Skeletal System

• Bones are made of several

tissues

• Primarily made of collagen and

hydroxyapatite -
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2

• About 206 bones in the human

body
 Functions of Skeletal System
• SUPPORT: Hard framework that supports and anchors
the soft organs of the body.

• PROTECTION: Surrounds organs such as the brain and

spinal cord.

• MOVEMENT: Allows for muscle attachment therefore

the bones are used as levers.

• STORAGE: Minerals and lipids are stored within bone

material.

• BLOOD CELL FORMATION: The bone marrow is

responsible for blood cell production.
 Parts of the Skeletal System
• Axial skeleton
– Skull and bones that support it
– Includes vertebra and ribs
– 80 bones

• Appendicular skeleton
– Limbs
– 126 bones
Features of a Long Bone:

Epiphysis: Ends of the

bone.

Diaphysis: The shaft of

the bone which surrounds
the medullary cavity.

Articular Cartilage:
Cushions the ends of the
bones and allows for
smooth movement.

Epiphyseal Plate:
Areas made of cartilage
allowing for the growth of
the bone.
 Joints
• Where bone meets bone
• Ligament – holds bone to bone
• Types of joints:
– Immovable - skull
– Ball-and-socket - shoulder
– Hinge - knee
– Pivot – forearm
– Gliding - vertebrae
 Joints
• Cartilage covers ends of movable bones
– Reduces friction
• Lubricated by fluid from capillaries
Cartilage
 Bone Structure
• Periosteum – hard outer covering
– Cells for growth and repair

• Compact bone – hard strong layer

– Bone cells, blood vessels, protein with Ca and P

• Spongy bone – at ends of long bones

– Has small open spaces to lighten weight

• Marrow cavity – hollow in middle of long bones

 Bone Marrow
• Red marrow – produces blood cells and
clotting factors
– Found in humerus, femur, sternum, ribs,
vertebrae, pelvis
– Produces RBC 2 million per second

• Yellow marrow – stores fat

– Found in many bones
Bone Structure
 Haversian System
• Structure of compact bone
• Rings of bone tissue with blood vessels
and nerves in the center
Haversian System
Bones are Classified by shape and structure

limbs Carpals
vertebrae Skull bones
tarsals
Ribs
Sternum
scapula
Epiphysis
Epiphyseal Line
Diaphysis
Periosteum
Articulating Cartilage
 Compact Bone
• Canaliculi
• Haversian Canal
• Lamellae
• Osteon
Another picture of Compact Bone
 Spongy Bone
Located along the epiphyses of long bones
Site of Erythrocyte (RBC) formation

Collagen fibers are not arranged in concentric rings. But the lamellae form
rods called . No Osteons or Haverian Systems are present.
 Bone Development
• Initial skeleton of cartilage in infants

• Replaced with bone by osteoblasts

• More than 300 bones at birth – fuse to 206

• Always growing and breaking down

– Osteoblasts – form new bone cells
– Osteoclasts – break bone cells down
– Osteocytes – mature bone cells
 Cells in Bones
– mature bone
cells; recycle Ca and PO4

– dissolve
bone by secreting enzymes
and acids. Release Ca to
be returned to blood
stream

– cells that
produce new bone cells
referred to as osteogenesis

Osteoclasts remove matrix,

osteoblasts adds matris.
When an osteoblast’s
lacunae is calcified the cell
becomes and osteocyte.
 Endochondrial Ossification
• Bone tissue in a fetus begins as hyaline cartilage
• Inside is cartilage, cartilage becomes ossified.
• In 6 weeks cartilage is replaced to bone except at
growth plates.
In 6 weeks cartilage is replaced to bone except at growth plates.
Longitudinal Growth at the
Epiphyseal line
• Two growth plates
– Composed of
hyaline cartilage
– Longitudinal growth
is completed when
epiphyseal lines
become completely
ossified.
• Chrondroblasts closest to epiphyses begin
to undergo cell division
• Cells enlarge (hypertrophy)
• Cells die, bone eventually replaces
cartilage (invasion zone)
Resting Mitosis Hypertrophy Ossification
Zone Zone Zone Zone
• Resting Zone Mitosis Zone
Maturation/Hypertrophy Zone

