Meaning and definition, characteristics, general formula, examples, uses/benefits

http://www.sparknotes.com/health/carbohydrates/section2/page/3/

Carbohydrates, also known as saccharide, are our main source of energy. Living organisms use carbohydrates as accessible
energy to fuel cellular reactions and for structural support inside cell walls. It is comprised of Carbon(C), Hydrogen(H) and
Oxygen (O) molecules and are in the ratio 1:2:1. Its general molecular formula is n(C6H12O6) – (n-1)H2O, where n stands
for the number of saccharides that are combined. It also play important roles in cellular recognition processes and storage
of energy and also acts as anticoagulants and antigens in our body. The most common example of it is glucose, more
commonly known as sugar.

Macromolecule So first of all what are Carbohydrates? Carbohydrates, also known as saccharide, are our main
source of energy. It is a very important source of energy. Living organisms use carbohydrates as
accessible energy to fuel cellular reactions and for structural support inside cell walls. Coming
from the word Carbon and Hydrates which is another word for water, it is comprised of Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen molecules, more known as CHO and are in the ratio 1:2:1. Its general molecular formula is n(C6H12O6) –
(n-1)H2O, where n stands for the number of saccharides that are combined. communication and cell adhesion and
defensing and removing of foreign materials. A common example of it is sugar or glucose.

Monosaccharides (Greek, meaning “single sugar”) are simple sugars which are the building blocks from which all
bigger carbohydrates are made. It has the general molecular formula (CH2O)n, where n can be 3 called trioses
(glyceraldehyde), 5 called pentoses (ribose and deoxyribose) or 6 called hexoses (fructose, glucose and galactose). These
consist of a carbon chain of three or more carbon atoms containing a hydroxyl group attached to every carbon except
one. The lone carbon atom is double-bonded to an oxygen atom, and this carbonyl group may be in any position
along the carbon chain. Therefore, one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms are present for every carbon atom in a
monosaccharide.
glucose

Mono, meaning one or single, monosaccharides are single, simple sugars which are the building blocks from
which all bigger carbohydrates are made. It has the general molecular formula (CH2O)n, where n can be 3, 5 or 6.
(explain bakit nawala yung sa H2o)

Combining two monosaccharides will give you a disaccharide and these are the simplest polysaccharides. They
are crystalline water-soluble compounds. The monosaccharides within them are linked by a glycosidic bond (or
glycosidic linkage) which are cleaved by enzymes known as glycosidases. This is formed through a process called
condensation, where there is a loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from
the other. The molecular formula for unmodified disaccharides is C12H24O12. The three major disaccharides
are sucrose which is formed by combining an α-glucose and a β-fructose, lactose which is formed by combining
a β-glucose and a β-galactose, and maltose which is formed by combining two α-glucose.

The process of linking one monosaccharide to another is called condensation and here, water is released.
Therefore, the reverse reaction is hydrolysis and this is where we add water. Adding water will break the bond.
Oligosaccharides are short chains of monosaccharides, usually formed by less than 20 monosaccharides which are also
are joined by glycosidic linkage through condensation. In fact, disaccharide is also considered an oligosaccharide. Simple
sugars (monosaccharide) are joined together to form a complex sugar (oligosaccharides). An example of it is the
maltotriose composed of three α-glucose molecules which is produced during the digestion of starch in the mouth and
small intestine. It is used as a sweetener and due to its water preserving ability, it is used in breads, cakes and
other baked goods. Another is the galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) which is found in beans, peas, lentils,
cabbage, whole grains and soy. These are composed of galactose molecules with one glucose on the
end, altogether containing 3-8 simple sugars and these act as a soluble dietary fiber.

Starch and glycogen are examples of polysaccharides that are storage forms of glucose in plants and animals,
respectively. The long polysaccharides chains may be branched or unbranched. Cellulose is an example of an
unbranched polysaccharide, whereas amylopectin, a constituent of starch, is a highly branched molecule.

The most common carbohydrate found in nature occur as polysaccharides, also known as glycans. These complex
carbohydrates that has more than 20 monosaccharides that make it up. They play vital energy storage and structural
roles in living organisms and are excellent energy storage molecules because they are easily built and broken down
by enzymes. Forming fairly compact structures, polysaccharides allow energy storage without the space required by
a pool of free glucose monomers. Other polysaccharides form strong fibers that provide protection and structural
support in both plants and animals.
Three of the most important examples of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen and cellulose. Starch produced by
plants through photosynthesis is their energy storage form. It exists in two forms: amylose and amylopectin. Both are
made from α-glucose. Amylose is an unbranched polymer of α-glucose while Amylopectin is a branched polymer of α-
glucose. Glycogen is the energy storage form for animals, like humans, which is made up of glucose monosaccharides.
These are mostly found in the liver and muscle cells in humans. Lastly, cellulose which is made from β-glucose molecules
where its structure is unbranched. It makes up the cell walls in plant cells. These are much tougher than cell membranes.
This toughness is due to the arrangement of glucose units in the polymer chain and the hydrogen-bonding between
neighboring chains.

Starch

Starch is often produced in plants as a way of storing energy in it. It exists in two forms: amylose and amylopectin. Both
are made from α-glucose. Amylose is an unbranched polymer of α-glucose. The molecules coil into a helical structure. It
forms a colloidal suspension in hot water. Amylopectin is a branched polymer of α-glucose. It is completely insoluble in
water.

