Industrial Chemistry 

Form VI Chemistry 
Bentley Carr 

Replacing Natural Resources 

Natural rubber (polyisoprene) made from naturally
occurring isoprene (methylbut-1,3-diene) which is found
from rubber trees.

Production of natural rubber

There is a high demand for rubber, however natural
rubber is expensive due to the expense required to
harvest rubber:
- Disease affecting growth.
- Weather affecting growth.
- Hard to grow in tropical climates.
Therefore producing rubber from natural resources
cannot meet demand.

Synthetic rubber (styrene-butadiene) can be produced as Production of synthetic rubber

a replacement. It is produced from styrene and butadiene (but-1,3-diene) which are found in fossil fuels
(byproducts of petroleum). It has the following advantages:
- Better properties: more chemically resistant and durable.
- Cheaper - production does not fluctuate due to environmental factors → decreased and more stable
price.
- Adequate supply: there are a large amount of fossil fuel reserves so there is a plentiful supply of
chemicals required to synthesise rubber.
- BUT fossil fuels are non-renewable so this is not a long term viable solution.

Uses:
- Car tyres: need chemical resistance and durability.
- Rubber bands: elasticity.
- Hoses: flexibility and durability.
- Rubber gloves: elasticity and durability.

Note: natural rubber offers good elasticity while synthetic materials offer better resistance to chemicals, UV
and temperature.

Synthetic rubber is produced from nonrenewable sources (fossil fuels) so even though it may be plentiful and
cheap now, it may not be in the future, so it is not a viable long term solution. Although natural rubber is made
from renewable sources, it cannot meet demands so it is not a viable solution either. Therefore another
replacement for rubber must be found for the future.
Equilibrium 
The relationship between concentration of the reactants and products in a reversible reaction at equilibrium
can be given as:
aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD Remember PORK
c
[C] ·[D] d Products Over Reactants gives K.
K= a b
[A] ·[B]
K is known as the equilibrium constant.
Note: in the above equation, we only multiply be [X]X if the substance is a gas or aqueous.

If we know the amount of reactants used up (by stoichiometry we can find the concentrations of other
substances) we can find K .

If K is big ( > 103 ) then we say the equilibrium lies well to the right (effectively not reversible).
If K is small ( < 10−3 ) then we say the equilibrium lies well to the left (effectively not reversible).

For a given reaction, K stays constant despite:

- Changes in concentration of reactants and products.
- Changes in volume or pressure of gas reactants or products.
- The use of a catalyst.
But K is NOT constant for changes in temperature. It is the only factor that may change K for a given
expression.
- If K increases with temperature, then the reaction is endothermic.
- If K decreases with temperature, then the reaction is exothermic.

[PRAC] Modelling an Equilibrium Reaction 

We used beads to model an equilibrium reaction. We moved a constant percentage of beads from the
“reactants” pile to the “products” pile and vice-versa, eg 5% of reactants we moved to the products and 2% of
the products we moved to the reactants each time. We repeated this many times until the number of reactants
equals the number of products. This is when an equilibrium has been reached.

This model is a mathematical description of the amounts of products and reactants in a vessel represented by
the amount of beads in each pile. We modelled the following disturbances to the system by the following:
- Changes in concentration of products/reactants: add/remove beads from one side.
- Changes in temperature: We can kind of model this by adding beads to the side with heat in the
chemical equation. If keep swapping beads, we can see the equilibrium shifts to minimise the
disturbance.

The model struggles to model the following:

- Changes in volume/pressure: cannot favour the side with more/less moles of gas.
- Another limitation is our number of products:reactants are only in a 1:1 molar ratio.
- Can't model decimals (relies on whole beads).
- Can't model the impact of catalyst ( either sidealthough you can just move more beads each time).

RISK: Less risk than a chemical reaction since no dangerous chemicals are involved and we are only using a
physical model, so no severe risks were involved in the produce. A minor one is that beads are a choking
hazard so don’t eat the beads.

