Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5566–5575

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Science and Engineering A

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

In situ study of structural integrity of low transformation temperature

(LTT)-welds
J. Altenkirch a,∗ , J. Gibmeier a , A. Kromm b , Th. Kannengiesser b , Th. Nitschke-Pagel c , M. Hofmann d
a
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute of Applied Materials (IAM), Campus South, Kaiserstr. 12, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
b
BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Unter den Eichen 87, 12205 Berlin, Germany
c
Institute for Joining and Welding, TU Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 8, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
d
FRMII, TU-Munich, Lichtenbergstr. 1, 85747 Garching, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We discuss the stability of weld residual strain under static and quasi cyclic transverse tensile loading in
Received 26 January 2011 the elastic and elastic–plastic region. The test welds were joined with low transformation temperature
Received in revised form 22 March 2011 weld filler materials with 10 wt% Cr and varying Ni-content from 8 to 12 wt%. Using neutron diffraction
Accepted 23 March 2011
the residual lattice strain in the martensitic ␣ - and austenitic ␥-phase in the fusion zone as well as the
Available online 29 March 2011
ferritic ␣-phase in the heat affected zone and base metal as (1) induced by welding, (2) superimposed by
stepwise tensile loading and (3) after unloading was measured. The amount of retained austenite in the
Keywords:
fusion zone increases with increasing Ni-content, but it decreases with increasing load level due to stress
Low transformation temperature
Residual stress
induced martensite formation. In the as-welded condition the transverse macroscopic residual lattice
Neutron diffraction strain was found to be in low compression in the fusion zone in each weld, while the heat affected zone
was in tension. Local plastic deformation of the ␥-phase as a result of yielding during tensile loading in
combination with the change in phase fraction resulted in increased macroscopic compression in the
fusion zone. The reduced yield strength in the heat affected zone resulted in plastic deformation and a
considerable shift into compression. Comparison with the cross weld distribution of the hardness and
FWHM of the neutron diffraction interference lines supported the assumption of plastic deformation of
the ␥- and ␣-phase in the fusion and heat affected zone, respectively, while the ␣ -phase in the fusion
zone was stressed within the elastic regime only. Microstructural observations as well as measurement
of the local ␥-phase fraction by means of laboratory X-ray diffraction in the fusion zone strengthen these
observations.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Tensile residual stresses (RS) as generated in welds are of major
concern for structural integrity assessment in industrial compo-
nents [1,2]. In-service tensile loads superimpose with weld RS and
in case these are tensile this results in a reduction of the maxi-
mum bearable load of the component. Further tensile RS impair
the fatigue and stress corrosion behaviour of the component [2–4].
It is therefore desired to reduce tensile welding RS or even to intro-
duce compressive RS to the weld. Several mechanical as well as
thermal in situ and post-weld treatment methods and combina-
tions of these methods exist for application during or after welding
in order to reduce detrimental tensile or to generate beneficial
compressive RS [5–11]. While some methods affect primarily the
near surface material condition (e.g. peening) others may influ-
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 721 608 44840; fax: +49 721 608 44844.
E-mail address: Jens.Altenkirch@kit.edu (J. Altenkirch).
ence the RS field through the weld depth (e.g. thermal treatments).
However in welding practice post-weld treatments are relatively
unpopular as they are time consuming and cost intensive or even
rather impractical due to the size and design of large or inaccessible
components, such as pressure pipes or ship building components.
Therefore preferable solutions should be concentrated on the pro-
duction process and that is to say that it would be favourable to
enable the generation of beneficial RS conditions directly during
the welding process.
In steel the austenite (␥) to martensite (␣ ) phase transfor-
mation, which is accompanied by significant shear and volume
strains, influences the local RS field. Therefore, controlling the ␥–␣ -
phase transformation allows affecting the RS in a component. In
steel fusion welding using conventional weld filler materials the
␥–␣ -phase transformation in the fusion zone (FZ) takes place at
elevated martensite start temperatures MS during cooling. Yet, the
associated material expansion is compensated by material shrink-
age during further cooling as schematically depicted in Fig. 1. In
conventional low and high strength structural steels this effect

0921-5093/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.msea.2011.03.091
 J. Altenkirch et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5566–5575 5567

Table 1
Test weld designation, chemical composition in wt% and experimentally determined
transformation temperatures of the LTT alloys.

Test weld LTT alloy C Ni Cr Mn Si Fe MS (after

[14])

W8 8% Ni 0.04 8 10 0.7 0.4 Bal. 184 ◦ C

W10 10% Ni 0.04 10 10 0.7 0.4 Bal. 90 ◦ C
W12 12% Ni 0.04 12 10 0.7 0.4 Bal. 39 ◦ C

