Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-018-0646-2

ORIGINAL PAPER

Heart of darkness: an interdisciplinary investigation of the urban

anthropic deposits of the Baptistery of Padua (Italy)
Cristiano Nicosia 1 & Andrea Ertani 2 & Alvise Vianello 3,4 & Serenella Nardi 2 & Gian Pietro Brogiolo 1 &
Alexandra Chavarria Arnau 1 & Francesca Becherini 5

Received: 3 February 2017 / Accepted: 17 April 2018

# Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract
Archeological excavations beside the Baptistery of the Dome of Padua (north-eastern Italy) unearthed anthropic deposits formed
between the seventh- and tenth-century AD. These were analyzed using soil micromorphology, soil chemical analyses (especially
aimed at the definition of organic matter properties and dynamics), and GC/MS analyses of fecal biomarkers, the latter corrob-
orated by principal component analysis. This inter-disciplinary study allowed differentiating between units resulting from in situ
accumulation of trampled domestic waste and other, more frequent, units derived from repeated dumping or backfilling episodes.
Fast accumulation of organic-rich domestic waste, coupled with an incomplete evolution of organic molecules appears as a
fundamental formation process of these anthropic deposits. The overall level of fecal contamination in the Padua Baptistery
sediments proved to be very low or absent.

Keywords Urban geoarchaeology . Urban deposits . Formation processes . Organic matter

Introduction cities, dark-colored deposits occur directly above the remains

According to geoarchaeological literature, Banthropic deposits,^
Banthropic horizons,^ or Bcultural layers^ form where intense
human occupation takes place for prolonged periods of time
(see Butzer 1982, 2008, 2011; Moinerau 1970). This is espe-
cially the case of cities, towns, or villages, which can be more
broadly defined as Burban settings^ (on the definition of
Burban,^ see Staski 1982, p. 97; see also Smith 1989, 2008;
Heimdahl 2005 and references therein). In many European
of Roman-age structures, often robbed, decayed, or partially
destroyed (see Carver 1987; Brogiolo 2011). The term BDark
Earth^ was used to address such deposits dating to the Late
Roman–Early Medieval period (i.e., fifth- to eleventh-century
AD), initially in the UK, and later on in Italy and France
(Macphail et al. 2003; see also Nicosia et al. 2013; Nicosia
and Devos 2014). An excavation in the historic center of
Padua (Veneto region, northeastern Italy, Fig. 1) offered the
chance for an inter-disciplinary study of anthropic deposits

Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article

(https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-018-0646-2) contains supplementary
material, which is available to authorized users.

* Cristiano Nicosia 1
Dipartimento dei Beni Culturali, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
cristiano.nicosia@unipd.it
2
Dipartimento di Agronomia, Animali, Alimenti, Risorse Naturali e
* Andrea Ertani
Ambiente (DAFNAE), Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
andrea.ertani@unipd.it
3
Section of Water and Environment, Department of Civil Engineering,
Alvise Vianello Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
av@civil.aau.dk; alvisevianello83@gmail.com
4
Alexandra Chavarria Arnau Italian National Research Council-Institute for the Dynamics of
chavarria@unipd.it Environmental Processes (CNR-IDPA), Padova, Italy
5
Francesca Becherini Italian National Research Council-Institute of the Atmospheric
f.becherini@isac.cnr.it Sciences and Climate (CNR-ISAC), Padova, Italy