   
[PRAC] Investigating an Equilibrium 
We added potassium thiocyanate to four different test tubes and added a bit of iron (III) nitrate. The following
equilibrium occurs:
Fe3+(aq) + SCN⁻(aq) ⇌ FeSCN2+(aq)
Then in each of the test tubes we did the following:
- Nothing. This is the control system.
- Add KSCN: increases concentration of SCN⁻ ions, driving equilibrium to the right.
- Turns the mixture a deeper blood red.
- Add Fe(NO3)3: increases concentration of Fe3+ ions, so equilibrium moves to the right.
- Turns the mixture a deeper blood red.
- Adding NaOH: Fe3+ and OH⁻ react to form Fe(OH)3. This pushes the equilibrium to the left.
- Mixture turns light yellow indicating presence of Fe3+ ions.
These changes are consistent with Le Chatelier’s Principle.

Sulfuric Acid 
Uses 
- Manufacture of fertilisers: eg. ammonium sulfate.
- 2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
- Dehydration of ethanol/hydrogenation of ethene:
- C2H4 + H2O ⇌ C2H5OH
- Dilute sulfuric acid to produce ethanol.
- Conc sulfuric acid to produce ethene.
- Pickling steel to remove iron oxide coating prior to galvanising.
- Manufacture of inorganic pigments such as titanium(IV) oxide which is used as a white pigment in
paints, paper and plastics.

Extraction of Sulfur 
Sulfur is extracted from the ground through the Frasch process.
Superheated steam under high pressures (160°C) is pumped into
underground sulfur deposits causing sulfur to melt due to its low
melting point (at 113°C). Then hot compressed air is pumped into
the deposit, and this forces molten sulfur to foam and surface due to
the foam’s low density. Then the sulfur/water foam mixture is
cooled and solid sulfur is filtered out of the water since it is nonpolar
and hence insoluble in water. It produces 95% pure Sulfur.

Environmental issues:
- Thermal pollution due to superheated water being deposited into local waterways.
- Since the sulfur at the surface is hot and in the presence of oxygen, it can be oxidised to form SO2
causing acid rain and lead to respiratory problems.
- Alternatively can be reduced to form H2S(g) which is toxic to humans and is a pollutant.
- It is very difficult to fill the underground caverns left by the extraction of sulfur and after the extraction
equipment is removed, it may cause the cavern to cave in.

   
Production of Sulfuric Acid 
Known as the contact process:
1) Conversion of sulfur to sulfur dioxide
‐ S(l) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g) ΔH < 0
‐ Molten sulfur sprayed into furnace and burned in a blast of dry air at about 1300K so that the
sulfur reacts with the oxygen.
‐ High temperature (1300K) to increase frequency of particle collisions and provide enough
energy to have over activation energy of combustion reaction when particles collide, ie
increased reaction rate.
‐ Molten (liquid) sulfur is sprayed to increase surface area and increase reaction rate.
‐ Make sure there is excess dry air so that there is enough oxygen gas for the reaction to proceed
to completion.
2) Catalytic conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide
‐ 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g) ΔH < 0
‐ Sulfur dioxide and oxygen passed over a vanadium (V) oxide catalyst at 700K and 1-2atm.
‐ The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction rate but the less yield we have.
‐ The lower the temperature, the slower the reaction rate but the more yield we have.
‐ Therefore we do it at 700K, 1-2 atm and with a vanadium (V) oxide catalyst. This gives a yield of
97% sulfur trioxide.
‐ Also we want excess dry air which ensures there is enough oxygen gas for the reaction, and
removing water prevents sulfur trioxide from reacting to form sulfuric acid at this stage which
corrodes the metal parts of the vessel.
‐ Passed over several layers of catalyst, cooling the mixture slightly in between each pass,
resulting in an almost complete conversion of SO2 to SO3.
‐ SO3 production must be maximised so there is less SO2 waste which is a pollutant (acid rain
and respiratory problems).
3) Conversion of sulfur trioxide to oleum
‐ SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (l) → H2S2O7 (l)
‐ Sulfur trioxide passed through conc sulfuric acid which produces oleum.
4) Oleum to sulfuric acid
‐ H2S2O7 (l) + H2O(l) → 2H2SO4 (l)
‐ Water added to oleum to form sulfuric acid.
‐ Any unreacted SO2 is recycled back to the converter and is passed over the catalyst again.