Fig. 1. Comparison of strain evolution during cooling for a conventional as well as
a LTT weld filler material (after [4]).
could be used theoretically in order to generate compressive RS
by applying increased cooling rates within the weld zone. How-
ever, the increasing content of ␣ -phase in the heat affected zone
(HAZ) of a weld is accompanied by strong embrittlement and the
increased generation of cold cracks. Therefore the limitation of
the hardness in the HAZ anticipates the generation of significant
compressive RS due to welding. Alternatively, the development
of special welding filler materials, the so-called low transforma-
tion temperature (LTT) materials, which exhibit a low MS , allows
postponing the ␥–␣ -phase transformation to near ambient tem-
peratures. Consequently, the associated strain arising from this
transformation compensates for the thermal contraction strains
[4,12,13] as shown in Fig. 1 and this results in reduced tensile or
even compressive RS in the FZ as reported by Ohta et al. [4]. The
decrease in MS in such LTT filler materials is achieved mainly by
the alloying elements Ni and Cr. The large impact of a varying Ni-
content on MS was recently shown by Kromm and Kannengiesser
[14], who reported decreasing MS temperatures for increasing
Ni-content.
Depending on the LTT alloy and the welding parameters ten-
sile RS may be reduced or significant compressive RS generated as
shown, e.g. by Dai et al., who used neutron diffraction for the deter-
mination of the RS in 12 mm thick S960Q steel welds joined with a
conventional high-strength filler OK75.78 (MS approx. 410 ◦ C) and
a LTT filler (MS approx. 280 ◦ C), respectively [15,16]. Further, it is
reported that with enhanced formation of compressive RS in the
FZ, which results from the application of LTT weld filler materials,
the mechanical properties, e.g. the fatigue performance or crack
initiation and propagation behaviour are improved [3,4,12].
However, for the successful long-term application of LTT mate-
rials in steel welds knowledge of the stability of the RS is essential.
Static and/or cyclic loading and simultaneously monitoring the
stress response is an ideal tool to simulate such in service condi-
tions. This can be done by measuring the elastic lattice strain in situ
as a function of the loading condition using, e.g. neutron diffraction.
In this paper the behaviour of the welding induced transverse
residual lattice strain as a function of transverse (quasi) static load-
ing in the elastic and elastic–plastic regime was investigated. Using
neutron diffraction the phase specific residual lattice strain as (1)
induced by welding, (2) superimposed by stepwise tensile loading
and (3) after unloading was measured and in combination with the
phase fraction of retained austenite and the macroscopic lattice
strain was determined. Supplementary lab X-ray diffraction was
used for the evaluation of the amount of retained austenite prior
to and after tensile loading by considering six diffraction lines for
the analysis, thus resulting in more reliable values for the retained
austenite content. Additional investigations on the microstructure
and hardness distributions before and after tensile loading were
performed in order to substantiate the strain results.
2. Experimental
2.1. Material
The LTT filler materials were designed according to the
10%Cr–10%Ni alloy concept presented, e.g. in [17] for a high-
strength filler material with lowered MS -temperature. Based on this
concept three LTT alloys with the chemical composition varying in
terms of the Ni-content between 8% and 12% were selected. With
regard to the aspired application of LTT materials for welding high
strength structural steels the filler materials require an appropri-
ate strength. This is achieved by setting the LTT-carbon content
to 0.04 wt% resulting in an ultimate tensile strength of approx.
1200 MPa [18] in the pure alloy. The detailed composition and the
calculated theoretical [19] as well as experimentally determined
[14] MS -temperatures for each pure LTT-alloy are given in Table 1.
It can be seen that an increasing Ni-content results in decreasing
MS temperatures.
2.2. Welding
Stress relieved steel plates of fine grained construction steel
S690Q (200 × 100 × 6 mm3 ) were preheated to 100 ◦ C and welded
in two layers in a 60◦ V-groove alongside the longitudinal plate edge
using manual metal arc welding. The welding current and voltage
were set to 87 A and 26 V, respectively, while the welding speed
was approx. 2 mm/s resulting in a heat input of approx. 1 kJ/mm.
The test welds were designated according to the Ni-content of the
LTT-alloy used (see Table 1).
The chemical composition as well as the mechanical properties
yield strength  ys , ultimate tensile strength UTS and elongation at
fracture for the S690Q base metal are given in Table 2. From the
welded plates dog-bone shaped tensile specimens as schematically
shown in Fig. 2 were produced by water jet cutting. The 90 mm long
tapered section was reduced from 20 to 10 mm in width. The exces-
sive over-fill at the weld surface was not removed, thus increasing
the weld cross section to approx. 67 mm2 , while that of the base
metal is 60 mm2 .

Table 2
Chemical composition and selected mechanical properties of S690Q base metal [18].

C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Nb V B Fe

0.116 0.402 1.52 0.017 0.001 0.498 0.481 0.111 0.005 0.054 0.001 Remainder
 ys ∼ 690 MPa UTS ∼770–940 MPa Elongation at fracture 14%
5568 J. Altenkirch et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5566–5575

Fig. 2. Schematic drawing of the tensile specimen. Fine groves perpendicular to

the tensioning direction were machined into each end in order to improve the grip
between specimen and tensile rig.

2.3. In situ neutron diffraction and tensile loading

Neutron diffraction lattice strain measurements were per-

formed at the materials science diffractometer Stress-Spec at FRM
II [20], Germany. A wavelength of  = 1.6171 Å was used and the
PSD detector positioned at 2 = 87◦ and 96◦ monitoring the {2 1 1}
␣/␣ -phase and {3 1 1} ␥-phase interference line, respectively. The
primary beam was defined by slit optics set to 1 × 4 mm2 , while a
2.3 mm radial collimator was used for definition of the diffracted
beam, thus giving a gauge volume of approx. 1 × 4 × 2.3 mm3 . The
Fig. 4. A macrograph (a) and the hardness distribution of the weld cross section of
in situ experiments were performed in transmission mode and the the test weld W10 (10 wt% Ni, 10 wt% Cr) before (b) and after (c) loading to 36 kN. The
counting time was defined using the monitor count rate detected in characteristic weld zones are indicated in each plot. The dots in plot (a) represent the
the beam path after the monochromator. This resulted in counting neutron lattice strain measurement locations while the labelled boxes (a–f) indicate
times of 150 s per point for the ␣- and ␣ -phase and 900 s for the ␥- the locations where microstructure images (Fig. 5) were taken.

