ABSTRACT

I. INTRODUCTION

II. COOLING TOWERHeat Transfer

Heat Transfer
A. Definition
B. Theory
Water
A cooling tower is a special type of heat drop at in which the warm water and the air
exchanger
Interfacial film Air temperature at Tw
temperature TW
are brought in direct contact for ‘evaporative cooling’. It provides a very good contact of air
and water in terms of the contact area and mass transfer coefficient of water vapor while
keeping air pressure drop low. Enthalpy of air is lower than enthalpy of water. Sensible heat
and latent heat transfer take
Heat place from water drop to surrounding
Transfer air. Schematic of heat
Heat Transfer
transfer from water drop to surrounding air is shown in Figure 1.

Heat Transfer Heat Transfer

Water drop at
Interfacial film Air temperature at Tw
temperature TW

Heat Transfer Heat Transfer

Figure 1: Schematic of Heat Transfer from Water Drop to Surrounding Air
(NPTEL)

Thus, cooling is accomplished by sensible heat transfer from water to air and evaporation
of a small portion of water. A generalized cooling tower system is shown in Figure 2. The hot
water which is coming from heat exchanger is sprayed at the top of the cooling tower. Air
enters through the louvers at the two opposite walls of the cooling tower. During cooling
process of water, around 2% water is evaporated. Make water is used to compensate the water
loss due to evaporation. Blowdown is there to drain a part of water containing solid deposit.
The exit cold water from the cooling tower is used in the heat exchanger or other unit operation.

Water Cooling Tower Humid Air Hot Water

Heat
Exchanger

Air
Air

Cold
Make-Up Water Water

Pump
Blowdown
Figure 2: Generalized Cooling Tower System
(NPTEL)

C. Operation

Factors governing the operation of cooling tower

1. The dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of air

2. Temperature of warm water
3. The efficiency of contact between air and water in terms of volumetric mass transfer
coefficient, kya
4. Contact time between air and water
5. The uniformity of the distribution of the phases within the tower
6. Air pressure drop
7. Desired temperature of cooled water

D. Classification

Classification of Cooling Towers

Based on Air Draft Based on Air Flow Pattern

Atmospheric Natural Mechanical Counter -Flow Cross-Flow

Draft Draft

Induced Forced

1. Atmospheric Tower
It is a big rectangular chamber with two opposites ‘louvered’ walls. Tower is packed with
a suitable ‘tower fill’. Atmospheric air enters the tower through louvers driven by its own
velocity. Direction and velocity of wind greatly influence its performance. Figure 3 shows
the schematic of the atmospheric cooling tower.
2. Natural Draft Towers
A natural draft cooling tower has a large reinforced concrete shell of hyperbolic shape (also
called ‘hyperbolic tower’). Natural flow of air occurs through the tower; hence it is called
natural draft which is shown in Figure 4. The factors responsible for creating natural draft
are:
a. A rise in temperature and humidity of air in the column reduces its density
b. Wind velocity at the tower bottom

Fan is used to enhance the air flow rate in fan assisted natural draft tower. The typical
diameter of tower is 150 m and capacity is 5,00,000 gallons/minute.

3. Mechanical Draft Towers

 Two types of Mechanical Draft Towers
a. Forced draft towers
It has one or more fans located at the tower bottom to push air into tower which can be
seen from figure 5.
Advantages:
i. A part of the velocity head of air thrown by the blower is converted to pressure
head on entering into the tower. It makes energy efficient than induced draft.
ii. Less susceptible to vibrations as fans are installed near the ground.

Disadvantages:

i. Air flow through the packing may not be uniform

ii. Some of the warm and humid air may be recirculated back. Recirculation rate
becomes low if the wind velocity is high. It is not popular except for small
capacities.
b. Induced draft towers
One or more fans are installed at the top of the tower. Depending on the air inlet and
flow pattern, induced draft towers are of two types, cross-flow and counter flow towers.

Major advantages of countercurrent induced draft cooling tower

i. Relatively dry air contacts the coldest water at the bottom of the cooling tower
ii. Humid air is in contact with the warm water and hence maximum average driving
force prevails for both heat and mass transfer.
4. Cross-current and counter-current
Cross-flow induced draft cooling tower supplies horizontal air flow along the packed
height and requires less motor horse power than the counter-flow type. Additional ‘cells’
may be added to raise the capacity. The schematic of induced draft counter-flow and cross-
flow cooling towers are presented in figure 6 and figure 7, respectively.

E. Geometric Terminology
 F. Application

III. DESIGN OBJECTIVES

IV. DESIGN PROBLEM

A closed cooling circulating water system in a thermal power plant requires 10 kg/s of cooling
water to flow through a condensation equipment for distillation which is used to cool the condenser
cooling water. The water leaves the condenser at 43.3°C. The inlet air dry bulb temperature and
wet bulb temperature are 15°C and 14°C respectively. The water is to be cooled to 10°C below the
wet bulb temperature of air and a ratio of air/steam is 1.5 times the minimum value will be used.
Water compensation will come from a dam at 10°C with a hardness of 500 ppm dissolved solids.
The circulating water cannot have a hardness greater than 2000 ppm. The speed of water is 3 kg/m2
s and the speed of air is 2.8 kg/m2 s. From the given data, calculate the dimensions of the packed
section and design a suitable cooling tower.

V. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
A. Thermal Design
B. Mechanical Design

VI. DESIGN SPECIFICATION

A. Given Data

PARAMETER VALUES
 WATER FLOW RATE 10 kg/s
WATER UNIT MASS FLOW RATE 3 kg/m2s
AIR UNIT MASS FLOW RATE 2.8 kg/m2s
INLET WATER TEMPERATURE 43.3°C
OUTLET WATER TEMPERATURE 29°C
WATER COMPENSATION TEMPERATURE 10°C
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE 15°C
WET BULB TEMPERATURE 14°C
AIR TO WATER FLOW RATE 1.5
MAXIMUM COOLING TEMPERATURE 10°C
MASS TRANSFER SURFACE 500 ppm
AIR MOLECULAR MASS 28.96 kg/kmol
Table 1: Process Design Data

B. Analysis
Warm Water Air Out

Compensation
Water
 C. Physical Properties

Parameter Water Air

Specific Heat 4.1868

Table 2: Physical Properties of Water and Air

VII. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

A. Thermal
B. Mechanical
VIII. THERMAL DESIGN
A. Thermal Design Procedure
i. Step by Step Design Procedure of Cooling Tower
1. Specify the inlet and outlet temperatures and flow rate of warm water.
2. Select the design value of dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of air (at the proposed
geographical location).
3. Draw the equilibrium curve, saturation humidity curve [ H’ vs T]. The enthalpy data
are calculated using vapor pressure equation for water and physical properties of air
and water vapor [ H '  1.005  1.88Y 'TG  TO   2500 Y ' kJ / kg ]. To is 25°C.
4. Locate the lower terminal of the operating line, ‘B’ on TL-H plane by the point (TL1,
H1’). This point indicates the condition at the bottom of the tower.
5. Draw a tangent to the equilibrium line through the point ‘B’. The slope of the tangent
gives the ratio of the liquid and minimum gas flow rate. Hence, minimum air rate is
calculated. Actual air rate taken is usually 1.25 to 1.5 times the minimum [not required
if air rate is given].
6. The upper terminal of the operating line is located by the point ‘A’ (TL2, / H2 ). It is the
point where the operating line of the slope determined in step 5 meets the vertical line
through TL2. It can also be located by calculating the top end enthalpy H2’ from
Equation ( ) LCWL TL2  TL1   GS H 2 'H1 ' .
H2'

 H ' H ' , number of gas phase enthalpy

dH '
7. Evaluate the integral in Equation ( ) N tG 
H1 ' i

Gs
transfer units and calculate height gas-phase enthalpy transfer units, H tG as H tG 
kY a

hL a
and hL a are required. A set of parallel lines (tie lines) of slope  is drawn between
kY a

the operating line

and equilibrium line. H’ and Hi’ are taken from terminals. Integral is calculated numerically
TL 0

 H ' H ' and H

dTL LCW L
or graphically. [ N tG  tG  ].
T L1 i kY a

8. If the overall enthalpy transfer coefficient K Y  is known and used, ‘tie lines’ are vertical.
For a given value of H’, value of H*’ is given by the point on the equilibrium line
 H2 '

 H
dH '
vertically above it. The integral of Equation
H1 '
*
 H'
 N t 0G
 gives the number of

overall transfer units.

Gs LC
9. The height of a transfer unit H t 0G  or H tG  W L is calculated. The packed height
kY a kY a

is the product of height of transfer unit and number of transfer units.

Approach: It is the difference between cooling water temperature leaving cooling tower and
wet-bulb temperature of inlet air which is approach to wet bulb temperature (°F), (TL1-Tas). For
getting small approach, cooling tower height must be increased. To achieve zero (0) approach
theoretically, infinite packing height is needed.

Range: ‘Cooling range’ or purely ‘range’ is the difference in the inlet hot water and outlet
cooled water temperature (°F) (TL2-TL1).

Approach to wet bulb Cooling Range (°F) Packed height

temperature (°F) (TL2-TL1) (ft)
(TL2-TL1)
15-20 25-35 15-20
10-15 25-35 25-30
5-10 25-35 35-40
ii. Flowchart

Step 1:
Specify the inlet and outlet temperatures and flow
rate of warm water

Step 2:
Select the design value of dry-bulb and wet-bulb
temperatures of air

Step 3:
Draw the equilibrium line curve

Step 4:
Locate the lower terminal of the operating line on
TL-H plane by the point (TL1, H1’)

Step 5:
Draw a tangent to the equilibrium line through the
point (TL1, H1’)

Step 6:
Locate the upper terminal of the operating line by
the point (TL2, H2’)

Step 7:
Calculate the number of gas phase enthalpy
transfer units and height gas-phase enthalpy units

Step 8:
Calculate the overall transfer unit

Step 9:
Calculate the height of a transfer unit or the
packed height
Figure 3: A Design Procedure for Cooling Tower
B. Thermal Design Calculations
STEP 1:
Specify the inlet and outlet temperatures and flow rate of warm water
PARAMETER VALUE
Inlet Water Temperature 43.3°C
Outlet Water Temperature 29°C
Table 3: Temperature of Water

STEP 2:
Selecting the design value of dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of air
PARAMETER VALUE
Dry-Bulb Temperature 15°C
Wet-Bulb Temperature 14°C
Table 4: Temperature of Air

STEP 3:
From the given data in psychrometric chart, the equilibrium line curve is shown below.

Saturation curve for air at H = 0 meter above sea level

Enthalpy of air [kJ/kg dry air]

250.0

200.0

150.0

100.0

50.0

0.0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Temperature [°C]

Figure 4: Equilibrium Line Curve

 STEP 4:
Locating the lower terminal of the operating line on TL-H plane by the point (TL1, H1’).

IX. MECHANICAL DESIGN

X. THE PROPOSED DESIGN

XI. THE SETTING OUT PLAN

A. 2D Model
B. 3D Model

XII. APPENDIX

XIII. REFERENCES