Exothermic Nature and Safety 

The ionisation of sulfuric acid is extremely exothermic.
- H2SO4 (l) + H2O(l) → HSO4⁻(aq) + H3O+(aq) + lots of heat
- HSO4⁻(aq) + H2O(l) → SO42−(aq) + H3O+(aq) + lots of heat
- ie: two very exothermic reactions.

As a result, it is extremely dangerous to add small amount of water to concentrated sulfuric acid as it will
produce superheated conc sulfuric acid gas. Instead, add small amounts of conc sulfuric acid slowly to a large
volume of water with stirring. The avoids the possibility of conc sulfuric acid evaporating. While diluting conc
sulfuric acid one must also wear safety glasses, gloves and a lab coat.

When using sulfuric acid, one should:

- Wear safety glasses, gloves, lab coat and use a fume cupboard.
- Exothermic reactions with water may produce dangerous gas when inhaled so use a fume
cupboard.
- Sulfuric acid is highly corrosive so one may experience extensive tissue damage on contact or
inhalation. Wear gloves, lab coat, safety specks.
- Have accessible supply of NaHCO3 to neutralise spills.
Transporting and storage sulfuric acid:
- Concentrated sulfuric acid (eg from contact process - 98%) is virtually all molecular (no ions) so does
not attack steel or iron (and the small amount that does creates an insoluble coating on the inside of
the iron container), so therefore conc sulfuric acid should be transported in an iron container.
- Dilute sulfuric acid is ionised and will react with steel and iron, so it should be transported in plastic or
glass containers which are inert.
- Should be stored away from metals, bases or water, or else dangerous exothermic reactions may
occur.

Reactions of Conc Sulfuric Acid 

Oxidising Agent 
- eg. Sn(s) + 2H2SO4 (l) → SnSO4 (aq) + SO2 (g) + 2H2O(l)
- eg. 2KBr(s) + 3H2SO4 (l) → 2KHSO4 (s) + SO2 (g) + 2H2O(l) + Br2 (l)
- Change of colour (white → yellow).
- RISK: sulfur dioxide (potentially harmful) produced which may cause respiratory problems. Use
a fume cupboard.

Dehydrating Agent 
- eg. C2H5OH → C2H4 (g) + H2O(g) with conc sulfuric acid catalyst.
- eg. C12H22O11 (s) → 12C(s) + 11H2O(g) with conc sulfuric acid catalyst.
- White crystalline solid → black spongy column.
- Observed when the sucrose mixture turns black.
- Steaming produced because exothermic reaction.
- eg. CuSO4·5H2O → CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O(l) with conc sulfuric acid catalyst.
- Turns from a blue crystalline structure to light blue.
- eg. CoCl2·6H2O → CuCl2 (s) + 6H2O(l) with conc sulfuric acid catalyst.
- Turns from a red crystalline structure to light red.

   
Production of Sodium Hydroxide 
Electrolytic Cells vs Galvanic Cells 
Galvanic Cell Electrolytic Cell
Spontaneous redox reaction which releases energy. Non-spontaneous redox reaction which requires
(No energy required) energy to occur.
Anode negative, cathode positive. Anode positive, cathode negative.

Electrolysis of Sodium Chloride 

The electrolysis of pure molten NaCl is a redox reaction:
2Cl⁻(l) → Cl2 (g) + 2e⁻ (anode)
Na+(l) + e⁻ → Na(l) (cathode)
+
2NaCl → 2Na (l) + Cl2 (g) (overall)

Electrolysis of dilute aqueous NaCl, possible reduction:

Na+ + e⁻ → Na −2.71V
H2O + e⁻ → ½H2 + OH⁻ −0.83V
Possible oxidation:
2Cl⁻ → Cl2 + 2e⁻ −1.40V
2H2O → 4H+ + O2 + 4e⁻ −1.23V

The reactions with water require the least amount of

energy, so the electrolysis of dilute NaCl results in:
2H2O(l) + 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) (overall)
However, for concentrated (>2M) NaCl (brine), water will
still be reduced since it requires much less energy than
the reduction of Na+, however since the difference in
voltage between the oxidation of H2O and Cl⁻ is not that
great and the concentration of Cl⁻ is high, the Cl⁻ will be
oxidised:
2H2O(l) + 2NaCl(aq) → Cl2 (g) + H2 (g) + 2NaOH(aq)
This allows us to produce sodium hydroxide.