phase. From the raw data a linear background was subtracted and
a Gauss function was fitted to the diffraction spectra. The resulting
2hkl values were converted to h k l specific lattice spacing dhkl and
transformed into the unit cell parameter a according to:
 n  the tensioning direction during loading. In order to correct for this
a = dhkl ∗ (h2 + k2 + l2 ) = ∗ (h2 + k2 + l2 )
2 ∗ sin hkl
The electro-mechanical O-frame tensioning rig at Stress-Spec is
equipped with a U3 load cell (±50 kN) from HBM and self tighten-
ing hardened grips for flat specimens [21]. The rig was mounted on
the instrument table, such that the loading direction, which corre-
sponded to the weld transverse direction of the tensile specimen,
was aligned with the scattering vector Q as depicted in Fig. 3a.
The nominal load on each specimen was increased stepwise to
36 kN in the first cycle and in one step in the second cycle and
released as depicted in Fig. 3b. A load of 36 kN corresponds to
approx. 87% of the nominal base metal yield strength (and approx.
50% of the nominal pure LTT-weld filler material ultimate tensile
strength).
The unit cell parameter a for the ␣- and ␣ -phases as well as
the ␥-phase for stepwise loading up to 36 kN (600 MPa) in cycle 1
and for the ␣- and ␣ -phases under direct loading up to 36 kN in
cycle 2 was determined as a function of applied load. As indicated
in Fig. 4a, line scans were performed across the FZ at five depths
below the weld surface for each loading step. Due to the design of
the tensioning rig (one grip is fixed in position, while the other one
moves) the lateral position of the weld centre line moved along
(1) offset, the measurement data were shifted laterally by matching
the distribution curves of the FWHM of the measured interference
lines. In order to determine absolute lattice strain values stress
relaxed cubes of 1.7 mm length from various positions in the weld
cross-section were cut using a diamond wire saw (wire ø = 0.3 mm).
Subsequently electro polishing to approx. 1.4 mm lateral length
was used to remove possible cutting RS. For determination of the
local unstrained unit cell parameter a0 the cubes were bathed in
the neutron beam and rotated vertically in order to achieve an
averaging effect to reduce possible texture effects. The measure-
ment positions in the tensile specimens differed slightly from those
where the stress relaxed cubes were removed from. To account for
these differences the a0 values were interpolated to positions cor-
responding to the corrected measurement positions. Finally, the
phase specific lattice strain εli with i representing the ␣-, ␣ or
␥-phase was calculated using [22]:
(ai − a0i ) a0i a
εli = = = i = −1 (2)
a0i a0i a0i