Glycogen

Glycogen is amylopectin with very short distances between the branching side-chains. Starch from plants is hydrolysed in
the body to produce glucose. Glucose passes into the cell and is used in metabolism. Inside the cell, glucose can be
polymerised to make glycogen which acts as a carbohydrate energy store.

Cellulose

Cellulose is a third polymer made from glucose. But this time it's made from β-glucose molecules and the polymer
molecules are 'straight'.

Cellulose serves a very different purpose in nature to starch and glycogen. It makes up the cell walls in plant cells. These
are much tougher than cell membranes. This toughness is due to the arrangement of glucose units in the polymer chain
and the hydrogen-bonding between neighbouring chains.

Cellulose is not hydrolysed easily and, therefore, cannot be digested so it is not a source of energy for humans. The
stomachs of Herbivores contain a specific enzyme called cellulase which enables them to digest cellulose.
So first of all what are Carbohydrates? Carbohydrates, also known as saccharide, are our main source of energy. It is a very
important source of energy. In fact, it is a macromolecule, which is essential for our day to day survival. Living organisms
use carbohydrates as accessible energy to fuel cellular reactions and for structural support inside cell walls. Coming from
the word Carbon and Hydrates which is another word for water, it is comprised of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
molecules, more known as CHO and are in the ratio 1:2:1. Its general molecular formula is (C6H12O6)n – (H2O)(n-1), where n
stands for the number of saccharides that are combined. C30H60O30 – H8O4 = C30H52O26. It also plays important roles
in cellular recognition processes as carbohydrates such as ribose and deoxyribose which are found in our DNA and it also
serves as a storage of energy, which will be further explained later. The most common example of it is glucose, and it has
a molecular structure like this, more commonly known as sugar.

Mono, meaning one or single, monosaccharides are single, simple sugars which are the building blocks from which all
bigger carbohydrates are made. It has the general molecular formula (CH2O)n, where n can be 3 which is called trioses and
an example is glyceraldehyde, 5 which is called pentoses and examples are ribose and deoxyribose which are found in our
DNA or 6 which is called hexoses and examples are fructose, glucose and galactose. These consist of a carbon chain of
three or more carbon atoms containing a hydroxyl group attached to every carbon except one. The lone carbon atom is
double-bonded to an oxygen atom, and this carbonyl group may be in any position along the carbon chain. Therefore, one
oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms are present for every carbon atom in a monosaccharide.

There 2 kinds of monosaccharides which differ in their structure: the alpha carbohydrates and the beta carbohydrates. In
α-carbohydrates, the hydroxyl (OH) group of Carbon 1 is pointing in the opposite direction of Carbon 6. It is responsible
for energy storage, like what I said while ago. While in β-carbohydrates, the hydroxyl (OH) group of Carbon 1 is pointing
in the same direction of Carbon 6. It provides structure and support.

Di, meaning two, combining two monosaccharides will give you a disaccharide and these are the simplest oligosaccharides.
They are crystalline water-soluble compounds. The monosaccharides within them are linked by a glycosidic bond (or
glycosidic linkage) which are cleaved by enzymes known as glycosidases. This is formed through a process called
condensation, where there is a loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other,
or simply when water is taken away. Its reverse action to breakdown disaccharides is hydrolysis where we add the water
taken away during condensation. The molecular formula for unmodified disaccharides is C12H24O12. The three major
disaccharides are sucrose which is formed by combining an α-glucose and a β-fructose, lactose which is formed by
combining a β-glucose and a β-galactose, and maltose which is formed by combining two α-glucose.

Oligosaccharides are short chains of monosaccharides, usually formed by less than 20 monosaccharides which are also
are joined by glycosidic linkage through condensation. In fact, disaccharide is also considered an oligosaccharide. The main
idea of the different classifications of carbohydrates is that simple sugars, which are also called as monosaccharides, join
together in able to form complex sugars. An example of it is the maltotriose composed of three α-glucose molecules which
is produced during the digestion of starch. It is used as a sweetener and due to its water preserving ability, it is used in
baked goods. Another is the galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) which is found in beans, peas, lentils, cabbage, whole grains
and soy. These are composed of galactose molecules with one glucose on the end, altogether containing 3-8 simple sugars
and these act as a soluble dietary fiber.

I said here that oligosaccharides are composed of less than 20 monosaccharides. But what if it counted to more than 20?
That’s where the final kind of carbohydrate comes in, the Polysaccharides.

The most common carbohydrate found in nature occur as polysaccharides, also known as glycans. These complex
carbohydrates that has more than 20 monosaccharides that make it up. They play vital energy storage and structural roles
in living organisms and are excellent energy storage molecules because they are easily built and broken down by enzymes.
Forming fairly compact structures, polysaccharides allow energy storage without the space required by a pool of free
glucose monomers. Other polysaccharides form strong fibers that provide protection and structural support in both plants
and animals.

Three of the most important examples of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen and cellulose. Starch produced by plants
through photosynthesis is their energy storage form. It exists in two forms: amylose and amylopectin. Both are made from
α-glucose. Amylose is an unbranched polymer of α-glucose while Amylopectin is a branched polymer of α-glucose.
Glycogen is the energy storage form for animals, like humans, which is made up of glucose monosaccharides. These are
mostly found in the liver and muscle cells in humans. Lastly, cellulose which is made from β-glucose molecules where its
structure is unbranched. It makes up the cell walls in plant cells. These are much tougher than cell membranes. This
toughness is due to the arrangement of glucose units in the polymer chain and the hydrogen-bonding between
neighboring chains.