We performed the electrolysis using a Hoffmann Voltameter and we identified the products:
- Hydrogen gas was tested above the cathode as we collected the gas and then used the pop test.
- Chlorine was tested as it caused wet starch iodide paper to darken (chlorine more electronegative than
iodine so it takes iodide’s electrons turing starch purple.
- The presence of OH⁻ ions was detected by phenolphthalein at the cathode turning pink.

   
Methods of Electrolysis 
Mercury Process
Description Titanium/graphite anode, liquid
mercury cathode.
Brine added in a chamber, Cl⁻ is
oxidised at the anode and Na+
reduced at the cathode, forming a
mixture with liquid mercury.
2Cl⁻(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e⁻
Na+(aq) + e⁻ → Na(l)
2NaCl → 2Na+(l) + Cl2 (g)
Mercury flows into another
chamber containing pure water
where Na reacts:
2Na(l) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2 (g)
Mercury is recycled.
Diaphragm Process
Titanium graphite anode,
steel/iron mesh cathode.
Asbestos diaphragm
separates the electrode
compartments; Na+ travels
to the cathode while OH⁻/Cl⁻
travels to the anode.
Half equations same as
mercury process.
Fresh brine pumped into
anion electrolyte to replace
old brine.
Membrane Process
Improved diaphragm
design, except asbestos is
replaced with polymers
like PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene).
Same chemistry as
diaphragm, except only
Na+ cation crosses the
membrane and not OH⁻
or Cl⁻.
Catholyte is pure water or
NaOH solution

Advantages Very pure NaOH produced. H2 and No Hg used, diaphragm No OCl⁻ residues in spent
Cl2 are kept apart. Useful because helps to separate the gases brine. Hg and asbestos
HCl explosive when mixed. when they are produced. not used. Only small NaCl
contamination.
Technical Mercury cells require the highest Contamination with NaCl; Operates at the lowest
Difficulties voltage. water must be evaporated voltages of the three cells.
to 50% concentration to
Mercury is expensive. crystallise out NaCl, but still Unaffected by variations
leaves 1-2% NaCl in individual cell loads or
High operating cost. dissolved. shutdowns.

If Cl2 mixes with NaOH, Polymer membranes are

NaOCl contaminant forms, expensive.
reducing yield.
Environmental Waste water contaminated with Carcinogenic asbestos None?
Issues Hg. used. Detrimental effects on
lung tissue.
Hg accumulates in food chains
and can cause paralysis and NaOCl must be removed
muscle wasting in humans. before discharging into
environment.

 
   
Saponification 
Triglycerides 
Triglycerides are simply tri-esters formed when
glycerol reacts with 3 alkanoic acids. Long chain
alkanoic acids are known as fatty acids, and
triglycerides formed by reacting glycerol with long
chain fatty acids produce lipids.

A solid lipid = fat.

A liquid lipid = oil.

Saponification 
When fatty triglycerides (lipids) react
with a base, the ester group is broken
apart and the glycerol is reformed along
with a salt.

  Saponification is the conversion in basic

solution of fats and oils to glycerol and
salts of fatty acids.
When these salts are soluble as if the case with group one salts, then the salt is called soap.

Note: the nature of the cation is not important so long as it forms a soluble salt. It is the alkanoate ion which
acts as a cleaning agent.

Cleaning Action 
- Soap is a surfactant, meaning it reduces the surface tension of water.
- The alkanoate has a polar head which bonds to water and a non-polar tail which doesn’t bond to water
but bonds to oil.
- This means that soap can allow water-oil emulsions to be formed. An emulsion is a liquid-liquid
suspension in which droplets of one liquid are evenly dispersed throughout the other.