Fig. 3. Image of the experimental setup for the neutron diffraction measurements of the residual and loading strains induced by welding and tensile loading, respectively
(a). The weld transverse and the loading direction are aligned with the scattering vector Q. Schematic illustration of the loading steps during the first two cycles (b).
 J. Altenkirch et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5566–5575
Fig. 5. Micrographs as taken at the transition line between FZ and IHAZ (a), the transition from IHAZ to OHAZ (b) and the base metal (c) at approx. 12 mm transverse distance
from the FZ using NITAL etchant. The martensitic weld line microstructure of test weld W8 (d), W10 (e) and W12 (f) was obtained using LB1 etchant.
2.4. Retained austenite, microstructure and hardness
The phase fraction of retained austenite as a function of Ni-
content before, during and after tensioning was determined based
on the neutron diffraction data by means of correlating the inte-
grated intensities of the fitted {2 1 1} ␣/␣ -phase and {3 1 1}
␥-phase interference lines. However, in this case texture effects
may cause significant variations of the determined phase fraction
as only one orientation was measured. Therefore, supplementary
laboratory X-ray measurements within the FZ of each weld before
and after tensile loading using Zr-filtered MoK␣ -radiation were per-
formed for verification of the neutron diffraction measurements.
The data analysis for the laboratory X-ray measurements was
based on the 6-line-method using the {2 0 0}-, {2 1 1}-, and {3 2 1}-
diffraction peaks of the ␣ -phase and the {2 0 0}-, {2 2 0}-, and
{3 1 1}-diffraction peaks of the ␥-phase. The spot size of the inci-
dent X-ray beam was 2 × 5 mm2 . The amount of retained austenite
was calculated using [23,24]:
100 vol%
V =       
1+ m˛hkl I˛hkl /R˛hkl / m˛hkl / mhkl Ihkl /Rhkl /
i i i i
where mhkl is the multiplicity factor, Ihkl is the integrated peak
intensity and Rhkl is the intensity factor for each individual h k l
interference line as defined in [23,24]. In order to minimize texture
effects the retained austenite was measured under 5 -tilt angles
(±30◦ , ±15◦ and 0◦ ) and an average value was calculated. Due to the
increased uncertainty of the phase fraction obtained from the neu-
tron data as a result of the limited number of interference lines used
for phase fraction determination, these data were used for monitor-
ing the relative change during tensile loading. On the other hand,
the laboratory X-ray data based on six interference lines obtained
prior to and after tensile loading allow for sound determination of
the phase fraction of retained austenite.
For microstructural analysis microsections of each weld before
and after tensile loading were metallographically prepared. The
macroscopic weld structure was etched using Fry etchant (100 ml
distilled water, 120 ml HCl and 90 g CuCl2 ). Microstructure images
of the base metal were obtained using light microscopy on NITAL
(3 ml HNO3 in 97 ml ethanol) etched weld cross sections. The
microstructure in the FZ was obtained using Lichtenegger und
5569
Bloech etchant (LB1, 100 ml distilled water, 20 g (NH4 )HF2 and 0.5 g
K2 S2 O5 ).
A Shimadzu Vickers hardness tester with a test load of 100 g
(HV0.1 ) and an indentation time of 15 s was used for hardness test-
ing. Indents were made on the weld cross section as function of
lateral distance from the weld centre line as well as from the weld
surface.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microstructure and hardness distribution
Fig. 4 displays a macrograph (a) and the hardness distribution
(b) of the initial weld cross section of test weld W10 (10 wt% Ni,
10 wt% Cr) and the hardness distribution (c) after tensioning to
36 kN (600 MPa). The characteristic weld zones (fusion zone (FZ),
inner (IHAZ) and outer heat affected zone (OHAZ) and base metal)
are indicated in the macrograph and their outlines superimposed
onto the hardness plots. Fig. 5 shows micrographs taken at positions
 indicated by a–f in Fig. 4a.
mhkl
The outlines of the weld zones correspond well with the hard-
(3) ness distribution in a way that, e.g. the slope of the transition line
between FZ and IHAZ can be clearly observed in each plot in Fig. 4.
The IHAZ is adjacent to the FZ ranging from approx. 2 to 7 mm
in width while the OHAZ ranges from approx. 7 to 10 mm from
the weld centre line. In the as welded condition, the hardness in
the IHAZ varies from approx. 250 to 300HV0.1 towards the FZ. On
the one (1) the high cooling rates observed close to the FZ, (2) an
increase in ␣ -phase fraction due to stress induced martensite for-
mation (see Section 3.2) and (3) as a result of martensite formation
increased compressive lattice strain (see Section 3.4) counteracting
the indentation deformation upon hardness testing (such effects
were reported before (e.g. [25]) may cause the increased hard-
ness values towards the FZ in this region). The OHAZ displays the
typical softening zone indicating that the local welding tempera-
ture exceeded the tempering temperature with the consequence of
the observed significant drop in hardness through the entire plate
thickness. The base material has a hardness of approx. 275HV0.1 .
The grain size of the post-weld martensitic-bainitic microstructure
decreases from IHAZ to OHAZ (Fig. 5a and b). The OHAZ contains
horizontal bands of carbides, which coarsen due to the temperature
distribution during welding and were observed in each test weld.
5570 J. Altenkirch et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5566–5575
Table 3
FZ hardness as a function of Ni-content averaged over ±2 mm from the weld centre
line at 3 mm below the weld surface before and after tensioning to 36 kN (600 MPa).
The uncertainty is the standard deviation from the measurement points over which
the average hardness was calculated.
Alloy HV0.1
As welded After tensioning
W8 (8 wt% Ni, 10 wt% Cr) 446 ± 9 439 ± 7
W10 (10 wt% Ni, 10 wt% Cr) 400 ± 8 420 ± 8
W12 (12 wt% Ni, 10 wt% Cr) 383 ± 7 396 ± 7
Such bands of carbides in fine grained steels form at normalizing
temperatures [26].
The metal in the FZ (Fig. 5d–f) contains a cellular structure with
martensitic cell cores (brownish) and presumably austenite in the
intercellular areas (light areas). The amount of retained austenite
depends on the chemical composition and rises with increasing
Ni-content [27]. Presumably, this is due to the pronounced similar
segregation of Cr and Ni during the primary austenitic solidification.
Consequently, intercellular areas with higher Cr- and Ni-content
than the cores solidify at last. The local concentration of alloy-
ing elements may suppress the ␥–␣ -phase transformation even
at ambient temperature leading to varying amounts of retained
austenite. The solidification process and the resulting microstruc-
ture are subject to further investigation.
After tensile loading to 36 kN (600 MPa) the hardness map in
Fig. 4c reveals that the band of low hardness in the OHAZ dis-
appears, while the hardness gradient from IHAZ towards the FZ
reduces as it now spreads over a wider region thus decreasing the
width of low hardness zone (approx. 260HV0.1 ) in the IHAZ. The
increased hardness in the HAZ may be attributed to strain harden-
ing as the maximum tensile load exceeded the local yield strength,
which was reduced as a result of the weld thermal cycle. Similar
observations were made in all test welds.
In Table 3 the hardness of the FZ at 3 mm below the weld surface
and averaged over ±2 mm from the weld centre line in each weld
prior to and after tensioning are given. With increasing Ni-content
the hardness decreases, which is due to the fact that the MS tem-
perature reduces and therefore the amount of retained austenite
increases [14,27]. As a result, a weld with an increased fraction of
retained austenite has lower mean hardness. On the other hand,
the tensioning resulted in increased hardness in the FZ of test
welds W10 and W12 indicating stress induced martensite forma-
tion [27]. As the phase fraction of retained austenite decreases and
that of the martensitic ␣ -phase rises the hardness also increases.
This observation is supported by the quantitative determination of
the amount of retained austenite as a function of loading which is