• Ossification Zone
 Longitudinal Growth
• Controlled by 3 hormones
– Growth Hormone
• Baby to prepuberty
– Sex Hormones (estrogen/testosterone)
• Causes growth spurt at puberty
• Shapes your skeleton to your sex
– Thyroid Hormones (PTH & Calcitonin)
• PTH = parathyroid hormone
• Controls whether bone growth occurs
• Affects Appositional Growth – bone growth in
diameter
 Bone Homeostasis
Bone Remodeling
• Osteons are formed by osteoblasts
• In healthy adults:
– Bone deposit = bone resorption
– Osteoblasts = Osteoclasts
• Bone Remodeling refers to the regular
mineral turnover that occurs in bone.
• In adults, 18 % of proteins and minerals
turns over yearly. Not uniform. I.e. Head
of femur is remodeled more. Why?
 Bone Remodeling
Controlled by Negative Feedback Loop
• Bone Deposit • Bone Resorption
– Occurs where bone is – Osteoclasts break down
injured or added bone bone
strength is required – Calcium is taken from
– Deposits Ca+2 into bone and placed into
bone blood stream
– Lysosomes assist in the
process
– Ca and PO4 are
released; eventually
releasing the blood
stream
Bone Remodeling is controlled by 2 hormones by
a Negative Feedback Loop
• Blood Calcium is the original stimulus
• Normal Blood Ca is 9-11 mg CA/100 ml of
blood
• When blood Ca decreases (< 9 mg)
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) is released
into bloodstream.
• Bone resorption occurs causing Ca to
leave bone and goto the blood stream
• Osteoclasts are working
High levels of blood Ca (>11mg)
• When blood Ca levels are high, Calcitonin
is released.
• Causes bone deposit to occur
• Ca from the blood is stored into bone.
• (Osteoblasts and Osteocytes are working.)
• 99% of all Ca is found in bone.
• Osteoclasts
cause bone
resorption
– Controlled
by PTH

• Osteoblasts
cause bone
deposit
– Controlled
by calcitonin
• Vitamin D – aids in the absorption of Calcium into
the bone. Part of vitamin D is converted to the
hormone calcitriol which allows Ca to pass through
the S.I.(What food is Vitamin D fortified?)
i.e. rickets results from Vitamin D deficiency
• Vitamin C – helps osteoblasts function
i.e scurvy – caused from a reduction in osteoblast
activity
• Calcium tablets -
• Diet -
 2nd Response to Regulating Bone
Remodeling
• Wolff’s Law
– Bone grows or remodels in response to the
forces or stresses placed on it.
– Appositional growth – growth in diameter is
controlled by the amount of mechanical stress
and gravity placed on the bone
– Heavy usage leads to heavy bones; nonuse
leads to atrophy (bone loss)
 Controlling Bone Remodeling
• Hormones PTH and Calcitonin determines
whether and when bone remodeling
occurs.

• Mechanical Stess determines where

remodeling occurs. High stress areas
grow appositionally.
• Body’s Needs for Calcium
– Transmit nerve impulses
– Muscle contractions
– Blood coagulation
– Cell division

If blood Ca levels are low for an extended

time, bones continually lose Ca.
Once bone density loss begins, women
lose 8% of their bone mass every
decade, men lose 3% every decade
 Osteoporesis
• Osteoporesis

• Normal Bone
Risk Factors
Sex (females more affected than
males; especially after menopasue)
Insufficient exercise or too much
exercise
Poor diet (low in Ca and protein
Smoking
Race: Black > bone density
Change in Bone Density with Age
 Bone Fracture and Repair
• Simple Fractures take
8-12 weeks to heal
• Healing time
increases age due to
poor circulation
 Phases of Bone Repair
– A mass of clotted
blood appears
– Blood vessels
hemorrhage, causing
internal bleeding
– Blood pools and clots
around fx area; which
closes off injured
blood vessels
• Macrophages invade and
clean area
• Fibroblasts help form
chondroblasts and
collagen fibers
• Helps to form cartilage
splint that will connect
ends of broken bones
• Osteoblasts
replace the
cartilage with
spongy bone
• Bone cells replace
cartilage from the
outside fx toward
the inside
• Cells are not
organized in the
bony callus
Continues 4 months to a year
Removes excess material; a layer of compact
bone is produced
 Broken Bones
• Fracture is a break of the bone
• Simple or Complex fracture
• Regrowth of bone:
– Spongy bone forms in first few days
– Blood vessels regrow and spongy bone hardens
– Full healing takes 1-2 months
 Homeostatic Imbalances

Rickets
•Disease of children due to a lack of vitamin D.
•Calcium is not deposited in bones.
•Bones become soft.
•Bowing of the bones, and other deformities occur.
Homeostatic Imbalances

Osteomalacia
•“Rickets” of adults.
•Due to a lack of vitamin D.
•Calcium is not deposited in the bones.
•Bones become brittle.
Homeostatic Imbalances
Osteoporosis
•Bone reabsorption is greater than bone deposition.
•Due to any of the following:
•Lack of estrogen in women.
•Lack of exercise to stress the bones.
•Inadequate intake of calcium and phosphorus.
•Abnormalities of vitamin D metabolism.
•Loss of muscle mass.
 Age Related Dysfunctions
Arthritis:

Osteoarthritis- 90% of pop. By age 40

chronic inflammation of articular cartilage
can be normal age-dependent change
can also be pathology due to ?
Age-related changes
decrease blood supply
trauma
Osteoarthritis
 Osteoporosis

Decline in Bone Density

Bone Resorption > Bone Deposition

Increase Risk for Fracture

compression fractures of vertebrae
hip fractures

Role of calcium, vitamin D, estrogen, exercise

Calcitonin vs. Parathyroid Hormone
Osteoporosis
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