20 - 100 kPa output pneumatic transmitter is used to monitor the water level inside a
tank. The calibrated range is 100 to 200 cm. of water above the base of the tank.
Calculate the output of the transmitter when the water level is at 175 cm. above the
base of the tank.
Span (difference between the upper and lower limit) of the transmitter output
= 100 kPa - 20 kPa = 80 kPa
Fraction of measurement = (175 – 100)/(200 – 100) = 0.75
Output Signal = (Fraction of Measurement) × (Signal Span) + Live Zero
= 0.75×80 + 20 = 80 kPa
Example 1-5
An electronic transmitter with an output of 4 - 20 mA is calibrated for a pressure range
of 70 - 150 kPa. What pressure is represented by a 12 mA signal?
Span of transmitter = 20 mA - 4 mA = 16 mA
Fraction of Measurement Change = (Output Signal - Live Zero)/Signal Span
= (12 – 4)/16 = 0.5
Actual Process Change = (Fractional Change) × (Process Span)
= 0.5×(150 - 70 kPa) = 40 kPa
Actual Process Value = Base Point + Process Change
= 70 + 40 kPa = 110 kPa.
Note: One advantage of a pneumatic system is that sparks will not be produced if a
transmitter malfunction occurs, making it much safer when used in an explosive
environment. The biggest problem with pneumatic systems is that air is compressible.
This means that a pressure transient representing a process change will only travel in
the air line at sonic velocity (approximately 300 m/sec.). Long signal lines will cause
substantial time delays, which is a serious drawback. Electronic signals on the other
hand, travel at speeds which approach the speed of light and can therefore be
transmitted over long distances without the introduction of unnecessary time delays.
Valve with
Valve diaphragm actuator
Rotameter
flowmeter
Electric
M motor
EIPINI Chapter 1: Introduction to Industrial Instrumentation Page 1-15
1.7.6 Schematics
4 3 5 1 – Component function (table 1-1)
The key to instrument 2 – Component sequence number
1
identification, is given 3 – Instrument function (table 1-2)
6 4 – Vendor designation
in Figure 1-9 2
5 – Panel number
7 6 – Set point(s)
Figure 1-9 7 – Application notes
Example 1-6
Identify the following instruments:
a) Answer: Temperature (1’st letter) recording (2’nd letter)
TRC controller (3’rd letter also from second column table 1-1)
mounted on board
Exercise
Identify the instrumentation blocks in the heat exchanger below
Product stream
to be heated
PR PIT
1a 1b √
FIT FY FR
2a 2b 2c
Steam supply
PIC M
3
TRC
4a
TSH TAH
4b 4c
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-1
2. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce students to the definitions and units of
pressure related quantities and to discuss typical methods to measure pressure.
F
P= Equation 2-1
A
Area Area
0.1 m2 P = 1000 Pa P = 10000 Pa
0.01 m2
2.1.2 Density
Density of a substance is defined as the mass of a unit volume of a substance. The
SI unit is kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3).
M
ρ= Equation 2-2
V
(Note: If the substance is a gas, the relative density is defined as the ratio of the density
of the gas to the density of air at the same temperature, pressure and dryness.)
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-2
Summary:
A comparison of absolute pressure, atmospheric pressure, gauge
pressure, vacuum pressure and differential pressure.
Absolute
pressure
Pgauge Differential
Atmospheric pressure
pressure Pabs
Pvacuum
Patm
h
P
Figure 2-1
A
We conclude therefore that the pressure (pascal) caused by a liquid column h meter
high and with density ρ kilogram/meter3, is given by:
where g is the gravitational acceleration. We will always use g = 9.81 m/s2 in pressure
calculations.
Note: If the absolute atmospheric pressure, exerted on the surface of the liquid, is P0
pascal, the total pressure acting on the bottom of the container is Ptotal = P0 + ρhg
Example 2-1
a) Convert a pressure of 150 cm. water, to a pressure expressed in pascal.
P = ρhg = 1000×(150×10-2)×9.81 = 14715 Pa.
b) Convert a pressure of 10 kilo pascal to a pressure expressed as meter water.
P = ρhg ⇒ 10000 = 1000×h×9.81 ⇒ h = 1.019 meter
Therefore 10 kPa = 1.019 meter H2O.
c) Convert a pressure of 760 millimeter mercury to a pressure expressed in pascal.
P = ρhg = 13600×(760×10-3)×9.81 = 101400 Pa = 101.4 kPa.
d) Convert a pressure of 50 kPa to a pressure expressed as millimeter mercury.
P = ρhg ⇒ 50000 = 13600×h×9.81 ⇒ h = 0.3748 meter
Therefore 50 kPa = 374.8 mm Hg.
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-4
Figure 2-2
Example 2-2
A U tube manometer is half filled with mercury. A 200 kPa 100 kPa
pressure of 200 kPa is applied to the left hand leg and
a pressure of 100 kPa is applied to the right hand leg.
Calculate the reading h on the manometer.
It is important to remember that mercury cannot be
compressed by typical pressures. Therefore, if a Zero level
pressure differential causes a movement of the h
mercury away from the zero level, the downward
movement in the one leg, will be equal to the upward
movement in the other leg. Secondly, the density of X Y
air is very small in comparison with the density of the
manometer liquid. The pressure contribution of the air
in the tubes may therefore be neglected. Thirdly,
when we compare the pressures in the two legs of the
manometer, we need to remember the important
theorem from hydrostatics that states:
The pressure at two points, in the same horizontal plane, in a liquid at rest, is the
same, if a curve can be drawn from the one point to the other point, without leaving
the liquid.
It is now clear that we can equate the pressures in the XY plane, as this plane cuts the
mercury in the same horizontal plane, and the points of intersection, may be joined via
the mercury.