discussed in the following section.
3.2. Retained austenite
The integrated neutron diffraction intensity distribution (nor-
malized to 1 min counting time) as measured in the ␥-phase in the
FZ for the as welded condition before loading, at maximum load of
36 kN and after unloading of test weld W10 (10 wt% Ni, 10 wt% Cr)
is displayed in Fig. 6. Neutron diffraction measurements in the ␥-
phase were performed within the FZ only as no (retained) austenite
is present in the base metal. With respect to Fig. 6a, in the initial con-
dition a decrease in intensity of the diffracted neutrons from weld
surface towards the root can be observed. This may be attributed to
either a reduction of the phase fraction of the ␥-phase or a continu-
ous change in orientation of the grains with increasing depth. While
the latter assumption can currently not be analysed with the lim-
ited neutron diffraction data (only one orientation), a reduction of
the phase fraction of retained austenite and therefore an increase of
Fig. 6. Intensity distribution (normalized to 1 min counting time) in the ␥-phase as
measured in the FZ for the as welded condition before loading, at maximum load of
36 kN and after unloading.
Fig. 7. Amount of retained austenite as function of applied loading during cycle 1 at
the weld centre line and 3 mm below the weld surface. Note, the alloy with 12 wt%
Ni was loaded only to 33 kN, as necking in the HAZ occurred at this load level already
and subsequently no intermediate unloading step was performed.
martensite fraction from top to bottom is supported by the fact that
the hardness distribution displays the same trend (Fig. 4), namely
a slight increase in hardness towards the weld bottom.
At the maximum load of 36 kN the diffraction intensity distri-
bution in the ␥-phase reveals a significant reduction at the weld
surface, while the root remains at a rather constant level compared
to the initial condition. This change in intensity may be a result of
stress induced martensite formation, which leads to a reduction of
the phase fraction of retained austenite. After unloading no signifi-
cant changes occur with respect to the maximum loading condition,
hence no further changes in ␥-phase fraction may arise.
Fig. 7 compares the amount of retained austenite at the weld
centre line at 3 mm below the weld surface as a function of loading
of the three LTT alloys tested. In the initial condition it is obvious
that with increasing Ni-content the amount of retained austenite
rises. This may be attributed to the fact that the MS -temperature
decreases as the Ni-content increases [14,27]. As a consequence
the hardness decreases as shown in Table 3.
With increased loading and up to the maximum load the phase
fraction of retained austenite decreases. This is most obvious in
the alloy with 12 wt% Ni which has 33% retained austenite in the
starting condition and somewhat less in the alloy with 10 wt% Ni
(12.6% initial retained austenite). On the other hand, the alloy with
8 wt% Ni and only 4.3% of initial retained austenite reveals a slight
increase upon loading. However, the change is within the mea-
surement uncertainty and as such cannot be taken as a real effect.
After the maximum load, in this case 36 kN (W8 and W10) and
33 kN (W12) is reached and upon unloading the phase fraction of
retained austenite remains rather constant. For the investigated
welds this means that the less austenite is present in the FZ the
higher is the stress necessary to cause martensite formation. This
is advantageous as changes in microstructure result in variations of
the mechanical properties and this should be avoided during ser-
vice unless such changes improve the mechanical properties as, e.g.
the yield strength, which appears to happen in the LTT alloys.
 J. Altenkirch et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5566–5575
Table 4
Retained austenite before and after tensile loading to 36 kN (33 kN) as determined
using common lab-X-ray diffraction and the 6-line method (Eq. (3)). The uncertainty
is the standard deviation of the phase fractions from all possible combinations of
five out of the six h k l lines used for the 6-line method.
Alloy Retained austenite as
determined using
Mo-lab-X-ray radiation
Before loading After loading
W8 (8 wt% Ni, 10 wt% Cr) 2.3 ± 0.6 2.0 ± 0.9
W10 (10 wt% Ni, 10 wt% Cr) 6.3 ± 1.9 5.8 ± 1.3
W12 (12 wt% Ni, 10 wt% Cr) 37.5 ± 4.1 28.9 ± 5.8
As given in Table 4 the same trend of reduced phase fraction of
retained austenite as a result of external tensile loading was found
using lab-X-ray diffraction applied to the as-welded sample before
and after tensile loading.
3.3. Unstrained unit cell parameter
The variation of the unstrained unit cell parameter a0 in the ␣-
and ␣ -phase (␣ in the base metal and ␣ in the weld metal) of
test weld W10 at 1, 3 and 5 mm below the weld surface is shown
in Fig. 8a, while plot b displays the distribution in the ␥-phase in
the FZ. Plots c and d compare the variation of a0 in the ␣/␣ - and
␥-phase of the three LTT-alloys tested (Note: due to the very low
amount of retained austenite in the 8 wt% Ni alloy, the unstrained
lattice parameter in this phase was not measured as the allocated
beam time prohibited the necessary long counting times for statis-
tically meaningful diffraction data). Due to chemical variations the
value for a0 in the ␣ -phase in the weld differs significantly from
that observed in the ␣-phase in the base metal being equivalent to
approx. 1700 ␮␧ which is equivalent to approx. 370 MPa. Such high
values emphasise the importance of careful measurement of a0 for
strain and stress determination, especially when this value is likely
to vary locally. The distribution of a0 at different depths mirrors the
Fig. 8. The distribution of the unstrained unit cell parameter a0 in the ␣/␣ (a) and ␥-phase (b) of test weld W10 at 1, 3 and 5 mm below the weld surface and a comparison
of the a0 variation in the ␣/␣ (c) and ␥-phase (d) of the three LTT-alloys tested.
5571
shape of the FZ in that the width of the FZ, as marked by increased
a0 values, decreases with increasing depth.
The gradually rising uncertainty from the base metal towards
the FZ is due to the fact that the grain size in the FZ increases
with respect to the base metal (Fig. 5) as well as the occurrence
of preferred grain orientation. However, the uni-axial rotation of
the stress relaxed cubes during diffraction measurement certainly
reduced the detrimental effects of texture to some extend. The ␥-
phase in test weld W10, which is apparent only in the FZ, does not
show significant variations across the weld line, however, for strain
and stress calculation knowledge of this value is fundamental. Com-
parison of the three LTT-alloys of interest reveals a slight decrease
of a0 in the weld zone in the ␣ - and ␥-phases with increasing
Ni-content (Fig. 8c and d).
3.4. Residual strain
As only the weld transverse lattice strain was measured during
the in situ tensioning diffraction experiment, conclusions on the
residual stress may be deceptive as the strain distribution in the
remaining directions affect the stress in the transverse orientation
and vice versa. Therefore, in Fig. 9a–c we show the lattice strain dis-
tribution in the ␥- and ␣/␣ -phase in the weld transverse direction
before loading, as tensioned to 36 kN (600 MPa) and after unload-
ing of test weld W10 (10 wt% Ni, 10 wt% Cr) during the first cycle
(Note: The ␥-phase occurs only in the FZ). The strain free marten-
site in the FZ in the initial condition is characteristic for the LTT
alloys investigated [18], while the IHAZ is in compression and the
OHAZ in tension near the weld surface, but both reducing to zero
lattice strain towards the weld bottom. This strain distribution pre-
sumably results from the two weld layers. While the second layer
is produced, the residual stresses resulting from the first layer is
redistributed. Additionally, the width of the V-shaped FZ and as
such the length over which material expansion due to martensite
formation occurs in the transverse direction reduces from the weld
surface towards the weld root and as such the level of compressive
5572 J. Altenkirch et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5566–5575