Fig. 1 Top, position of Padua in northeast Italy: 1, Brenta river
floodplain; 2, Adige river floodplain; 3, major watercourses; 4, main
cities (Image based on Bondesan and Furlanetto 2012); 5, sixteenth-
century city walls; 6, active hydrography; and 7, buried or deviated
hydrography
that could fit with the characteristics of Dark Earth as reported in
literature. The Padua deposits would fit in the Bnarrow use^ of
the term, i.e., Dark Earths occurring above Roman remains and
belonging to the Late Antique and Early Medieval period (see
Macphail et al. 2003, p. 349). The narrow use of the term Dark
Earth is opposed to a more generalized one indicating later
deposits eventually found in cities with no Roman past (see
Nicosia et al. 2013 and references therein) or even outside urban
contexts (see Loveluck 2004).
In the present study, soil micromorphology, soil chemical
analyses, and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/
MS) analysis of fecal biomarkers were performed in order to
corroborate the data gathered from stratigraphic excavations.
These were carried out between 2011 and 2013 and allowed to
highlight a complex stratigraphic sequence related to the Late
Roman and Medieval evolution of a central area of the city of
Padua. Their interest lays mainly in the scarce archeological
information existing about the Early Medieval evolution of
the city as well as about the origins of its main urban church.
Moreover, the insistence of some researchers on placing the
first cathedral of the city in its suburbs makes the results of this
Archaeol Anthropol Sci
excavation of crucial importance for the history of Medieval
Padua. The analyses described in this article have the main
task of reconstructing human activities and the use of space in
this part of the city between the seventh- and tenth-century AD.
To arrive at reconstructing these aspects, we tried to face the
Bheart of darkness,^ that is all traces—in particular those in-
visible to the naked eye or to optical microscopy—hidden in
the dark of Dark Earth.
Physical setting and archeological phasing
The account of the physical setting is based on Castiglioni
et al. (1987), Ferrarese et al. (2006), and Mozzi et al. (2010).
The city of Padua is located in the fine-grained distal sector of
the Brenta river, a major Alpine watercourse that drains the
western part of the Dolomites (Fig. 1). The Brenta floodplain
sediments constitute a thick Holocene alluvial sequence, with
Last Glacial Maximum sediments outcropping several kilo-
meters north and west of the city. Another river, named
Bacchiglione, crosses this portion of the plain, but its geomor-
phic activity is restricted to its present meander belt. Such river
has been flowing through Padua within two large meanders—
identified as belonging to a former Brenta course—since the
Middle Ages. The Bacchiglione was then diverted artificially
outside the city in the twentieth century. Presently, the Brenta
follows a NW-SW path ca. 5 km north of Padua.
The episcopal complex of Padova comprised in the tenth-
century AD three different sections: the cathedral and its bap-
tistery, the residential palace of the bishop (castrum doioni),
and a porticoed structure in the northern area named BChiostro
dei Canonici.^ Excavations took place in the area comprised
between the Romanic Baptistery and the Chiostro dei
Canonici and showed a series of phases that can be summa-
rized as follows (Fig. 2):
1. Construction of a late Roman (probably fourth-century
AD) building with at least three different rooms paved with
black and white mosaics;
2. Destruction of the building testified by traces of fire on the
mosaic floors and large pieces of charred wood;
3. Demolition of the building. A huge quantity of architec-
tonic material, roof elements, and a large number of mar-
ble fragments that can be linked to liturgical elements
(including a piece of altar table) were recovered. These
elements date to the sixth-century AD;
4. Reuse of the area for settlement purposes. This is shown
by postholes and traces of buildings made with stones and
earth material. Four graves (two infants and two adults
dated between the eighth- and the tenth-century AD) can
be linked to these houses. The area was intensively occu-
pied, with a quick succession of dwelling surfaces ex-
posed during the open area excavation, and traces of
Archaeol Anthropol Sci
Fig. 2 The excavated area with respect to the Baptistery, with the position of the three studied sequences
frequent reconstruction of the buildings. Dark Earth for-
mation begins in this phase;
5. Construction of a large building, parallel to the northern
wall of the Romanic Baptistery, to which a number of
infant burials were associated. This marked a new impor-
tant transformation of the area which assumed again its
Christian function, maybe as external area of the Early
Medieval (tenth- to eleventh-century AD) Baptistery.
In synthesis, the excavations exposed a section of the Late
Roman episcopal complex, probably an area close to the main
church or its baptistery. This area was affected by destructions
at the beginning of the seventh-century AD when it became a
marginal area used as a dump of domestic waste and succes-
sively as a settlement with insubstantial buildings. The area
did not regain importance until the end of the Early Middle
Ages (tenth- to eleventh-century AD) when it was occupied by
a high-rank cemetery north of the cathedral’s baptistery.
Materials and methods
Three stratigraphic profiles, named sequences I, II, and III
were sampled during the archeological excavations (see
Table 1; Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5) and analyzed for soil micromor-
phology, soil chemical analyses, and GC/MS analysis of fecal
biomarkers, although due to budget constraints, it was not
possible to produce the thin sections from sequence II.
Samples for soil analyses and GC/MS were labeled with the
sequence number first (in Roman number) followed by a pro-
gressive number from top to bottom of the sequence (e.g., I/1,
I/2, I/3). Thin sections were numbered from 1 to 13. Table 1
 Archaeol Anthropol Sci