200×103 = 100×103 + 13600×h×9.81
∴h = 0.7495 m
If the reading were taken from the zero line upwards, it would be 0.7495/2=0.3748 m
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-5
Gauge pressure.
The arrangement to measure gauge pressure, P1 Patm
is shown in Figure 2-3 (b). A pressure P1,
larger than atmospheric pressure, is applied
to one leg, and atmospheric pressure to the
other. The reading h will be indicative of the
Zero level
pressure difference P1 – Patm or the gauge h
pressure.
Comparing pressures in the XY plane: X Y
P1 = Patm + ρhg
∴P1 – Patm = ρhg
∴Pgauge = ρhg Figure 2-3 (b)
Absolute pressure.
In order to measure absolute pressure, it is Pabs Vacuum
necessary to compare the unknown pressure (0 Pa)
with zero pascal, as shown in Figure 2-3 (c).
For that purpose, all the air must be removed
from one leg, to form a perfect vacuum.
That leg is then sealed. The two mercury Zero level
levels will take on their zero line position, h
only if zero pascal is applied to the open leg.
X Y
Equating pressures in the XY plane:
Pabs = 0 + ρhg
Figure 2-3 (c)
∴Pabs = ρhg
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-6
Example 2-3 P1 P2
A u-tube manometer is filled with two liquids, one
liquid with a relative density of 1 and the other with a δ=1 0.5 m
relative density of 13.6. Calculate the pressure
difference, P1 – P2 , applied across the manometer. 1m
Comparing pressures on the XY line:
P1+1000×1×9.81=P2+1000×0.5×9.81+13600×0.5×9.81
X Y
∴P1 + 9810 = P2 + 4905 + 66708
∴P1 – P2 = 61.803×103 = 61.80 kPa.
Example 2-4 δ=13.6
You are requested to design a scale plate for a U-tube
manometer that uses zeal oil, with relative density of 579mm 10 kPa
0.88, as manometer liquid. You are told that the
maximum differential pressure to be measured, will be 434.25mm 7.5 kPa
10 kPa. From the zero line upward, the following
values must be marked off on the scale plate: 2.5 kPa, 5 289.5mm 5 kPa
kPa, 7.5 kPa and 10 kPa. Calculate the distances
between the markings, and sketch the designed plate. 144.75mm 2.5 kPa
P1 – P2 = ρhg, so for P1-P2=10 kPa:
Zero line 0 kPa
10×103=880×h×9.81 ⇒ h = 1158 mm.
∴Distance from zero line to 10 kPa marking=579 mm. Intervals=144.75 mm.
Example 2-5 100 kPa 200 kPa
The distance from the zero level to the top of a Px
mercury manometer is 1 meter, when both tubes
are open to an atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa. 1-(h/2)
1m
The right hand tube is now sealed off and a
pressure of 200 kPa is applied to the left hand h/2
tube. Calculate the manometer reading h. h
When 200 kPa is applied to the left hand tube, X Y
the pressure in the sealed tube, will rise to a
new, higher than 100 kPa, pressure which we
will call Px. If the cross sectional area of the
tube is A, we may use Boyle’s law to obtain an expression for Px. The volume of
the air in the right hand tube is 1×A when open to 100 kPa and sealed, with 200
kPa applied to the left hand tube, it is (1-h/2)×A. Using Boyle’s law, P1V1=P2V2:
100×103×[1×A] = Px×[(1-h/2)×A] ∴Px = 100×103/[1-h/2] …………. (1)
Comparing pressures on the XY line: 200×103 = Px + 13600×h×9.81 ……. (2)
(1) in (2): 200×103 = 100×103/[1-h/2] + 13.6×103×h×9.81
∴200 = 100/[1-h/2] + 13.6×9.81×h ⇒ 200 = 100/[1-h/2] + 133.4h
∴200×(1-h/2) = 100 + 133.4h×(1-h/2) ⇒ 200-100h=100+133.4h – 66.71h2
∴66.71h2 –233.4h + 100 = 0 {ax2+bx+c=0 ⇒ x=[-b±√(b2-4ac)]/2a}
∴h = [233.4±√(233.42-4×66.71×100)]/2×66.71 = 0.5 m or h=3m (unacceptable)
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-7
P1
High
h
Zero level
d
X Y
A1 A2
Cross sectional Manometer liquid
Area of well = A1 density = ρ
Figure 2-4 (a) Figure 2-4 (b)
When the two limbs are open, as shown in Figure 2-4 (a), the manometer liquid
meniscuses will fall on the zero line. If a pressure differential, P1 - P2 (P1 > P2), is
applied to the instrument, in Figure 2-4 (b), the rise and fall of the manometer liquid in
the two limbs will be different (h > d). The level h, in the glass tube, to which the
manometer liquid rises above the zero line, can be measured, while the fall in the
liquid level d, in the well, can not be observed, and as such, will be eliminated from
our equations below.
Comparing the pressures in the two limbs, on level XY, in figure 2-4 (b):
P1 = P2 + ρ(h+d)g …………………………………………… (1)
Also, the volume of manometer liquid, leaving the well, is
equal to the volume of manometer liquid, entering the tube:
A1d = A2h
A
∴d = 2 h ………………………………………………….. (2)
A
1
⎛ A ⎞
(2) in (1): P1 = P2 + ρ ⎜⎜ h + 2 h ⎟⎟ g
⎝ A 1 ⎠
⎛ A ⎞⎟
⎜
∴P1 – P2 = ρhg ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ Equation 2-5
⎜ A ⎟
⎝ 1⎠
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-8
Low
P1
L
High h
Zero level α
d
X Y
Cross sectional
Cross sectional Area of tube = A2
Area of well = A1
Figure 2-5
Deriving the relationship between the applied pressure differential P1-P2, and the
manometer reading L, is very similar to that of the well type. The only difference is
that the tube and horizontal does not form an angle of 90°, but an angle α.