Fig. 9. The weld transverse lattice strain distribution in test weld W10 for the as welded (a), the 36 kN loaded (b) and the unloaded condition (c); respectively. The characteristic
weld zones and phases are indicated in each plot.

lattice strain in the IHAZ may also reduce towards the weld root.
The compression is compensated by tension in the OHAZ. The ␥-
phase, which occurs only in the FZ, is completely in compression.
As the plates were welded without clamping, during cooling some
of the compressive and tensile residual lattice strain relaxed in that
the plates distorted. In fact, prior to tensioning the dog bone shaped
test specimens displayed up to 4◦ of angular distortion. However, as
displayed in Fig. 9a, a significant portion of transverse compressive
lattice strain remains within the IHAZ.
Naturally, upon external transverse tensile loading the lattice
strain in the loading direction increases in each phase as shown
in Fig. 9b for the maximum load of 36 kN (600 MPa). The lattice
strain in the ␣/␣ -phase increases by approx. 2500 ␮␧ which corre-
sponds to approx. 550 MPa with E˛{211} = 219.911 GPa (calculated
after [28]) and is nearly equal to the external load. However, in
the ␥-phase the lattice strain rises by approx. 2250 ␮␧ only which
is equal to approx. 400 MPa (E{311} = 177.329 GPa, calculated after
[28]), which indicates that the ␥-phase yield strength was exceeded
and the material plastically deformed beyond an external load of
400 MPa. Further, when loading to the maximum of 36 kN, the
relative variation in lattice strain in the ␣-phase changes: e.g. in
the IHAZ it rises by approx. 2250 ␮␧ and in the OHAZ by approx.
2000 ␮␧. As a result of the high temperature cycle during weld-
ing, annealing and relaxation effects resulted in reduced local yield
strength in the HAZ as compared to the unaffected base metal.
An external load of 36 kN apparently exceeds this reduced local
yield strength in the HAZ (␣-phase) and causes plastic deformation,
while the FZ (␣ -phase) and base metal (␣-phase) are still in the
elastic regime. As plastic deformation is irreversible, after unload-
ing the tensile lattice strain changed into compression within the
entire HAZ and in the ␥-phase of the FZ (Fig. 9c) increased compres-
sion is observed. The amount of plastic deformation in the ␥-phase,
as quantitatively determined by the change in FWHM of the h k l
interference lines as shown in Fig. 10, was greater than in the ␣/␣ -

Fig. 10. Change in transverse lattice strain (a) and FWHM (b) with respect to the as-welded condition in the ␣ - and ␥-phase in the FZ as well as the ␣-phase in the OHAZ at
7 mm from the weld centre line during cycle 1 (loading to 36 kN and subsequent unloading) in test weld W10.
 J. Altenkirch et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5566–5575 5573

Fig. 11. The weld transverse macroscopic lattice strain as calculated from the phase specific lattice strain and taken into account the local phase fraction distribution in test
weld W10 for the as welded (a) and (b) the unloaded condition respectively. The characteristic weld zones are indicated in each plot.

phase and as such the increase in compressive lattice strain is also
greater in the ␥-phase. Fig. 10 displays the relative change of trans-
verse lattice strain (a) and the FWHM of the diffraction peak (b) with
respect to the initial condition at 3 mm below the weld surface dur-
ing loading in cycle 1 in the FZ (␥- and ␣ -phase) as well as the OHAZ
(␣-phase). The lattice strain of the ␣ -phase in the FZ returns to its
starting value after unloading indicating purely elastic behaviour,
which is in accordance to the negligible change in FWHM. On the
other hand, the curves for the ␣-phase in OHAZ and the ␥-phase
in the FZ reduce in slope at approx. 24 kN (400 MPa) indicating the
beginning of plastic deformation in these regions as the local yield
strength is exceeded. This is supported by the fact that the FWHM
starts to increase at these load levels and continuously rises until
maximum loading is reached, which indicates a continuous gain
in dislocation density as a result of ongoing plastic deformation.
Further, at the point when yielding of the ␥-phase starts and the
slope of the corresponding stress–strain curve reduces, that of the
␣ -phase curve in the FZ increases indicating that the martensitic
phase is stressed with a higher portion of the external load.
After unloading the lattice strain curve reveals increased com-
pression in the ␥-phase in the FZ and ␣-phase in the OHAZ. This may
be attributed to the local plastic elongation of the material during
tensile loading, which after unloading results in increased compres-
sion as surrounding material constrains the elongated material. The
slope of the lattice strain curves during loading mirrors the Young’s
Modulus, which in this case is determined by a best linear fit to the
strain curve given in Fig. 10a. The experimentally determined val-
ues of E˛{211} = 227.2 GPa and E{311} = 186.5 GPa are in agreement
with the literature [28] indicating that the loading experiment and
the in situ lattice strain measurement using neutron diffraction is
fairly accurate.
Finally, Fig. 11 displays the distribution of the transverse macro-
scopic lattice strain for the condition before loading (a) and after
unloading from maximum load of 36 kN of test weld W10 (10 wt%
Ni, 10 wt% Cr). The macroscopic lattice strain was calculated based
on a simple mixture rule:

εl
i i
∗ Vi
ε= (4)
100
which correlates the phase specific lattice strain εli with the phase
specific volume fraction Vi as calculated using Eq. (3). The macro-
scopic lattice strain distribution in the base metal, the OHAZ and