- Oil in non-polar so the non-polar tail bonds to oil

droplets.
- Water is polar so the polar head bonds to water
molecules by dipole-dipole interaction.
- Oil droplets are further loosened by rubbing and
freed from the surface they were stuck to.
- More hydrophobic tails bond to the oil droplets as
they are released, eventually forming a micelle, a
spherical oil package surrounded by anionic
molecules.
- The nonpolar ends face inwards and the polar ends
face outwards.
- These micelles are dispersed throughout the water, forming the emulsion.
- Micelles repel each other because of the negative charge on their surface so the oil droplets do not
clump together.
In this way, the soap acts as an emulsifier for an emulsion of soap, water and oil, since otherwise, water and oil
would form a suspension instead.
Producing Soap in Practice 
Similarities between school lab and industry:
- Fats and oils are mixed with concentrated base and heated.
- Brine used to separate the soap from aqueous phase.
- Crude soap washed.

Differences:
School Lab
One oil/fat used.
Glass rod and hot plate to stir and heat.
Glycerol not entirely removed from soap.
Soap is collected rapidly, relatively crude.
Methylated spirits aid emulsification.
No fragrances or colours.
Industrial
Multiple fats and oils used.
High pressure steam heats and stirs mixture.
Glycerol removed from soap and purified.
Soap allowed to settle over a few days.
Old soap and salt used to emulsify new reactants.
Fragrances/colours added later.

Example of Emulsion 
Properties Related to Use Test for Properties
Neutral pH Allows cream to be used on the skin Dipped universal indicator paper in a 20mL
without causing irritation or burning from solution of water and cream, compared
very high/low pH resulting colour with reference colours
Water miscible Allows cream to be washed off the skin Cream formed a homogeneous mixture with
after it is applied water during the pH test
Oil miscible Cream must effectively remove makeup Five drops of olive oil added to teaspoon of
(contains greases), skin oils and oily dirty cream, homogeneous mixture formed with the
particles found on the skin from the air oil

 
   
Detergents 
Whereas soaps are made using naturally occurring fats and oils, detergents are synthetic surfactants
produced from petrochemicals. They were produced as a response to soaps that precipitate out in hard water.
While soaps have a common general structure, detergents can have a much wider range of structures since
they are synthetic.

Example Composition Structure Effect in Hard Uses

Water
Soaps Sodium stearate Sodium salt of long Anionic, polar head Precipitates with Personal hygiene eg
(NaCH3(CH2)16COO) chain fatty acid; and non-polar tail Ca2+ and Mg2+ in showering, hand
additives may also for bonding with hard water washing
be present water and oil
respectively
Anionic Sodium Sodium salt of long Anionic, polar ionic Precipitates as Laundry detergents,
Detergents dodecylbenzene chain alkylbenzene head, non-polar well, but much less dishwashing liquids
sulfonate sulfonate (contains tail, earlier since salts of Ca2+ and powders
benzene ring and detergents had and Mg2+ are much
SO3- group); side chains on the more soluble
possible additives tail
Cationic Dodecyl Quaternary Cationic, polar Unaffected by hard Fabric and hair
Detergents trimethylammonium ammonium salts cationic head, water because it is conditioners, since
chloride (nitrogen is bonded non-polar cationic cationic head is
to 4 carbons), anion hydrophobic tail attracted to fibres in
is usually Cl-; clothing and hair;
possible additives antiseptic properties,
therefore used in
disinfectants
Non-ionic Polyoxyethylene Molecule with polar Non-polar Unaffected by hard Low froth, so used in
Detergents ether (not a specific and non-polar hydrocarbon tail to water, since it does front loading
molecule; instead it sections, non-ionic, bond to oil, polar not interact with washing machines
is a polymer) possible additives units (CH2CH2O) Ca2+ and Mg2+ and dishwashers;
for water bonding also surfactant in
adhesives and paint

Environmental Impacts:
- Biodegradability: early detergents had branched hydrocarbon tails meaning they could not be easily
decomposed by microbes unlike soaps.
- Phosphates: Detergents once contained phosphate compounds to “soften” the water by combining
with Mg2+ and Ca2+, increasing the effectiveness. However, this may cause algal blooms. These are
now replaced with anionic zeolites.
- Cationic Detergents: Cationic surfactants have mild disinfectant properties which can kill bacteria that
decompose sewage at high concentrations. This is not usually a problem since cationic detergents
aren’t as frequently used.
Solvay Process 
Solvay process wants to make Na2CO3 and CaCl2 out of NaCl and CaCO3, two readily available substances.