⎛ A ⎞⎟
⎜
∴P1 – P2 = ρLg ⎜ sinα + 2 ⎟ Equation 2-6
⎜ A ⎟
⎝ 1⎠
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-9
Example 2-6
An inclined limb manometer is used for the measurement of pressure. The inclined
limb forms an angle of 30 degrees with the horizontal plane. The relative density of
the manometer fluid is 0.8 . The internal diameter of the well is 3 cm and the internal
diameter of the inclined limb is 12 mm.
a) Calculate the maximum applied pressure (in pascal), for a maximum scale reading
(L) of 100 cm on the scale attached to the inclined limb.
b) The range of the above inclined manometer must be extended so that the
maximum pressure that can be applied to the manometer is increased by 1000
pascal, by using a different manometer fluid, without changing the construction
of the manometer. Calculate the relative density of the manometer fluid that is
required.
πD 2 π(3 × 10 − 2 ) 2 πD 2 π(12 × 10 − 3 ) 2
a) A1= 1 = =706.9×10 and A2= 2 =
-6
=113.1×10-6
4 4 4 4
∴A2/A1 = 113.1×10-6/706.9×10-6 = 0.16 {or A2/A1=(D2/D1)2=(12/30)2 =0.16}
From equation 2-6:
P1 – P2 = ρLg(sinα+A2/A1) = 800×1×9.81×[sin30° + 0.16]
= 7848×(0.5 + 0.16) = 7848×0.66 = 5180 Pa.
b) (P1 – P2)new = 5180 + 1000 = 6180 Pa.
∴P1 – P2 = ρLg(sinα+A2/A1) ⇒ 6180 = ρ×1×9.81×0.66
∴ρ = 6180/6.475 = 954.4 kg/m3 ⇒ δnew = 0.9544
Example 2-7
The reading h on a well type mercury manometer, is 73 cm when measuring a pressure
of 100 kPa.
a) Calculate the ratio of well diameter to the diameter of the tube.
b) Determine the change in level that the well mercury experiences.
a) From equation 2-5:
⎛ A ⎞⎟
⎜
P1 – P2 = ρhg ⎜1 + 2 ⎟
⎜ A ⎟
⎝ 1⎠
∴100×103 = 13600×(73×10-2)×9.81×[1 + (A2/A1)]
∴1 + (A2/A1) = 100×103/[13600×(73×10-2)×9.81] = 1.027
∴(A2/A1) = 0.027
∴(D2/D1)2 = 0.027
∴D2/D1 = 0.1643
∴D1/D2 = 6.086 (ratio of well to tube diameter)
A2
b) d= h
A1
∴d = 0.027×73×10-2
= 19.71 mm.
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-10
Hairspring
Adjustable link
Bourdon tube
Range adjust
Sector gear
Figure 2-6
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-12
Moving end
Spring
P1
High pressure
Pressure indication
The bellows element may also be used to measure gauge pressure if P2 is equal to
atmospheric pressure, as depicted in Figure 2-7 (b). Absolute pressure may be
measured, see Figure 2-7 (c), if all air is removed from the bellows enclosure, so that
the pressure in the bellows, acts against a vacuum (0 Pa).
Atmospheric pressure
Vacuum (0 Pa)
P1 P1
Figure 2-7 (b) Gauge pressure Figure 2-7 (c) Absolute pressure
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-13
Figure 2-8 (a) (single) Figure 2-8 (b) (Convex) Figure 2-8 (c) (Nested)
Figure 2-9 (a), shows a diaphragm used to measure a pressure difference, P1 - P2,
while in Figure 2-8 (b), the same function is fulfilled with a diaphragm capsule.
P2 P2
Diaphragm Capsule
P1 P1
Mass pieces
Platform
Gauge under test
Primary piston
Secondary
(pumped)
piston
Screw
Oil
Figure 2-11
Example 2-8
A dead weight tester has a primary piston with a diameter of 1.5 cm. The mass of the
platform and primary piston together, is 300 gram. Calculate the mass m, of the mass
pieces, that must be placed on the platform to check a gauge at 150 kPa.
Weight of masspieces + weight of platform and primary piston
Pressure =
Area of primary piston
⎡m × 9.81 + (300 × 10 - 3 ) × 9.81⎤
⎢ ⎥⎦
∴150×103 = ⎣
⎡ (1.5 × 10 - 2 ) 2 ⎤
⎢π 4
⎥
⎣ ⎦
3 -6
∴(150×10 )×(176.7×10 ) = 9.81m + 2.943 ⇒ 9.81m = 26.51 – 2.943
∴9.81m = 23.57 ⇒ m = 2.403 kg.
The total mass of the mass pieces to be placed on the platform is therefore 2.403 kg.
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-15
A
Pivot point
L1
(range wheel
adjust)
Feedback L2
bellows B Range bar
Output pressure
P0 Force bar
The feedback bellows will now push the range bar in an anti-clockwise
direction, thereby restoring balance of both the range bar and the force bar, but at
a higher output pressure value of P0, indicative of an increased value of P1-P2.
Similarly, when P1-P2 decreases, the flapper will be pushed away from the
nozzle, thereby increasing the airflow through the nozzle resulting in a higher
pressure drop across the restriction and a lower pressure transmitted to the
feedback bellows. Balance will thus be restored, but at a lower value of P0.