Table 1 List of samples for soil micromorphology, soil chemical, and shows the correspondences between samples for soil and GC/
GC/MS analyses
MS analyses, thin sections, and stratigraphic unit numbers.
Sequence Unit Thin section Samples for GC/MS and soil analyses
Field observations and profile description
I 401a 1 I/1
2 I/2 Profile description was carried out according to the FAO/
401b 3 I/3 WRB (FAO 1990) guidelines.
4 I/4
401c 5 I/5 Soil micromorphology
402 6 I/6
II 145 – II/1 Undisturbed oriented blocks were collected for thin section
147A – II/2 analysis in sequences I and III only. Thin sections were
– II/3 prepared according to the methods of Benyarku and Stoops
– II/4 (2005) and described using the terminology and concepts of
198 II/5 Stoops (2003).
147B – II/6
– II/7 Soil analyses
– II/8
285 – II/9 The pH was determined in water with a soil to water ratio of
147C – II/10 1:2.5. Total carbonates (TC) content was determined by the
III 323 7 III/1 calcimeter method and by gravimetric loss of CO2. The or-
326 8 III/2 ganic C and N contents were measured using an element an-
330 9 III/3 alyzer (vario MACRO CNS, Hanau, Germany).
335 10 III/4 Humic substances (HS) were extracted from air-dried sam-
333 11 III/5 ples using 0.1 M KOH (1:10, w/v) at 50 °C for 16 h in a N2
294 12 III/6 atmosphere, freed from the suspended material by centrifuga-
13 tion at 7000×g for 20 min and filtered through Whatman No.
321 14 III/7 42 filter paper. The extract was dialyzed against distilled water
346 – with a 14-kDa molecular weight cut-off Visking membrane
(Medicell, UK), desalted with ion exchange Amberlite IR-120
(H+ form) (Stevenson 1994). The dialyzed solution was re-
duced in volume to about 50 mL and freeze dried. The HS
molecular weight distribution was determined by gel filtration
and chromatography (Nardi et al. 2007). The column calibra-
tion was based on previously assessed standard proteins (Kit
MS-II, Serva, Heidelberg, Germany; Dell’Agnola and Ferrari
1971). The apparent molecular weight of the fractions was
defined as follows: F1, > 100.000 Da; F2, 10.000–
100.000 Da; F3, < 10.000 Da.

Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analyses

Samples were subsampled from the internal part of the mono-

Fig. 3 Sequence I, with position of thin sections (rectangles) and samples
for soil analyses and GC/MS (asterisks)
liths collected for soil micromorphology using sterile equip-
ment. 5β-Stanols are commonly formed by the reductive ac-
tion of enteric bacteria on stenol precursors that are either
ingested or biosynthesized by mammals, as these compounds
pass through the gut and are excreted with feces (Murtaugh
and Bunch 1967; Hatcher and McGillivary 1979).
Coprostanol has been established as the major 5β-stanol pres-
ent in human feces, which led to its extensive use in medical
(Barker et al. 1993; Midvedt and Midvedt 1993), pollution
(Leeming et al. 1997), and archeological studies (Lin et al.
Archaeol Anthropol Sci
Fig. 4 Sequence II, with position
of samples for soil analyses and
GC/MS (asterisks)
1978; Knights et al. 1983; Pepe et al. 1989; Pepe and Dizabo
1990; Bethell et al. 1994; Simpson et al. 1998; Bull et al.
1999a, b, 2002). Some specific ratios using the single
analyte’s abundance (ratio analyte (A)/internal standard (IS))
were calculated in order to assess potential fecal contamina-
tion and try to distinguish fecal inputs. The ratios employed
are summarized in Table 2.
Sample preparation
Twenty-four samples (one of which a control sample of allu-
vial sands from the deep substrate for comparison, named
C53) were analyzed. Samples consisted of ca. 2 g each (dry
weight), previously sieved at 2000 μm. They were first dried
in a lab stove, then soxhlet extracted for 20 h using a mixture
of acetone/hexane 1:1 to obtain a total lipid extraction
(Benfenati et al. 1994) after adding 5α-cholestane as internal
standard (Pratt et al. 2008). All the extracts were analyzed to
investigate the abundance of 5β-stanols, which are considered
to be suitable diagnostic markers for fecal pollution in sedi-
ments and even in archeological samples (Bull et al. 2002).
Normally, samples would be submitted to some other prepa-
ration steps, involving, i.e., sample workup/purification and
separation, but due to the small amount available (around 2 g
each sample) and to the absence of replicates, it was decided to
use directly the TLE extract (Sistiaga et al. 2014). The TLE
was reduced in volume by rotating evaporation, then trans-
ferred in a 1.5-mL GC vial and dried under a gentle flux of
nitrogen. Samples were then derivatized converting target
compounds to trymethyl-silyl (TMSO) derivatives to obtain
volatile non-polar compounds (suitable for GC/MS analysis)
adding 50 μL of BSTFA/TMCS 99:1 and heating for 1 h at
70 °C (Bull et al. 2001, 2003). The samples were then injected
in a GC/MS system for analysis.
GC/MS analysis
GC/MS analysis were carried out using an internal standard
(IS; 5α-cholestane-6) to identify ten compounds: (1) 3β-
cholest-5-en-3-ol (cholesterol), (2) 5α-cholestan-3β-ol (5α-
cholestanol), (3) 24-ethyl-5α-cholestan-3β-ol (5α-
stigmastanol), (4) 3β-hydroxy-24-ethyl-5,22-cholestadiene
(stigmasterol), (5) 5β-cholestan-3α-ol (epicoprostanol), (6)
5β-cholestan-3β-ol (coprostanol), (7) 24-ethylcholest-5-en-
3β-ol (β-sitosterol), (8) 24α-methyl-5-cholesten-3β-ol
(campesterol), (9) 24-ethyl-5β-cholestan-3β-o (5β-
stigmastanol) l, and (10) 24-ethyl-5β-cholestan-3α-ol (epi-
5β-stigmastanol). Quantitative determination, performed
recalculating concentrations by calibration curves obtained
injecting standard solutions of the analytes (range 10–
2000 ng), was not performed on 5β-stigmastanol and epi-
5β-stigmastanol, as these commercial standards were not
available. To include all the investigated compounds in the
evaluation of fecal contamination, the ratio analyte/internal
standard (A/IS) areas was used to calculate ratios, instead of
absolute concentrations.
GC/MS analysis was performed using an Agilent
Technologies 6890 gas-chromatographer coupled with a

Fig. 5 Sequence III, with position of thin sections (rectangles) and samples for soil analyses and GC/MS (asterisks)
quadrupole mass analyzer Agilent 5973N (Agilent
Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA). The GC/MS was
equipped with a HP-5 ms non-polar capillary column (5%
phenyl-methyl siloxane, 0.25 mm ID, 0.25 μm film thickness,
30 m length) and a split/splitless injector. The analyses (two
duplicate injections per sample) were performed both in full
SCAN and in SIM mode, to clearly identify the analytes in
combination with retention time (SCAN) and to quantify
analytes benefiting from the higher sensitivity of SIM. A list
of the ions used to quantify the analytes is reported in Online
resource 1. Samples were manually injected (2 μL each one)
in split mode (split 1:1, injector temperature of 270 °C) using a
10-μL GC syringe (Agilent Technologies); the oven’s thermal
Archaeol Anthropol Sci
program was set with the following parameters: 150 °C—
2 min isotherm, 15 °C/min to 230 °C, 5 °C/min to 250 °C,
1.5 °C/min to 300 °C, held for 3 min. The total run time was
46 min.
Principal component analysis
Principal Component Analysis (PCA; Wold et al. 1987) is a
statistical exploratory technique useful to capture the relevant
information and to visualize major trends and structure of
data. PCA was applied to the markers used to assess the po-
tential fecal contamination within the analyzed samples in
order to extract information on the samples and identify
Table 2 Markers used to calculate potential fecal contamination in analyzed samples and to distinguish potential sources with indicated fecal contamination ratios obtained for the three studied sequences
(see also Online resource 4)
Archaeol Anthropol Sci