Fig. 12. The change in macroscopic lattice strain 3 mm below the weld surface after loading to maximum load of 36 kN (33 kN in case of W12). Due to beam time limitations
neutron measurements were performed only up to 8 mm from the weld centre line in test weld W12.
5574 J. Altenkirch et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5566–5575
IHAZ is identical to that shown in Fig. 9 as only the ferritic ␣-phase
material is present and the change in lattice strain in these regions
as a result of external loading was discussed before. However, the
macroscopic lattice strain distribution in the FZ is affected by the ␣ -
and ␥-phase lattice strain as a function of the phase fraction of each
phase. In the condition before loading the macroscopic lattice strain
in the FZ is approx. 130 ␮␧ less than in the martensitic ␣ -phase,
which results from the 12.6% retained austenite which has approx.
−1000 ␮␧. After loading the phase fraction of the ␥-phase reduces
to approx. 5% due to stress induced martensite formation while the
compression in the ␥-phase increases to approx. −2000 ␮␧. There-
fore, the input to the macroscopic lattice strain resulting from the
␥-phase is nearly the same, namely approx. −100 ␮␧ and as such
the change in macroscopic lattice strain as a result of external load-
ing depends mainly on the martensitic ␣ -phase. As this phase was
elastically loaded only, no significant change in macroscopic lat-
tice strain occurs. In case of test weld W10 the compressive region
between FZ and IHAZ increased in lateral width as well as in magni-
tude though narrowing the strain plateau in the FZ, which remains
in slight compression. In the OHAZ, which has the lowest hardness
(Fig. 4) and hence yield strength, is substantially affected by tensile
loading and the lattice strain shifts from tension into compression.
The base metal remains almost unaffected.
A direct comparison of the change in macroscopic lattice strain
at 3 mm below the weld surface determined from the condition
before and after loading to maximum load for the three LTT alloys
investigated is shown in Fig. 12. As discussed before, the transition
zone between IHAZ and OHAZ ranging from 6 mm to 8 mm from the
weld centre line undergoes a substantial shift towards compression
as a result of plastic deformation within this region as the local yield
strength is exceeded by the external stress. The base metal remains
more or less unaffected because the maximum load of 36 kN (33 kN
in case of W12), which is equal to 600 MPa (550 MPa) within the
base metal cross section, is approx. 87% (approx. 80%) of the base
metal yield strength and as such purely elastic behaviour occurred.
In opposite to the comparable lattice strain behaviour occurring
in the IHAZ, the OHAZ and the base metal in all three test welds,
the changes in macroscopic lattice strain within the FZ vary for
each alloy tested. In test weld W8 (8 wt% Ni, 10 wt% Cr) a shift by
approx. 180 ␮␧ from tension into compression occurred after load-
ing. As the amount of retained austenite is negligible, this may be
attributed to plastic deformation of the martensitic FZ material.
As shown in Fig. 9 the external loading of test weld W10 (10 wt%
Ni, 10 wt% Cr) resulted in substantially increased compression in
the ␥-phase while at the same time the phase fraction of retained
austenite reduced. The lattice strain in the martensitic ␣ -phase
remained constant, but the width of the FZ lattice strain plateau
reduced slightly. Overall the reduced impact of the increased com-
pressive lattice strain of the ␥-phase due to the reduction in phase
fraction resulted in a negligible reduction in macroscopic lattice
strain in the FZ in W10.
Finally, in test weld W12 (12 wt% Ni, 10 wt% Cr) the FZ reveals a
significant shift towards compression as a result of external load-
ing. This may be attributed to the fact that the ␥-phase material
is plastically stressed and within the martensitic structure this
results in increased compression. Even though a significant por-
tion transforms into martensite as a result of the applied stress, the
influence of the increased compression on the macroscopic lattice
strain remains. In addition, the significant formation of martensite
results in increased compression within the FZ.
With respect to the second loading cycle with just one step to
maximum load only (Fig. 3), no differences in the lattice strain dis-
tribution were observed during and after loading and therefore the
results are left out at this point. However, this invariant means that
unless the applied load increases beyond that of the first cycle the
mechanical properties remain constant. On the other hand, with
increasing number of loading cycles material fatigue may result in
further changes. This remains to be investigated in future work.
4. Conclusions
In this paper the response of the weld transverse residual lat-
tice strain to external tensile loading of welds joint with LTT weld
filler materials with varying Ni-content (8–12 wt%) was investi-
gated. In addition to the in situ lattice strain measurements using
neutron diffraction, the hardness and microstructure distributions
were characterised and the amount of retained austenite prior to
and after tensile loading was determined. From these experimental
investigations the following conclusions may be drawn:
• The residual lattice strain distribution of the base metal was
not affected by the external tensile loading, as the maximum
load of 600 MPa was well below the base metal yield strength
 YS = 690 MPa.
• Within the IHAZ and OHAZ the lattice strain distribution changed
significantly. Due to the weld thermal cycle this region was soft-
ened and the applied stress exceeded, the local lowered yield
strength resulting in plastic elongation. After unloading the lat-
tice strain was shifted to higher compression compared to the
initial condition.
• The assumption of plastic deformation within the HAZ is sup-
ported by increasing hardness and increasing values of the FWHM
of the interference lines, which are both indicators for an increase
in dislocation density due to plastic deformation. Further, necking
as observed on the surface of the tensioning specimen strength-
ens the assumption that plastic deformation occurred in this
region.
• With increasing Ni-content the amount of retained austenite in
the FZ increases, which is due to the fact that the MS -temperature