The zero adjustment represents a pressure of 20 kPa in opposition to P0, so that when
the pressure differential, P1 – P2, is zero, the output must still be 20 kPa. To simplify
the discussion, let us assume that the effective clockwise moment at point A is
(P1 - P2)L1 while the anti-clockwise moment at point B is (P0 – 20)L2. Equating these
moments around the range wheel:
(P1 – P2)L1 = (P0 - 20)L2
L
1
∴P0 = (P1 – P2) + 20 kilopascal ….……..….(1)
L
2
The ratio L1/L2 is adjusted during calibration, by changing the position of the range
wheel, to ensure that P0 equals 100 kPa when (P1-P2) reaches it’s maximum value.
Setting this ratio equal to m, we can rewrite equation (1) as:
In Equation 2-7, the variables P0, P1 and P2, must be expressed in kilopascal. A
graphical representation of Equation 2-7 is given in Figure 2-13
Output P0
[kPa] P0 = m×(P1 – P2) + 20
where m = 80/(P1-P2)MAX
100
80
20 Figure 2-13
(P1-P2)MAX
0 Input (P1-P2)
(P1-P2)MAX [kPa]
Example 2-9
A differential pressure transmitter is correctly calibrated for a process variable that
varies from 0 kPa to 170 kPa. Determine the output of the DP transmitter when the
process variable reaches 90 kPa.
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-17
From Equation 2-7, the output of the transmitter is given by: P0 = m×(P1 – P2) + 20
When (P1-P2) = 170 kPa, the output is P0 = 100. ∴100 = m×170 + 20 ⇒ m = 0.4706
∴P0 = 0.4706(P1 – P2) + 20 kilopascal
If (P1-P2) = 90 kPa.: P0 = 0.4706×90 + 20 = 62.35 kPa.
When the force F moves the flapper towards the nozzle, the airflow through the
nozzle will be reduced, thereby causing a smaller pressure drop across the
restriction, so that more of the supply pressure will arrive at the diaphragm
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-18
chamber of the pilot relay, pushing the valve stem to the left. Moving the valve
stem to the left, will have a dual effect. Firstly the supply valve will allow more of
the air supply to reach the output (increasing the output pressure), and secondly,
the exhaust valve will close a bit more, making it more difficult for the newly
established higher output pressure, to relax itself through the vent. Balance will
again be restored by the higher pressure in the feedback bellows, that opposes the
disturbing force.
Similarly, when the external force pulls the flapper away from the nozzle, the air
flow through the nozzle will increase. The increased air flow will cause more of
the available supply pressure to fall across the restriction, making less pressure
available on the nozzle side of the restriction. The diaphragm will slacken, as it is
now exposed to a lower pressure and the valve stem will move to the right. The
supply valve will begin to close, thereby restricting the flow of air from the supply
to the output (thereby decreasing the output pressure) and at the same time, the
exhaust valve will open more, thus providing a wider escape route for the original
high output pressure, facilitating in this way with the rapid change in output
pressure from a higher value to a lower value. As always, the feedback bellows,
now receiving a lower pressure, will oppose the external force and bring the
flapper back into balance.
The flapper/nozzle, pilot relay arrangement, is an important pneumatic mechanism
and is also used in other instruments, such as the pneumatic control valve discussed in
Chapter 6, in addition to the differential pressure transmitter.
2.7 Strain gauges
Many pressure instruments such as an electronic differential pressure transmitter,
may need to develop a standard electrical signal of 4 to 20 mA or 1 to 5 V,
instead of the standard 20 to 100 kPa pressure signal. The strain gauge is one of
the devices used to convert a pressure or force into an electrical signal. The
majority of strain gauges are foil types, shown in Figure 2-16. They consist of a
pattern of resistive foil which is mounted on a backing material and operate on
the principle that as the foil is subjected to stress, the resistance of the foil
changes in a defined way.
Alignment marks
Figure 2-16
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-19
Force Force
Figure 2-17
The fractional change in length Δℓ/ℓ is called the strain ε, so that the gauge factor
may be expressed as:
F
Gauge in
tension
R1 R2
(R + ΔR)
E
– +
V0
R3 R4
Strain gauge
Figure 2-18
Using the voltage division rule, the output voltage of the bridge is easily obtained as:
⎛ R4 R3 ⎞
V0 = ⎜⎜ − ⎟ E.
⎟
R
⎝ 2 + R 4 R 1 + R 3⎠
R R
From this equation it is apparent that when 4 = 3 (which implies
R + R R + R
2 4 1 3
R R
that R1R4 = R2R3 or 4 = 2 ), the voltage output V0 will be zero. Under these
R R
3 1
conditions, the bridge is said to be balanced. Any change in resistance in any arm of
the bridge will now result in a nonzero output voltage. Therefore, if we replace R4 in
Figure 2-16 with an active strain gauge, any change in the strain gauge resistance will
unbalance the bridge and produce a nonzero output voltage, related to the stress. Let us
assume that when the bridge is in balance, the nominal values of the bridge arms are
R1 = R, R2 = R, R3 = R and R4 = R. Now if R4 is put under tension (stress), R4 will
change its value to R + ΔR and the bridge output will become:
⎛ (R + ΔR) ⎞
V0 = ⎜⎜ − R ⎟⎟ E = ⎛⎜ R + ΔR − 1 ⎞⎟ E
⎝ R + (R + ΔR) R + R ⎠ ⎝ 2R + ΔR 2 ⎠
∴V0 = ΔR E
4R + 2ΔR
From Equation 2-8:
ΔR = (GF)Rε.
Using this expression for ΔR in the expression for V0 above:
(GF)Rε R(GF)ε
V0 = E= E
4R + 2(GF)Rε 4R[1 + (GF)ε/2]
EIPINI Chapter 2: Pressure Measurement Page 2-21
(GF)ε
∴V0 = E Equation 2-10
4⎡⎢1 + (GF) ε ⎤⎥
⎣ 2⎦
Equation 2-10 is the bridge equation for one strain gauge in the bridge or what is
known as a quarter bridge. Other structures are possible, such as one active and one
dummy strain gauge or two active strain gauges (half-bridge) or four active strain
gauges (full bridge).