Authors Grimalt and Albaigés Bull et al. (1999a, b) Evershed and Bethell (1996) Evershed and Bethell (1996) Leeming et al. (1997)
(1990)/Takada et al. (expansion)/Bull et al. (2002)
(1994)
Ratio Index Coprostanol/Cholesterol Coprostanol + (Coprostanol/5β-stigmastanol) Coprostanol + Coprostanol/(coprostanol + Herb% = (73
epicoprostanol/coprostanol + epi-coprostanol)/(5β-stigmasta- 5β-stigmastanol))*100 – Y) ×
epicoprostanol + nol + epi-5β-stigmastanol) 2,86
5α-cholestanol)
Ratio No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Threshold 0.2 0.7 1.5 > 73%; < 38% –
Interpretation > 0.2 = fecal > 0.7 = fecal contamination ~ 0.25 = herbivore, ruminant; > 1.5 = human-derived sewage > 73% = human fecal pollution; herbivore %
contamination (human feces = 5.5); 0.25 < x < 1.5 = mixed contribution < 38% = exclusive herbivore contrib.
contribution; 38 < x < 73 = mixed
contribution
Seq Unit Sample
I 401a I/1 0.73 0.48 0.88 1.10 46.8 74,8
I/2 0.87 0.51 0.99 1.19 49.8 66,4
401b I/3 0.25 0.45 0.97 1.24 49.2 68,0
I/4 0.13 0.39 0.78 1.05 43.7 83,7
401c I/5 0.18 0.38 0.72 1.14 41.7 89,5
402 I/6 0.04 0.45 0.69 0.92 40.9 91,8
II 145 II/1 0.12 0.52 0.39 0.53 28.2 100
147A II/2 0.16 0.52 0.34 0.48 25.4 100
II/3 0.18 0.51 0.41 0.53 29.0 100
II/4 0.15 0.51 0.42 0.54 29.7 100
198 II/5 0.02 0.49 0.60 0.76 37.3 100
147B II/6 0.20 0.57 0.61 0.80 37.8 100
II/7 0.24 0.53 0.55 0.77 35.6 100
II/8 0.13 0.55 0.56 0.74 35.8 100
285 II/9 0.06 0.52 1.08 1.32 51.9 60,4
147C II/10 0.14 0.44 0.63 0.82 38.8 97,8
III 323 III/1 0.07 0.47 0.54 0.76 35.0 100,0
326 III/2 0.14 0.50 0.83 0.95 45.4 78,9
330 III/3 0.19 0.56 0.91 1.18 47.8 72,1
335 III/4 0.06 0.52 1.00 1.31 50.1 65,5
333 III/5 0.17 0.63 1.55 2.06 60.8 34,9
294 III/6 0.08 0.53 0.78 1.17 43.8 83,6
321 III/7 0.02 0.42 0.72 0.93 42.0 88,7
Contr. – C53 0.02 0.31 0.19 0.23 15.7 100

