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LODJ
32,4 Understanding leader
development: learning from
leaders
358
Aoife McDermott
Cardiff Business School, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK, and
Received December 2009
Revised August 2010 Rachel Kidney and Patrick Flood
Accepted September 2010
DCU Business School, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
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Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to integrate senior managers’ personal experiences of
leadership development with theory to provide insights into leadership development for aspiring and
developing leaders.
Design/methodology/approach – A qualitative research design was adopted. Empirical data were
gathered from 11 semi-structured interviews with senior leaders in the Irish public, voluntary
(non-profit) and private sectors.
Findings – The analysis led to the identification of development-oriented themes in the leadership
literature, and the provision of insights regarding the developmental influences, core activities (vision
and mobilisation) and the contextual influences (sectoral and societal) which affect appropriate
leadership behaviour.
Research limitations/implications – Although the study is limited by its small sample it provides
a basis for further research and draws attention to personal leader development processes. In
particular the importance of formative experiences on leaders’ development, their struggle to attain
balance, the need for advanced emotional management skills, the capacity to work with collectives of
people and to adapt to contextual demands are emphasised. The study suggests that future research
investigate how contextual factors influence the adoption of certain leadership styles.
Practical implications – The study explores personal perspectives on fundamental leadership
development themes, of pragmatic value to established and aspiring leaders interested in enhancing
their capacity to lead.
Originality/value – This paper considers leader development from the viewpoint of front-line
actors. As such it adopts an intrapersonal focus, considering the development journeys of individual
leaders. The paper extends the traditional focus on the transactional and relational dimensions of
leadership behaviours to incorporate the formative experiences and contextual factors that influence
leadership.
Keywords Self development, Leaders, Leadership development
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Leadership & Organization This article considers leader development as an ongoing process of personal
Development Journal development. As such it adopts an intrapersonal focus, considering the development of
Vol. 32 No. 4, 2011
pp. 358-378 individual leaders and their personal “human capital” (Day, 2001). McCauley and Van
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0143-7739
Velsor (2004) argue that leader development is one aspect of leadership development.
DOI 10.1108/01437731111134643 Leadership development has been defined as:
[. . .] the expansion of the organisation’s capacity to enact the basic leadership tasks needed Understanding
for collective work: setting direction, creating alignment, and maintaining commitment
(McCauley and Van Velsor, 2004, p. 22). leader
At the individual level, they view leader development as:
development
[. . .] the expansion of a person’s capacity to be effective in leadership roles and processes
(McCauley and Van Velsor, 2004, p. 2).
359
Our focus on individual leader development contrasts with the common focus on
leadership development, which is concerned with expanding the collective capacity of
organizational members to engage in leadership roles (Day, 2001; McCauley et al.,
1998).
From an organizational perspective, a growing body of evidence suggests that
leadership can affect organization performance, (Agle et al., 2006; Waldman et al.,
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Theoretical background
For Day (2001) the differences between leader and leadership development are marked.
In particular he notes that leader development focuses on human capital, an individual
model of leadership, an intrapersonal competence base and is underpinned by core
personal skills that include self-awareness, self-regulation, self-motivation and a shift
towards “relational dialogue”, rather than a traditional emphasis on “personal power”
(Brower et al., 2000). In contrast leadership development focuses on social capital, is
underpinned by a relational model, has an interpersonal competence base and is
underpinned by core social skills that include social awareness and conflict
management (Day, 2001). From the perspective of this study, the crucial differentiating
factor is the focus on the individual in leader development. However, common to both
approaches is the assumption that leaders can be developed. This assumption harks
LODJ back to the earliest debate in the leadership literature; whether leaders are born or
32,4 made. This is the first of five leader development oriented themes that we address in
the paper. The second is an ongoing issue facing leaders – achieving a work life
balance. The third examines the role emotions play in enhancing the development of
leadership skills and behaviours. The fourth theme considers whether leadership is an
individual or collective activity. Finally, the last theme addresses the assumption of
360 universality of leadership by examining the effect contextual and individual
differences have on leadership development.
These themes reflect a balance between decades of leadership research, which we
attempted to capture in our interview schedule (detailed in Table I), and the themes
that emerged as particular concerns of the leaders, based on our analysis.