The bridge output voltage is typically very small and additional electronic circuitry is
needed to amplify the signal and condition it for a 4 to 20 mA or a 1 to 5 V signal.
Example 2-10
A strain gauge, imbedded in a silicone filled pressure capsule, is used to measure a
differential pressure P1 – P2. The strain gauge is connected to a quarter Wheatstone
bridge arrangement shown in the figure below. Each of the resistors in the three fixed
arms, has a resistance of 120 Ω. The strain gauge has a nominal resistance of 120 Ω
and the bridge is therefore in balance if the capsule experiences no stress. The gauge
factor of the strain gauge is two (GF = 2). The pressure cell is put under stress by
applying a differential pressure P1 – P2 = 100 kPa which results in a strain of ε = 0.005
in the strain gauge. Calculate the amplifier gain required to produce an output of 1 volt
from the Wheatstone output voltage V0, when P1 - P2 = 100 kPa.
120 Ω 120 Ω
10 V
– +
V0
Strain
gauge
120 Ω
P2 P1
Pressure
capsule
A
Output
3. FLOW MEASUREMENT
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce students to the definitions and units of flow
related quantities and to discuss typical methods to measure volumetric flow and
flowrate.
v
Distance cylinder travels in 1 second
3.2 VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow and is measured in
poiseuille (PI).
Note: Not all liquids are the same. Some are thin and flow easily. Others are thick and
sticky. Honey or syrup will pour more slowly than water. A liquid's resistance to flow
is called its viscosity. Imagine two layers of a liquid at a distance y from each other
and with layer area A, as shown in Figure 3-1. If we assume that the bottom plate is
the layer of stationary liquid molecules, clinging to the wall of the pipeline, then the
force F that we must apply to move the top plate at a constant velocity v relative to the
bottom plate, will be indicative of the fluid’s flow resistance.
EIPINI Chapter 3: Flow Measurement Page 3-2
v
F
v
y
Figure 3-1
F v
The quantity , is called the shear stress in the fluid and the ratio is called the
A y
velocity gradient (or shear rate). For typical liquids (Newtonian liquids), the shear
stress is proportional to the velocity gradient and the constant of proportionality is
called the viscosity η of the liquid.
F/A
η= Equation 3-2
v/y
The SI units for viscosity are the poiseuille (PI) or pascal-second (Pa-s) or newton-
second per square meter (N-s/m2). Another common (cgs) unit used to express
viscosity is the poise (1 poise = 0.1 PI).
Some examples of viscosity of liquids (at 20 ºC):
ηair = 0.00002 PI ηwater = 0.001 PI ηmercury = 0.0015 PI
ηoil = 1 PI (typical) ηhoney = 100 PI ηpeanut butter = 2500 PI
Notes: i) Pressure has very little effect on viscosity.
ii) Viscosity is not related to density.
iii) The viscosity of liquids decrease while the viscosity of gasses increase
with increasing temperature.
iv) The viscosity of a liquid divided by the density of the liquid is called the
kinematic viscosity of the liquid.
Dvρ
Re = Equation 3-3
η
where D is the pipe diameter (m), v is the flow speed of the fluid (m/s), ρ is the
density of the fluid (kg/m3) and η is the viscosity of the fluid (PI).
At low Reynolds numbers (generally below Re = 2000) the flow is streamlined while
at high Reynolds numbers (above Re =3000) the flow becomes fully turbulent.
Flow straighteners (straightening vanes)
When flow is measured and the flow is not streamlined, errors may arise in the
readings obtained. This problem can be prevented by installing flow straighteners
or straightening vanes, inside the pipe as shown in Figure 3-3.
Flow Flow
Figure 3-3
Example 3-1
The average velocity of water at room temperature in a tube of radius 0.1 m is
0.2 ms-1. Is the flow laminar or turbulent?
Re = (0.2×0.2×1000)/0.001 = 40000 > 3000 hence turbulent.
πR 4
q= (p − p 2 ) Equation 3-4
8ηL 1
where q is the liquid’s flowrate (m3/s), R is the radius of the pipe (m), η is the
viscosity of the fluid (PI), L is the length of the pipe (m) and p1–p2 is the pressure
differential across the pipe (Pa).
Example 3-2:
Calculate the flowrate of water in a pipe with diameter of 0.15 m and length 100 m
that discharges into air (p2=100 kPa) while the pump at the other end maintains a
π(0.075) 4
(102 × 103 − 100 × 103 ) = 0.2485 m /s.
3
pressure of 102 kPa. Ans: q =
8 × (0.001) × 100
Static pressure
Static pressure is the pressure that would be measured by a pressure gauge moving
with the flow.
Dynamic pressure
Dynamic pressure is the pressure exerted by a flow because of the flow velocity.
Stagnation pressure
Stagnation pressure is the sum of the static and dynamic pressure in a flow.
Note: Referring to equation 3-5a, the energy per unit volume, p, is the static pressure
and the kinetic energy per unit volume ½ρv2, is the dynamic pressure (energy per unit
volume may be associate with pressure as [Joule/meter3] is equivalent to [Pascal] and
interested students are encouraged to verify this dimensional equivalence). The static
and dynamic pressures taken together, is called the stagnation pressure (or impact
pressure), which is the pressure realized when a flowing fluid is brought to rest.
pstag = p + ½ρv2
∴pstag = pstat + pdyn ……………………………………..……… Equation 3-6
2(p −p )
stag stat
v= . Equation 3-7
ρ
A disadvantage of the Pitot tube is that it measures the flowrate only at one point.