similarities. The calculated ratios were assembled in a single
dataset, composed of 24 samples and 12 variables and pre-
treated with autoscaling (i.e., mean centering and unit variance
scaling). PCA was then performed with PLS Toolbox for
Matlab R2014b.
Results
Field observations and profile description
All the three studied sequences include stratigraphic units with
dark colors in the slightly moist state (very dark gray, dark
gray, dark grayish brown). The texture is silt loam or silty clay
loam throughout and large quantities of construction rubble
(tiles, brick, marble fragments, mortar) are present. The de-
tailed description of the three sequences is available in Online
resource 2.
Soil micromorphology
The detailed description of each thin section can be found in
Online resource 3. We begin by discussing the results of pro-
file III as it shows peculiar characteristics worth mentioning
first.
Sequence III
Under the microscope units 321 and 333 are significantly
different from the rest of this same sequence and also from
those in sequence I. They are in fact finely layered and have
coarser components with their major axis horizontally aligned.
Moreover, they contain in situ Bsnapped^ and Bcrushed^ bone
and fishbone fragments (Fig. 6). This indicator, together with
the fine horizontal layering and the horizontal orientation of
coarser components can be regarded as evidence for trampling
and compaction of occupation deposits (see Matthews et al.
1997, pp. 289, 300; Miller et al. 2009, pp. 33, 35; Miller and
Sievers 2012, pp. 3040, 3049; Banerjea et al. 2015a, pp. 95–
98). In these units, bioturbation is very weak and the micro-
structure is massive. They contain wood ash aggregates, and
phytoliths are rather well attested, whereas they are rare in the
rest of this sequence and in sequence I (see below).
Above these trampled domestic occupation deposits, we
find a series of units (335, 330, 326, 323, 294) which are very
homogeneous from the micromorphological standpoint. They
are all composed by calcareous silt loam/silty clay loam with
large quantities of ceramic material (i.e., brick, tile, pottery
fragments), mortar, and rock fragments (oolitic limestone,
metamorphic and volcanic rocks). Chrysophycean
stomatocysts, the resting stages of chrysophyte algae
(Verleyen et al. 2017), are very well attested within all units
(Fig. 7a). They suggest a local source for the sediments, i.e.,
Archaeol Anthropol Sci
the low-energy reaches of the Brenta floodplain, as shown
also by their calcareous nature (crystallitic b-fabric—see also
soil analyses in Table 3). However, these original alluvial sed-
iments have been heavily reworked by human activities.
Secondarily, we observe large (i.e., > 0.5 mm to millimeter
sized) charcoal fragments, eggshell, fishbone, and bone frag-
ments, occasionally with chromatic variations pointing to
burning (see Stiner et al. 1995; Villagran et al. 2017). The
important observation is that such components show random
orientation and no traces of sorting, and that no fine layering
can be discerned. These indicators point to dumping as the
main depositional process, as for example deriving from de-
liberate backfilling, rake-out, or discard (see Matthews et al.
1997, p. 289; Miller et al. 2009, p. 31; Milek 2012, p. 132;
Banerjea et al. 2015a, p. 95). The dumped material is of do-
mestic origin. Microstructure, when present, derives from
moderate bioturbation with channel and locally coarse monic
basic microstructures types (the latter given by mineral excre-
ments such as spheres and ellipsoids). Infillings with crescent
fabric (i.e., Bbow-like features^ sensu Bullock et al. 1985) and
the presence of earthworm granules (Canti 1998) also indicate
bioturbation. Finely comminuted charcoal/charred vegetal
matter and fine organic punctuations (not possible to distin-
guish between the three by optical microscopy alone) vary
between 15 and 20% and 25–30% by visual estimate at
×200 magnification.
Sequence I
This sequence shows textural and microstructural homogene-
ity with slight variations in the quantity of some anthropic
components. The microstructure is predominantly biogenic
(weakly developed channel microstructure) with earthworm
granules also indicating bioturbation. Towards the top of the
sequence (unit 401a), a subangular blocky microstructure is
present. The lithology is the same described in sequence III.
The groundmass is calcareous throughout with a crystallitic b-
fabric. Anthropic components present in all units are mortar
fragments, ceramic material, bone (occasionally weathered or
burnt—see Stiner et al. 1995; Villagran et al. 2017), charcoal,
eggshell, and fishbone fragments. Carnivore-omnivore copro-
lite fragments (identification based on Goldberg and Macphail
2010) occur in unit 401b and 401c and are scarcely attested or
absent in other units (Fig. 7b). Fragments of allochtonous
earth material, most likely identifiable as earth-based con-
struction material, are well attested in units 402 and in the
top part of unit 401a (thin section 1, Fig. 7c, d). Such frag-
ments are noncalcareous and silty clay textured. They do not
show traces of the addition of vegetal temper or of exposure to
fire. As described for the upper part of sequence III, no sorting
or preferential orientation of coarser component is present, a
characteristic pointing to dumping. Dusty/impure clay coat-
ings and infillings (Fig. 7e), with unoriented clays and lack of
Archaeol Anthropol Sci