The overall equation is 2NaCl(aq) + CaCO3 (aq) → Na2CO3 (s) + CaCl2 (aq).
- Brine purification: Ca2+ precipitated out with Na2CO3 (aq)since CaCO3 is insoluble. Fe2+ and Mg2+
precipitated out with NaOH since hydroxides are insoluble.
- Ammonia absorber: NH3 dissolved in brine.
- Tower: NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) + NH3 (aq) → NaHCO3 (aq) + NH4Cl(aq)
- Filter: Solution cooled to precipitate out NaHCO3 which is filtered.
- Heating: 2NaHCO3 (s) → Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

- Roasting: CaCO3 (s) → CaO(s) + CO2 (g)

- Lime Dissolver: CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq)
- Making CaCl2: 2NH4Cl(aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) → 2NH3 (aq) + 2H2O(l) + CaCl2 (aq)

Note even though you add sodium carbonate, you get out more than what you put in.
Note ammonia is recycled. Carbon dioxide is recycled from the heating of NaHCO3 and roasting of copper
carbonate.

Uses 
Sodium carbonate is useful:
- Glass manufacture: acts as a flux since it lowers the melting point of the mixture of silicon oxide and
calcium carbonate.
- Soaps and detergents: Used as a base to manufacture soaps and detergents, as well as phosphate
and silicate builders.
- Softening hard water: precipitates with Mg2+ and Ca2+.
- Baking Soda: Sodium carbonate can be used to make sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) (baking soda). It
is used in cooking and fire extinguishers to produce CO2.
-
Environmental Issues 
Calcium chloride:
- Waste product and discharged into the ocean. The waste solution is slightly alkaline.
- Minimal environmental impact since Ca2+, Cl⁻ and Na+ are already in high concentrations.
- HCO3⁻ also present, acting as a buffer.
- Should not be discharged into other bodies of water such as lake or soil as this would cause
groundwater to be contaminated if discharged into soil, or hard water in lakes.

Ammonia:
- Contamination with dissolved ammonia in discharged solution is possible, but industrial techniques are
so efficient that virtually no NH3 is lost.

Thermal pollution:
- Possible since CaCl2 is produced at 95-100°C.
- Solutions are passed through cooling towers where heat energy is reused.
- Although warm, solutions do not reduce dissolved oxygen levels or damage organisms.

Limestone mining:
- Often open-cut mining used to obtain limestone, so normal issues associated with mining arise -
erosion, contamination of soil and water…
- Establishment of salt farms can possibly hard local environment (clearly of biodiversity).
- Unreacted limestone from the kilns is used to treat acid as well as in landfill and buildings.

Issue Explanation Example: Solvay Process

Availability of Raw materials must be readily Salt obtained through salt farms near Solvay plant
raw materials available (either locally or via (requires high temp, low rainfall)
and water transport) and at a low cost Limestone locally mined, transported via rail
Water pipelines link fresh water reservoir to plant
Liquefied ammonia transported from Haber plants via rail
Availability of Energy, especially heat and Coke used to decompose limestone, as well as heating
energy electricity, are required for the Coal generates electricity and produces steam
plant, as well as energy for Solvay process is relatively low energy, so availability of
transport eg rail raw materials is prioritised over energy supplies
Markets for Products of industry should be Local and domestic glass industries are important for
products readily marketable, either locally, selling soda ash (dry Na2CO3)
domestically or internationally Baking soda markets also important
Environmental Waste disposal strategies must be CaCl2 waste in slurry form can be diluted and discharged
issues, waste established to minimise into ocean with minimal impact on aquatic environment
disposal environmental pollution Heat exchangers recycle excess heat, reduced thermal
pollution
Transport Raw materials must be Dedicated rail links bring in limestone, as well as supply
transported to factories, products coke and coal
readily transported to markets Products exported through coastal ports; intrastate and
interstate transport via road
Personnel Located near towns or cities to Penrice plant is close to Adelaide
obtain necessary skilled
workforce, including technicians
and industrial chemists; towns
also provide housing and schools
for families
Diaphragm Cell 
The cell uses a porous barrier between the brine and water in order to allow the (theoretically) one way
movement of Na+ from the anode to the cathode to produce NaOH. However it is not a perfect ion selective
surface so some cross contamination between solutions does occur. This can cause: 2OH⁻(aq)+ Cl2(g) →
2ClO⁻(aq) + H2(g)which contaminates the products along with Cl⁻ ions. The theoretical reactions that occur are:
Carbon anode: 2Cl⁻(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e⁻
Iron cathode: 2H2O(l) + 2e⁻ → H2(g) + 2OH⁻(aq)
Overall: 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → Cl2(g) + H2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)
However, the use of asbestos in the diaphragm is unfavourable as its fibres are carcinogenic. Also the
products are impure so it is costly to purify. The NaClO is also corrosive and the ClO⁻ ion is a strong oxidant
that can react once discharged so wastewater needs purification too. Electricity costs are also very high due to
the nature of electrolysis.