An annubar flowmeter overcomes this problem by positioning several Pitot tubes
across the pipe diameter, providing a better average.
Note: The Pitot tube measures flowrate, by making direct use of Equation 3-6,
pdyn = pstag – pstat ⇒ ½ρv2 = pstag – pstat ⇒ v = √[2(pstag – pstat)/ρ].
EIPINI Chapter 3: Flow Measurement Page 3-6
Figure 3-6 h
h1
Flowdirection
p1 v1 p2 v2
A1 ρ A2 ρ
Flowrate = q
X Y
Referring to Figure 3-6, consider a unit volume in the flow stream with mass ρ
(given that the density of the stream is ρ). Let us now follow this unit volume in the
flow stream, as it passes the point X (flow area A1), travelling with velocity v1 and
under pressure p1, and then later passing the point Y (with smaller flow area A2) at a
higher velocity v2 and under the influence of a smaller pressure p2.
According to Bernoulli’s theorem for a steady stream, the total energy content
(pressure energy plus kinetic energy) of the unit volume should stay constant.
1 2 1
ρv + p = ρv 2 + p ………………………………….. Equation 3-8 (a)
2 1 1 2 2 2
And flow continuity demands that the flow rate q must be the same at X and Y:
A
q = A1v1 = A2v2, therefore v1 = 2 v ……….…………… Equation 3-8 (b)
A 2
1
Using Equation 3-8 (b), v1 can be eliminated from Equation 3-8 (a), which will allow
us to obtain an expression for v2 and to determine the flowrate from q = A2v2.
1 1
ρ[(A /A )v ]2 + p = ρv 2 + p ⇒ ρ(A 2 / A1) 2 v 2 + 2p1 = ρv 2 + 2p 2
2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2
2(p1 − p 2 )
∴ ρv 2 ⎡⎢1 − (A 2 / A1) 2 ⎤⎥ = 2(p1 − p 2 ) ⇒ v 2 =
2⎣ 2
⎦ ρ ⎡⎢1 - (A 2 /A1) 2 ⎤⎥
⎣ ⎦
EIPINI Chapter 3: Flow Measurement Page 3-7
2(p1 − p2 )
∴v2 = ………….………...…… Equation 3-8 (c)
ρ⎢1 − (A 2/A1)2 ⎥
⎡ ⎤
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
2(p1 − p2 )
q = A2 ⎡ ……...……...……… Equation 3-8 (e)
ρ⎢1 − (A 2/A1)2 ⎥
⎤
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Equation 3-8 (e), expresses essentially what we wanted to show, namely, the flow
rate q varies with the square root of the pressure difference across the restriction.
Equation 3-8 (e) may be simplified further, if we choose to specifically measure the
pressure difference p1 – p2 by allowing the liquid in the stream to rise up in the two
vertical tubes, as shown in Figure 3-6, and then take the reading h.
p1 = Patm + ρ(h1 + h)g and
p2 = Patm + ρh1g.
2ρhg 2hg
q = A2 = A2 …….…… Equation 3-8 (g)
⎡ 2 ⎤ 1 − (A 2 /A1) 2
ρ ⎢1 − (A 2 /A1) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
From Equations 3-8 (f) and 3-8 (g), we may conclude that,
Note: Although we assumed a horizontal flow stream, it can be shown that Equation
3-9 is equally valid for inclined flow streams or even vertical flow streams. Please
remember that h in Eq. 3-9 still implies the pressure difference p1 – p2 (pascal).
EIPINI Chapter 3: Flow Measurement Page 3-8
Example 3-3
A flow rate meter, uses a restriction in the flow stream, to measure the flow rate of a
liquid in a horizontal pipe. The pressure difference across the restriction is determined
by allowing the liquid into two vertical tubes installed on top of the pipe and on both
sides of the restriction. When the flow rate is 0.1 cubic meter per second, the level
difference of the liquid in the tubes is 0.3 meter. Calculate the flow rate when the level
difference of the liquid in the two tubes is 0.6 meter.
Answer: Using Equation 3-9: q1 = k h ⇒ 0.1 = k 0.3 ⇒ k = 0.1/ 0.3 = 0.1826
1
∴q2 = k h = 0.1826 0.6 = 0.1414 m3/s
2
Example 3-4
A cylindrical object with volume Vf = 100×10-6 m3,
density ρf = 2000 kg/m3 and cross sectional area v2 v2
p2
Af = 4×10-3 m2, is suspended in the centre of a vertical A2
tapered tube by water with density ρℓ = 1000 kg/m3,
rushing upwards with a velocity v1 meter/sec. driven
forward by pressure p1 pascal when the tube’s cross- p1 v1
A1
sectional area is A1 = 5×10-3 m2 and speeding up to a q
velocity v2 meter/sec. when it reaches the restricted cross- p2
p1
sectional area A2 = 1×10-3 m2, around the object, where q 0.005m2 0.004m2
the pressure has diminished to p2 pascal. Calculate the
0.001m2
flow rate of the water.
Answer: There are two forces operating on the object, a gravitational force Fw pulling
it downwards and a drag force Fd caused by the water stream, pulling it upwards.
Fw = Weight of the object – Weight loss of the object in the water Fd
= ρfVfg – ρℓVfg (Weight loss, according to Archimedes’s law,
equals weight of water displaced by object)
= 2000×(100×10 )×9.81 – 1000×(100×10-6)×9.81 = 0.981 N
-6
Fw
Example 3-5 A flow rate meter, uses a restriction in the flow stream, to measure the
flow rate of a liquid in a horizontal pipe. When the flow rate of the stream reaches its
maximum value (100%), the differential pressure meter also registers its maximum
reading (100%). Assuming that the pressure meter will show a zero reading when the
flow rate is zero, calculate the flow rate when the pressure meter indicates 20%, 40%,
60% and 80% of its full scale reading. Draw a graph of percentage flow rate versus
percentage differential pressure.
