Signal Conversion / Processing

Elements
Signal Conversion/Processing Element

• Analog to Digital conversion (A/D)

• Computer and Microcontroller Systems
• Microcontroller and Computer software(Ass.Lang)
• Signal Processing calculation.(Filtering)
 Signal Processing Elements
• The output signal from the conditioning elements is
usually in the form of a d.c. voltage, d.c. current or
variable frequency a.c. voltage.
• The calculations has to be performed on the conditioning
element output signal in order to establish the value of the
variable being measured.
• Examples :
• calculation of temperature from a thermocouple e.m.f.
signal,
• calculation of total mass of product gas from flow rate
and density signals.
• These calculations are referred to as signal processing and
are usually performed digitally using a computer.
 Data Handling Systems

• Both data about the physical world and control signals sent
to interact with the physical world are typically “Analog"
or continuously varying quantities.

• To use the power of digital electronics, one must convert

from A/D form on the experimental measurement end and
convert from D/A on the control or output end of a
laboratory system.
Data Collection and Control
 Digital Signal Processing
Analog signal (time Incoming
varying, continuous) samples
Vref
Analog-to- 0x030,
Digital 0x4A,
0 Converter 0x12,
(ADC) 0xAF, etc.
Time
Vref Digital- 0x0B3,
to-Analog 0x23,
new Processor
Converter 0xCF,
performs
0 waveform (DAC) 0x78, etc.
computation
Time Outgoing samples
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 Applications

• Audio
– Speech recognition
– special effects (reverb, noise cancellation, etc)
• Video
– Filtering
– Special effects
– Compression
• Data logging

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 Vocabulary
• ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) – converts an analog
signal (voltage/current) to a digital value
• DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter) – converts a digital
value to an analog value (voltage/current)
• Sample period – for ADC, time between each conversion
– Typically, samples are taken at a fixed rate
• Vref (Reference Voltage) – analog signal varies between 0
and Vref, or between +/- Vref
• Resolution – number of bits used for conversion (8 bits, 10
bits, 12 bits, 16 bits, etc).
• Conversion Time – the time it takes for a analog-to-digital
conversion

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Digital-to-Analog Conversion [DAC]

Three Operations performed by DAC

1. Sampling
2. Quantisation
3. Encoding
– Binary code
– Hexa code
– Octal code
– Fractional Code

V 0.2 9
Sampling

10
Sample and Hold

11
Quantisation

12
Quantisation and Max.% of Error

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 Digital-to-Analog Conversion
• When data is in binary form, the 0's and 1's may be of
several forms such as the TTL form where the logic zero
may be a value up to 0.8 volts and the 1 may be a voltage
from 2 to 5 volts.

• The data can be converted to clean digital form using gates

which are designed to be ON or OFF depending on the
value of the incoming signal.
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion
• Data in clean binary digital form can be converted to an
analog form by using a summing amplifier.

• For example, a simple 4-bit D/A converter can be made

with a four-input summing amplifier.

• Two - Basic Approaches

1. Weighted Summing Amplifier
2. R-2R Network Approach
 1.Weighted Sum DAC

• One way to achieve D/A conversion is to use a summing

amplifier.
• This approach is not satisfactory for a large number of bits
because it requires too much precision in the summing
resistors.
• This problem is overcome in the R-2R network DAC.
Weighted Sum DAC
2. R-2R Ladder DAC
R-2R Ladder DAC
 R-2R Ladder DAC
• The summing amplifier with the R-2R ladder of resistances
shown produces the output where the D's take the value 0 or 1.

• The digital inputs could be TTL voltages which close the

switches on a logical-1 and leave it grounded for a logical-0.

• This is illustrated for 4 bits, but can be extended to any number

with just the resistance values R and 2R.
 DAC Architecture

Operational
Amplifier can be
used to sum
voltages.
From http://www.allaboutcircuits.com
V 0.2 21
DAC Architecture (cont)
Note ratios of
resistors

This is a binary code

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 DAC Architecture (cont)

A 3-bit DAC, called an R/2NR DAC.

• Resistors are scaled by powers of 2 (this is hard to
do in practice).
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 DAC Application
Phosper
Vertical Deflection
Cathode
R Red
DAC Electron Beams
Green (Red, Green Blue)
G 8 DAC
B 8 Blue
DAC
8
Grid
Horizontal Deflection
High speed video
DACs produce RGB
signals for color CRT
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Analog to Digital Conversion [ADC]

• 3 - Basic Types of approaches

1. Digital-Ramp ADC
2. Successive Approximation ADC
3. Flash ADC
 1.Digital-Ramp ADC
• Conversion from analog to digital form inherently involves
comparator action.

• where the value of the analog voltage at some point in time

is compared with some standard.

• A common way to do that is to apply the analog voltage to

one terminal of a comparator and trigger a binary counter
which drives a DAC.
Digital-Ramp ADC
 Digital-Ramp ADC
• The output of the DAC is applied to the other terminal of
the comparator.

• Since the output of the DAC is increasing with the

counter, it will trigger the comparator at some point when
its voltage exceeds the analog input.

• The transition of the comparator stops the binary counter,

which at that point holds the digital value corresponding
to the analog voltage.
2. Successive approximation ADC

Illustration of 4-bit SAC with 1- volt step size

 Successive approximation ADC

• Much faster than the digital

ramp ADC because it uses
digital logic to converge on
the value closest to the
input voltage.

• A comparator and a DAC

are used in the process.
 3.Flash ADC

• It is the fastest type of ADC available,

but requires a comparator for each value
of output.
(63 for 6-bit, 255 for 8-bit, etc.)
• Such ADCs are available in IC form up
to 8-bit and 10-bit flash ADCs (1023
comparators) are planned.
• The Encoder logic executes a truth
table to convert the ladder of inputs to
the binary number output.

Illustrated is a 3-bit flash ADC with resolution 1 volt

 Flash ADC

• The resistor net and comparators provide an input to the

combinational logic circuit, so the conversion time is just
the propagation delay through the network - it is not
limited by the clock rate or some convergence sequence.
 Encoders Logic

• Multiple-input/multiple-output device.

• Performs the inverse function of a Decoder.

• Outputs ( m ) are less than inputs ( n ).

• Converts input code words into output

code words.
output
input code
code ENCODER

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 Encoders vs. Decoders

Decoder Encoder

Binary Decoders / Encoders

 n-to-2^n  2^n-to-n encoder
 Input code : Binary Code  Input code : 1-out-of-2^n.
 Output code :1-out-of-2^n.  Output code : Binary Code
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 Binary encoder
Binary Encoder I0
I1
I2 Y0
I3 Y1
• 2^n-to-n encoder : 2^n inputs and n outputs. I4 Y2
• Input code : 1-out-of-2^n. I5
• Output code : Binary Code I6
• Example : n=3, 8-to-3 encoder I7
Inputs Outputs

I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 Y2 Y1 Y0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

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 8-to-3 Encoder Implementation

I0
• Simplified implementation: Y2
- From the truth table I1

Y0 = I1 + I3 + I5 + I7 I2
Y1 = I2 + I3 + I6 + I7
Y2 = I4 + I5 + I6 + I7 I3 Y1
• Limitations : I4
- I0 has no effect on the output
- Only one input can be activated I5

• Application: I6 Y0
Handling multiple devices requests
But, no simultaneous requests. I7

• Establishing priorities solve the problem of multiple requests.

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Computer and Microcontroller
Systems

General Computer System 37

Layout of Microprocessor 38
Microcontroller

V 0.2 39
THE END

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