Mercury Cell 
In response to the shortcomings of the Diaphragm Cell, the mercury cell has developed. The liquid mercury
can form an alloy with the Na+ ions which will displace the H+ ions to form NaOH. Since the brine and NaOH
are physically separated, no contamination occurs. The reactions that occur are:
Titanium anode: 2Cl⁻(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e⁻
Mercury cathode: Na+(aq) + e⁻ → Na(*) (*NB: Na is dissolved in Hg)
Overall: 2NaCl → 2Na+(l) + Cl2 (g)
The final reaction is NOT part of electrolysis: 2Na+(l) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Once again, this process is highly energy intensive. But rather than having the issue of asbestos, just as bad is
the contamination of mercury in the products that were found to be up to 200g per tonne of NaOH produced.
Mercury contamination was also found in the waste brine solution which was released into the environment.
Although not necessarily an issue since mercury is insoluble in water so should theoretically just sink to the
bottom of the ocean, it can be fixed by bacteria to form Hg(CH3)2 which can be ingested by sea creatures, and
can accumulated through the food chain and reach toxic levels if passed on to humans (when they ingest a
poisoned sea creature).

Membrane Cell 
In response to the shortcomings of both the previous cells, a very similar cell to the diaphragm cell was
created, but instead of an asbestos diaphragm, it used a polytetrafluoroethylene membrane which is a perfect
ion selective surface, ensuring only Na+ ions could pass through it, avoiding contamination like in the
diaphragm cell. The reactions that occur are:
Titanium anode: 2Cl⁻(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e⁻
Nickel cathode: 2H2O(l) + 2e⁻ → H2(g) + 2OH⁻(aq)
Overall: 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → Cl2(g) + H2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)
It avoids all the issues of the above two cells. But once again electricity is a large cost in the process
Sodium Carbonate 
Uses 
Sodium carbonate is mainly used in the production of glass, acting
as a ‘flux’ to lower the melting point of silicon dioxide. It is also
used in the development of photographic film and as a cheap base
to neutralise acid spills.

Solvay Process 
Due to the product of brine and the need to dispose of the CaCl2 in
a large body of water (it is water soluble but must be put in large
bodies of water so it doesn’t affect the Ca2+ or Cl⁻ concentrations
of by much) the production plants are usually coastally located.
Note that Ca2+ is a component of hard water that decreases the
effectiveness of soaps so is not favourable (it is more inconvenient
than dangerous). Solvay plants are also typically located near  
cities or towns for the convenience of a nearby workforce and
power supply. Some other environmental issues include the
escape of ammonia gas (which can be reduced by scrubbers to
chemically react and remove ammonia). Also thermal pollution
from the water coolant may pollute waterways if insufficiently
cooled first.

Overall: 2NaCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) → Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq)

1: CaCO3(s) → CO2(g) + CaO(s)

2: NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + NH3(aq) + H2O(l) → NaHCO3(aq) + NH4Cl(aq)
3: 2NaHCO3(aq) → Na2CO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
4: CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s)
5: 2NH4Cl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) → 2NH3(aq) + 2H2O(l) + CaCl2(aq)