It is given that the flow rate q is 100% when the differential pressure h is 100%.
Using Equation 3-9, q = k h , 100 = k 100 ⇒ k = 10
For h = 20%, q = 10 20 = 44.72%. For h = 40%, q = 10 40 = 63.25%
For h = 60%, q = 10 60 = 77.46%. For h = 80%, q = 10 80 = 89.44%
Flowrate q
(percent of full scale)
100
80
q = 10 h
60 or
h = 0.001q2
(y = ax2)
40
20
Differential pressure h
(percent of full scale)
0
20 40 60 80 100
20 36 52 68 84 100
kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa
If we did use a differential pressure transmitter to measure the pressure difference,
then 0% input pressure would correspond to 20 kPa, 20% input pressure to 36 kPa,
40% input pressure to 52 kPa, 60% input pressure to 68 kPa, 80% input pressure to 84
kPa and 100% input pressure to 100 kPa. These values are also shown on the
differential pressure axis of the graph.
Example 3-6: Use Equation 3-8 (c) to derive the simplified Bernoulli’s equation,
p1 – p2 ≈ 4v22, that medical doctors use when they examine a patient’s blood
circulation. Assume δblood = 1, p1 – p2 is measured in mm. Hg and (A2/A1)2 << 1.
v2 = √{[2(p1-p2)pascal]/[ρblood(1-(A2/A1)2]} ≈ √[2(p1-p2)pascal/1000] because A22 << A12
and ρblood ≈ 1000 kg/m3. Also (p1-p2)pascal = [13600×(p1-p2)mmHg×9.81]/1000
∴v2 = √[2×13600(p1-p2)mmHg×9.81/10002] = √0.27(p1-p2) ⇒ p1-p2 ≈ 4v22
EIPINI Chapter 3: Flow Measurement Page 3-10
Flow
Inlet cone Outlet cone
D d Throat
(19º – 23º) (5º – 15º)
D/2 d/2
Figure 3-7
3.9.2 Advantages and disadvantages of the venturi tube
Advantages
• Pressure loss is small
• Operation is simple and reliable
Disadvantages
• Highly expensive
• Occupies considerable space.
EIPINI Chapter 3: Flow Measurement Page 3-11
Flow
Figure 3-8
Flow
Vent holes:
Vent holes (Figure 3-10b) are provided Vent hole
to prevent gasses to accumulate at the Flow
top the pipe on the upstream side of the
orifice plate, when transporting liquids.
Vent holes provide a path for the Orifice plate
trapped gasses to be carried
downstream with the flow. Figure 3-10 (b)
Flow
Flow
D
d
Flange taps
Flange taps are mounted directly in the pipe flange 25 mm. upstream and 25 mm.
downstream, as shown in Figure 3-13b. They are usually accurately built into the
flange by the manufacturer.
25 25
mm mm
Flow
D
d
High pressure D ½D
tap Low pressure tap
Flow
D
d
Flow
D
d
Vena contracta
2½D 8D
High pressure tap Low pressure tap
Flow
D
d
3.12 ROTAMETERS
The rotameter (also called a variable area flow
meter) consists of a gradually tapered transparent Scale
Fd
tube, mounted vertically in a frame with the large
end up, as shown in Figure 3-15. The fluid flows
upward through the tube and a metal displacer or
float, is suspended in the fluid. The float is the Float
indicating element and the reading is taken on the
scale in line with the top of the float. The position
in the tube where the float reaches equilibrium, Fw
Tapered
depends on the flow rate of the fluid. The greater tube
the flow rate, the further up the tube the float rises.
The tube is often made of high strength glass to
allow for direct observation of the float position, Figure 3-15
Flow
but if greater strength is required or if the liquid is
very dark or dirty, a metal tube is used and the float position detected externally.
The operation of the rotameter is discussed in Appendix 3-2. With the rotameter the
flow rate q may be determined from:
q = k(At – Af). Equation 3-11
where At is the tube area at the current float position (meter2), Af the float area
(meter2) and k a calibration constant (meter/second).
EIPINI Chapter 3: Flow Measurement Page 3-17
Flow
d
v
When an object (also called a bluff body or shredder bar) is located in a flow
stream, it causes an alternating series of vortices and whirls to be formed (or
shedded) downstream in the flow (called a von Karman vortex street), as shown in
Figure 3-16. The number of vortices passing downstream over a given interval of
time is proportional to the mean flow velocity. Vortex flow meters utilize this
phenomenon by counting the number of vortices, using different techniques such
as pressure sensors, capacitance sensors or thermistor temperature sensors built
into the bluff body. A popular technique is to use ultrasonic sensors placed outside
the pipe just after the shedder bar, which will send an ultrasonic beam across the
pipe. The vortices will modulate the frequency of the ultrasonic signal and the
vortices are then counted by electronic circuitry.
q = A× fd Equation 3-12
St
where A is the unblocked flow area (meter2), f is the measured vortex frequency
(hertz), d is the width of the bluff body (meter) and St the Strouhal number
(dimensionless).
EIPINI Chapter 3: Flow Measurement Page 3-18
Flow
D Electrodes
v
B
Figure 3-17
Magnetic flow meters (magmeters) can measure the flow rate of any conductive
liquid while offering no obstructions to the flow stream. A simplified schematic
diagram of a magnetic flow meter is shown in Figure 3-17. Magnetic flow meters
are based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction (e = Bℓv), which states
that when a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, an emf e (volt) will be
generated that is proportional to the velocity v (m/s) of the conductor, the length ℓ
(m) of the conductor, and the strength B (tesla) of the magnetic field. The section
of pipe that is part of the flow meter, contains the coils through which current is
passed to produce the magnetic field as well as the electrodes that produce the
voltage that is proportional to the flow rate. This section must be made of a
material that is non-magnetic so as not to distort the magnetic field and also a
material that is non-conductive so that the electrodes are not short circuited. To
ensure that the electrodes make contact with the liquid at all times, they should,
preferably lie in a horizontal plane.