decreases with increasing Ni-content [14,27] and as a result the
hardness decreases.
• Further, with increasing depth in the FZ the amount of retained
austenite reduces, while the hardness increases. This may be
attributed to annealing effects within the weld root during weld-
ing of the second layer causing retained austenite to dissolve.
Also, chemical dilution near the transition zone (LTT to base
metal) results in higher transformation temperatures and as such
less retained austenite remains.
• As a result of external transverse tensile loading stress induced
martensite transformation occurs resulting in decreasing phase
fraction of retained austenite in the FZ. This effect was greatest
in the test weld W12 with 12 wt% Ni and 10 wt% Cr, which has
the highest initial fraction of retained austenite. Along with the
reduction of retained austenite the hardness in the FZ increased.
This is a significant advantage as the in-service component per-
formance may improve as a result of the applied load.
• The retained austenite in the FZ starts to elongate plastically
at tensioning levels well below the maximum load. As a result,
within the elastically strained martensitic matrix, the plastic
elongation of the ␥-phase results in increased compressive lattice
strain after unloading.
• The transverse macroscopic lattice strain in the FZ revealed a
nearly strain free condition after welding. Due to tensile load-
ing the ␥-phase fraction reduces due to strain and stress induced
martensite formation. At the same time the compressive lattice
strain increases. These two effects appear to balance out in case
of test weld W10 (10 wt% Ni, 10 wt% Cr), where no significant
change in macroscopic lattice strain was observed after tensile
loading. On the other hand in the weld with higher initial amount
of retained austenite (W12) a clear increase in compressive lattice
strain was observed.
 J. Altenkirch et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5566–5575
• During quasi cyclic loading no additional changes (e.g. further
plastic deformation) in the transverse lattice strain distribution
across the FZ were observed.
From these results it may be concluded that the residual macro-
scopic lattice strain in the FZ of LTT welds is stable until the
loads applied extent the yield strength of the weaker austenite
phase and evoke stress induced martensite formation. As a result
the phase fraction of retained austenite reduces and the mechan-
ical properties, e.g. hardness increases. This means that during
service the applied loads may enhance the formation of com-
pressive stress and as such improve the in-service performance
and the fatigue behaviour of the component. The general advan-
tage of the investigated LTT-filler materials is that the martensite
transformation at lower temperatures introduces local material
expansion which counteracts the material shrinkage upon cool-
ing, resulting in compressive strains in the FZ and low tension in
the HAZ.
Acknowledgements
The authors are in debt to the German Research Foun-
dation (DFG) for funding this research project on LTT-alloys
(GI 376/2-1). Further they would like to acknowledge Lincoln
Electric Europe for provision of the welding consumables as
well as the research neutron source FRM II of the Techni-
cal University Munich (TUM) for beam time through proposal
no. 3079.
References
[1] J.C. Williams, J.E.A. Starke:, Acta Mater. 51 (2003) 5775–5799.
[2] P.J. Withers:, Rep. Prog. Phys. 70 (2007) 2211–2264.
[3] A. Ohta, K. Matsuoka, N.T. Nguyen, Y. Maeda, N. Suzuki, Weld J. 82 (2003) 78–83.
[4] A. Ohta, N. Suzuki, Y. Maeda, K. Hiraoka, T. Nakamura, Int. J. Fatigue 21 (1999)
113.
5575
[5] J. Altenkirch, A. Steuwer, M.J. Peel, P.J. Withers, S.W. Williams, M. Poad, Metall.
Mater. Trans. A 39 (2008) 3246–3259.
[6] J. Altenkirch, A. Steuwer, P.J. Withers, S. Williams, M. Poad, S. Wen, Sci. Technol.
Weld Joint 14 (2008) 185–192.
[7] G. Hammersley, L.A. Hackel, F. Harris, Opt. Laser Eng. 34 (2000) 327–337.
[8] D.A. Price, S.W. Williams, A. Wescott, C.J.C. Harrison, A. Rezai, A. Steuwer, M.
Peel, P. Staron, M. Kocak, Sci. Technol. Weld Joint 12 (2007) 620–633.
[9] D.G. Richards, P.B. Prangnell, P.J. Withers, S.W. Williams, T. Nagy, S.A. Morgan,
Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Friction Stir Welding, Awaji
Island, Japan, 2008, p. 11.
[10] E.M. Van der Aa, Local cooling during welding: prediction and control of residual
stresses and buckling distortion, Ph.D., Delft University of Technology, Delft
(2007).
[11] S.W. Williams, S.A. Morgan, A. Wescott, M. Poad, S.W. Wen, Proceedings of
the 2nd International Workshop on Thermal Forming and Welding Distortion,
Bremen, Germany, 2008, p. 9.
[12] Z. Barsoum, M. Gustafsson, Eng. Fail Anal. 16 (2009) 2186–2194.
[13] H. Bhadeshia, Mater. Sci. Eng. A-Struct. 378 (2004) 34–39.
[14] A. Kromm, T. Kannengiesser, Soldagem Inspecao 14 (2009) 82–88.
[15] H. Dai, J.A. Francis, H.J. Stone, H. Bhadeshia, P.J. Withers, Metall. Mater. Trans.
A 39A (2008) 3070–3078.
[16] H.J. Stone, H. Bhadeshia, P.J. Withers, Mater. Sci. Forum 571–572 (2008)
393–398.
[17] A. Ohta, O. Watanabe, K. Matsuoaka, C. Siga, S. Nishijima, Y. Maeda, N. Suzuki,
T. Kubo, Weld. World 43 (1999) 38–42.
[18] T. Kannengiesser, A. Kromm, Soldagem Inspecao 14 (2009) 74–81.
[19] W. Steven, A.G. Haynes, JISI 183 (1956) 349–359.
[20] M. Hofmann, G.A. Seidl, J. Rebelo-Kornmeier, U. Garbe, R. Schneider, R.C.
Wimpory, U. Wasmuth, U. Noster, The New Materials Science Diffractome-
ter STRESS-SPEC at FRM-II, Residual Stresses VII, vols. 524–525, Trans Tech
Publications Ltd, Zurich-Uetikon, 2006, pp. 211–216.
[21] M. Hofmann, pers. communication with J. Altenkirch, STRESS-SPEC tensile rig
information (2009).
[22] V. Hauk, Structural and Residual Stress Analysis by Nondestructive Methods,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, Oxford, 1997, pp. 640.
[23] E. Macherauch, Praktikum in Werkstoffkunde, vol. 17, Vieweg & Teubner, 1992,
p. 439.
[24] G. Fanninger, U. Hartmann, HTM 27 (1972) 233–344.
[25] J. Gibmeier, S. Hartmann, B. Scholtes, Mater. Sci. Forum 490–491 (2005)
454–459.
[26] U. Dilthey, Schweisstechnische Fertigungsverfahren 2 – Verhalten der Werk-
stoffe beim Schweissen, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2005, p. 364.
[27] J. Altenkirch, J. Gibmeier, V. Kostov, A. Wanner, A. Kromm, T. Kannengiesser, S.
Doyle, Strain Analysis, submitted for publication.
[28] E. Kröner, Z. Phys. B 151 (1958) 504–518.