Summary
Based on our review of the literature we align ourselves with the developmental
perspective of leadership (Day, 2001; Avolio, 2005). In concert with this, we credit
certain innate or personality traits as contributors to the extent to which individual’s
engage in the leadership development process.
Whilst a solid body of research illustrates the regularities that exist in leadership,
the aforementioned research indicates the influential role that context plays in leader
development. Having considered five overarching themes in leader development
research, attention now turns to the methods adopted in the study.
LODJ Methods
32,4 Research approach and interviewee selection
As this was a descriptive and exploratory study of leader development and leadership
practice, a qualitative approach was deemed most appropriate (Eisenhardt, 1989).
Qualitative methods are more flexible and sensitive to context than quantitative
methodologies (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005), an important consideration as the research
364 aimed to take account of the personal and contextual influences on leader development
and leadership enactment. The interviewees were selected from across the private,
public and voluntary sectors. Following Wood and Vilkinas (2003), leaders were
selected using a combination of sources that included high-profile leadership awards
and nomination. Specifically, we asked for the nomination of perceived “successful”
leaders by 175 post-graduate students. In addition to one health leader nominated for
his advocacy work, three further health leaders were selected by the research team on
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Eight leaders also mentioned similar critical incidents in their early careers and later
life which were instrumental to their development as leaders within the organizational
context. Interventions by individuals, key learning experiences, transformative
experiences and chance events were all described as critical incidents by the
interviewees:
Specifically within heart failure, I would probably have had the seed sown in my brain by my
senior colleague who I worked with a lot with over the years (Health Sector, Leader 3).
I then spent a year with eight young women who were I homeless [. . .] The year I spent
learning from those eight women was the greatest year of my life, because I really did grow to
understand what it was like to be out of home (Voluntary Sector, Leader 2).
In addition to isolated formative incidents, each of the 11 leaders identified personal
qualities and underlying drivers that have influenced their development as a leader.
Personal qualities included having strong values (four respondents) such as “a
passionate commitment to justice” (Public Sector, Leader 1); a vocation (three
respondents), which health sector leader 3 described as “almost a cliché”; faith (two
respondents), described by voluntary sector leader 2 as “my faith and my belief that
we’re all equal” and personal drive. These “underlying drivers” served to focus the
leaders’ development, refine their visions and generate enthusiasm, vigour and
commitment to their leadership roles:
My passion I suppose would be around people and trying to seize, there are ways we can save
people and ensure that people don’t have to suffer (Public Sector, Leader 2).
I just have an interest in seeing organizations that have potential and they may have fallen
into, kind of, tough situations but the fundamentals of the business is really there and in most
cases most of the people in organizations want to be successful and it sometimes frustrates
me that the organization doesn’t manage to tap into that because people are quite prepared to
listen to hard messages and make quite big changes if they have a context in which to do it
(Private Sector, Leader 3).
Overall, findings emphasised that many leaders were influenced by formative events
or individuals; often had underlying drivers and a desire for interconnectedness with
others that was fundamental to their leadership development. Although the data
suggests that personal formative incidents and the value-laden nature of the
“underlying drivers” described by the leaders is related to their work in the public Understanding
and/or voluntary sector, the small-scale of the study precludes definitive comment in leader
this regard. However, it is an issue worthy of further exploration.
development
Leadership theme two: on whether and how leaders attain balance
While leaders often present a façade of “calm in the storm”, eight of the 11 leaders 367
reported a lack of balance between their work and personal lives. Interestingly, there
was little discussion of whether this failure to attain balance came from their
organizations or their own personal underlying drivers. Although not always explicitly
addressed, the issue of “drive” manifested in the language of commitment, dedication -
and in some cases competitiveness:
I don’t think I do [achieve balance]. I think I work very long hours, I know I work very long
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opposed to them. Clearly where people have such strongly held views, no argument will
change their perspective. So, sometimes decisions have to be made and you won’t bring all of
the people with you. That is a form of leadership too and it requires a very significant amount
of personal strength and conviction (Voluntary Sector, Leader 1).
One leader emphasised that detachment is required to facilitate evaluation, not alone of
problems, but of the leaders’ contributions to those problems.