Note: Faraday’s law can be applied to a flowmeter,
if one imagines the liquid to consist of a series of
v
liquid tubes moving through the magnetic field and
cutting through the field lines. The velocity of the ℓ
conductor v, becomes the velocity of the fluid B
flowing through the flow tube and the length of e = Bℓv
the conductor ℓ, is now the distance D between the electrodes. The flux density B, is
the strength of the magnetic field generated by the coils and e is the voltage produced
between the electrodes. For a flowmeter, Faraday’s law reduces to e = k1BDv, where
k1 is a proportionality constant. From the expression for e, the flow velocity can be
calculated as v = e/k1BD. With the flow area given by A = πD2/4, the flow rate may
now be determined as q = Av = (πD2/4)×(e/k1BD) = (π/4k1)×(De/B) = kDe/B, where
k is a second constant, determined by calibration.
The expression for the flow rate q is therefore:
q = k D e. Equation 3-13
B
where D is the distance between electrodes or pipe diameter (meter), B the magnetic
flux density (tesla), e the measured emf (volt) and k a calibration constant
(dimensionless).
EIPINI Chapter 3: Flow Measurement Page 3-19
Support and
Figure 3-21 flow straightener
and an alternating voltage is induced in the coil as the blades pass the coil. Each
voltage pulse represents a discrete volume of liquid that passed through the meter.
The total volume is obtained by counting the number of pulses generated.
(a) (b)
EIPINI Chapter 3: Flow Measurement Page 3-22
The total distance the two have moved before they collided is clearly λT and therefore
vΔt + cΔt = λT or Δt = λT/(v+c). Furthermore, during the same time interval Δt, wave
crest I has already moved a distance cΔt from the origin where it was reflected,
towards the receiver. Wave crest II is now also on its way back to the receiver and it is
again clear from the sketch that the distance between I and II (which is the wavelength
λR, of the reflected sound wave with corresponding received frequency, fR = c/λR) is
given by: λR = cΔt - vΔt = (c – v)Δt = (c – v)λT/(v + c) ⇒ λR(c + v) = λT(c - v)
∴(c/fR)(c + v) = (c/fT)(c – v) ⇒ fT(c + v) = fR(c – v) ⇒ vfT + vfR = cfR –cfT
∴v = c(fR – fT)/(fT + fR).
Because fT ≈ fR, it follows that fT + fR ≈ 2fT, and we conclude that
θ
the speed of the object is given by, v = (fR - fT)c/2fT. When we refer
back to Figure 3-18, we see that the sound waves are transmitted at c
an angle θ into the stream. This means that we are not measuring the vcosθ
flow velocity v, but rather the magnitude of the velocity vector, θ v
vcosθ, that is directly in line with the sound beam (see sketch). We
therefore replace v with its component vcosθ in v = (fR - fT)c/2fT, to obtain the flow
velocity v = c(fR – fT)/2fTcosθ.
Appendix 3-4 (Transit time meter)
Referring to Figure 3-19, if the flow velocity is v meter/second, then the component of
v that is parallel to the beam path is vcosθ. If the speed of sound is c meter/second, the
upstream speed of the sound beam is c-vcosθ, as it is opposed by the flow. The
downstream speed of the sound pulse is c+vcosθ as it is assisted by the flow. The time
it takes a sound pressure pulse to move upstream from transducer 1 to 2 is then
t12=L/(c-vcosθ), where L is the distance between the transceivers, and the time it takes
a sound pressure pulse to move downstream from transducer 2 to 1 is t21=L/(c+vcosθ).
The difference of the inverses of the times is then, 1/t21-1/t12=(c+vcosθ)/L-(c-vcosθ)/L
and it follows easily that the flow velocity v = L[(1/t21)-(1/t12)]/2cosθ, from which the
flowrate q = Av may be determined.
Appendix 3-5 (Coriolis meter)
It is easy to demonstrate the tube twisting phenomenon.
If water is flowing in an elastic hosepipe and a section of
the hosepipe, formed in a loop, is swung slowly forward
and backward, the twisting of the lower section of the
hosepipe will immediately be observed.
The Coriolis force was first described by the French civil engineer Gaspard Coriolis
in 1843, who observed that the wind, the ocean currents and even airborne artillery
shells will always drift sideways because of the earth’s rotation. If one could imagine
a person standing in the centre of a rotating disk revolving in a clockwise direction, as
depicted in Figure A3-1 (a), and he rolls a ball straight from A to B, he would observe
that as far as he and his rotating disk is concerned, the ball is not moving in a straight
line but rather it is curling to the left. This person would come to the conclusion that
there is apparently a force present that is pushing the ball away.
EIPINI Chapter 3: Flow Measurement Page 3-24
Flow Driver
Tube
Figure A3-3
The driver element (exciter) is at this moment rotating the tubes downward with an
angular velocity ω. The fluid moving into the entrance tube, now acts in the same way
as the ball rolling out from the centre of the disk and is bending the tube upwards. The
fluid moving in the exit tube behaves the same way as the ball rolling in from the edge
of the spinning disk and is bending the tube downwards. The total effect is a
clockwise twist of the tubes. When the driver element starts to push the tubes upwards
(the driver operates near the resonance frequency of the tubes), the whole scenario
changes around and the tubes will twist in an anti-clockwise direction.