If you look at a lot of organizations that have gone through crises what you will see is that
they have been very successful organizations at particular points in time. And one of the big
problems you have is that the leaders of that time are often struggling to bring themselves to
undo what they have built – which is what you have to do to survive. Therefore, you do see in
a lot of change processes where quite a number of the people formerly on the top team of quite
a successful organization aren’t there when you go through the change because it’s too much
for them (Private Sector, Leader 3).
Thus, leaders across sectors have to learn to manage emotions in a two-fold and
occasionally dichotomous manner; masking and managing their own emotions to
attain personal detachment while simultaneously working to provide psychological
safety and security for those they work with.
By creating the right culture in a team you can make up for each person’s shortcomings
within a group and make the collective capability of that group much stronger than the sum
of its parts and less dependant on the unique capability of any single individual (Private
Sector, Leader 3).
When I was younger my leadership style was very much leading from the front. Curiously I
remember being irritated by people who talked about teams, because I thought the
responsibility for the delivery of the service was an individual responsibility. It was only as I
got older that I came to see that the individual is just a very small proportion of what
contributes to an institution. If you do want to deliver a service, you have to harness and
focus the individual talents of many people (Health Sector, Leader 2).
The collective dimension of leadership also emerged in the leaders’ descriptions of
what they look for in those they work with. Closer examination of the qualities sought
in others includes passionate advocates, honesty and courage. Leaders also refer to the
importance of self-awareness and low ego, which are indicative of leadership-like traits.
Therefore, activities associated with leadership can potentially be dispersed
throughout the organization and collectively held:
I look for expertise or excellence that adds to the mix. So it’s not another me. It’s somebody
who can be very different. I look for people who are self-confident and comfortable in who
they are. Preferably low ego because with that you get fewer politics. I look for energy.
Passion. I think you have to have passion in business. It’s not just a process or a methodology.
And then obviously the usual things around people skills. The ability to work with others and
to help improve the dynamics in the team (Private Sector, Leader 2).
I look for the kind of loyalty that is not just loyalty to the organization, but loyalty to their
colleagues. But I also look for honesty. If there are things wrong I want to know about them. I
want the whistle-blowers, and I want them to understand that. I look for technical skill,
because we all need technical skills. So I think that I demand an awful lot of people (Public
Sector, Leader 1).
Interestingly, leaders across all sectors emphasised the importance of leadership as a
collective activity, meaning that leader development encompasses human and social
capital development.
LODJ Addressing leadership theme five: that there is “one best way”
32,4 Although a common cadre of leadership activities, namely vision and achieving
momentum, were identified in the analysis of the discussion of leadership practice by
the leaders, personal and contextual influences affected how these activities were
enacted:
It is very important to have a vision and to work towards it. I think it’s not leadership unless
370 there is a vision (Voluntary Sector, Leader 2).
Leadership essentially means identifying what is possible to do and develop, identifying the
people who can do it and empowering them to do it, we can’t all do everything ourselves
(Health Sector, Leader 2).
Movement is always a word I associate with leadership, it’s about taking an entity from one
situation to another by helping to build a bridge that people feel they can cross (Private
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I think within the structure of a hospital that the goals of the management are not the same as 371
the goals of the healthcare providers and that is a critical obstruction to the optimal working
of any unit (Health Sector, Leader 3).
At the end of the day you know, these people, whoever they are, the journalists, the
politicians, the bureaucrat, they come and they go, they leave a lot of destruction sometimes
behind them. But the one consolation is they go (Public Sector, Leader 2).
In the voluntary sector, key challenges were identified as maintaining a wider vision
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Because we’re a volunteer based organization and led by volunteers, albeit with some paid
administrative staff, having appropriate communications with people is critical (Voluntary
Sector, Leader 1).
In addition to the sectoral context, further contextual influences on effective leadership
were identified. In particular, attention was brought to the broader societal context (i.e.
good and bad times) and the cultural context in which the organization is embedded:
I think the leadership agenda when times are good is much harder because you have to
convince people particularly in an industry like this for example, and in other industries as
well, you have to convince people who have been quite successful, and are still quite
successful that the way they’re doing it isn’t the best and it could be better. People often look
at you and say “Well, why do we need to do the change we’re doing fine”(Private Sector,
Leader 3).
You have to be I think respectful of what is acceptable in different cultures and adapt your
style to suit that. You can still be who you are underneath it all. But I think you have to adapt
to those cultural norms. But the thing underneath it all, which is knowing where you’re going,
being able to communicate it, putting the right people in the right roles, that for me stays the
same. Regardless of where you work (Private Sector, Leader 2).
As in the closing quote, this section has emphasised that although there are common
components to effective leadership, namely vision and achieving movement through
people, the manner in which this is achieved varies according to personal style and the
demands of the cultural, sector and organizational context. As a result the capacity to
analyse and operate in different contexts must be considered in leader development.
Next, the findings presented in this section are discussed with regards to extant
literature.
LODJ Discussion
32,4 This study focused on individual leader development, and drew out five themes
emphasised in prior literature and which were salient features of the leaders”
developmental experiences – and ongoing struggles. Based on our learning from the
findings presented above and the associated literature, we identify five considerations
for leaders, in their personal processes of leader development.
372
1. Using your drive to make the most of early life and career experiences
The first theme considered was whether leaders were born or made, underpinned by
the interaction between personal characteristics and life experiences. Our findings
align with the developmental model of leadership in which life experience contributes
to the development of leadership behaviour (e.g. Bass and Avolio, 1994). In particular,
our respondents emphasised that they were often strongly influenced by events in their
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need to work with other to achieve results, the extent to which autonomy was devolved
to others was a key differentiating factor. Five of the leaders viewed themselves as
holding a central goal identification role, with support in deciding the course of action
and implementation from those in the organization. However, post-heroic models of
leadership have suggested a range of collective leadership models, differing in the
extent of devolution (Tannenbaum et al., 1992). Factors influencing devolution have
been previously researched. The challenge for an individual leader is to identify what
is appropriate for their specific context – and the extent to which they engage in
dialogue or delegation.
Limitations
A clear and significant limitation of this paper is the small number of interviewees on
which the paper is based. However, it is our belief that the paper has begun to reveal
the personal journeys of leaders as they develop – and the value of this approach. As a
result we believe that our work will serve to generate further research in this vein and
to highlight its potential pragmatic value. In addition we note that an alternative
approach could have been adopted in the presentation of this research – one that
explores the development journey of individual leaders in the form of coherent and
in-depth narratives.
LODJ Conclusion
32,4 This study begins to shed light on individual processes of leader development,
including key learning points and their associated challenges for individuals. These
include the difficulty of attaining balance, the role of emotion and the collective nature
of leadership. The paper has also drawn attention to the personal experiences and
characteristics underpinning leader development – and to the importance of sector
374 context to the leadership activities required. These issues are of significant pragmatic
interest to organizational leaders interested in further enhancing their leadership
capacity. However, they also pose challenges to researchers and educators in the field
of leadership. They emphasise the significant demands placed on leaders, reflected in
their struggle to attain balance and their need for advanced emotion management
skills, in conjunction with managing collectives of people and adapting to contextual
demands.
In considering the formative experiences, underlying drivers, leadership style and
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contextual influences of each leader the paper has begun to draw attention to the very
personal nature of leader development, which has to date been lacking from the trait,
behavioural and intervention-focused nature of much leadership development
research. Although the assumption that leaders can be developed underpins the
significant investment in leader and leadership development by organizations, we have
begun to move away from the sanitised “zero to hero” narratives evident in the
practitioner literature, and to illustrate the messy and personal nature of leader
development. This shift raises the issue of how leadership development programmes
are currently undertaken and the best way to develop leaders. Inline with Byrne and
Rees (2006), we argue that leadership development requires a tailored and
individual-focused approach to meet needs of the individual leader and the
organizational context in which s/he is embedded as opposed to a generic “one size
fits all” development model. In moving forward, attention must now turn to how
individual leaders can be supported in addressing the development themes identified
above – and the personal and organizational challenges that accompany them.
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Corresponding author
Aoife McDermott can be contacted at: mcdermott@cardiff.ac.uk
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role of mediators. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 34:7, 596-615. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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