laminations or layering, are present in unit 402, at the base of

unit 401c (thin section 5), in unit 401b (thin section 4), and in
and 401a (thin section 1). These textural pedofeatures might
confirm the dumping of loose material or might derive also
from post-depositional modification (such as decay of or-
ganics or changes in redox conditions—see Banerjea et al.
2015a, 2015b). Vivianite crystal intergrowths are attested
throughout the sequence, with the exception of unit 402
(Fig. 7d). This confirms periodic reduction and subsequent
oxidation of this part of the sequence. Waterlogging seems
to be a mandatory requirement for vivianite formation (see
McGowan and Prangnell 2006), but the site is very well
drained, and no redoximorphic feature was recorded in any
thin section (Lindbo et al. 2010) or in the field. As vivianite
was totally absent in the other two sequences, we conclude
that its presence in sequence I could derive from very local- Fig. 6 Examples of in situ snapped or crushed fish bones, indicating
trampling. Unit 333 (sequence III). PPL
ized water saturation and weathering of organic material.
irregular trend with depth and a large variability, ranging be-
Soil analyses
tween 0.139 and 0.614%.
The molecular size distribution shows a predominance of
The results are visible in Table 3. In sequences I and II, the soil
the fraction with intermediate molecular weight (F2, between
reaction is always sub-alkaline with the values ranging from
100.000 and 10.000 Da) in all sequences. However, some
7.6 to 7.8 (sequence I) and between 7.6 and 7.9 (sequence II).
samples deviate markedly from this trend (i.e., sample I/5 in
In these sequences, the total carbonate value ranges between
160.8 and 231.7 g/kg. In sequence III, the pH is higher, in the
alkaline range with values between 8.3 and 8.5. The total
carbonate value is between 153.7 and 253.0 g/kg.
Sequence I can be split in two parts. The top three samples
(I/1, I/2, I/3—unit 401a and top part of 401b) have a higher
organic carbon content (above 1.6%) and a lower degree of
humification (between ca. 15 and 30% HC/OC ratio) with
respect to sample I/4 below. This latter sample marks a
change, possibly deriving from a short period of stability, with
humification of organic material exposed on the surface (peak
value in HC/OC ratio, 82.3%, then decreasing towards the
bottom in I/5 and I/6; also highlighted by the lowest C/N ratio
in the sequence). This is corroborated by the highest value of
Bmature^ F1 molecules (12.52%) in sample I/4 with respect to
the rest of the sequence.
Also, sequence II can be divided in two parts. The trends of
organic C and N are irregular in the top part of the profile
(interval II/1-II5), with very low values of humic carbon in
the two topmost samples. A difference can be spotted in sam-
ple II/6, with a peak in organic C content (1.87%) descending
with an almost linear trend downwards. This coincides with
the lowest carbonate content (177.33 g/kg in II/6) suggesting
slight leaching of carbonates, probably during a brief interval
of stability of the surface. In II/6 also the amount of F3 mol- Fig. 7 a Chrysophycean stomatocyst (arrow). Note finely comminuted
ecules reaches a peak, suggesting weathering of organic organic material in the groundmass. Unit 335 (sequence III), PPL. b
matter. Fragment of carnivore-omnivore excrement. Unit 401b (sequence III),
PPL. c, d Fragments of allochtonous silty clay-textured material,
In sequence III, the organic carbon and total nitrogen probably earth-based construction material. Unit 401b (sequence III). c
values show an irregular trend with values ranging between PPL, d XPL. e Dusty clay coating. Unit 401b (sequence I), PPL. f
0.72 and 1.87%. The amount of humic carbon also shows an Vivianite crystal intergrowth. Unit 401c (sequence I), PPL
 Archaeol Anthropol Sci

Table 3 Results of soil analyses

Sequence Unit Sample pH (H2O) Total CaCO3 (g/kg) Organic C (OC) (%) N (%) C/N ratio Humic HC/OC ratio Molecular size
carbon distribution (%)
(HC) (%)
F1 F2 F3

I 401a I/1 7.6 177.33 1.71 0.24 7.2 0.251 14.7 3.41 76.70 19.89
I/2 7.5 160.78 1.74 0.21 8.1 0.418 24.0 4.96 75.30 19.74
401b I/3 7.7 170.23 1.66 0.15 10.4 0.515 31.0 3.75 81.04 15.21
I/4 7.7 165.5 0.78 0.15 4.9 0.646 82.8 12.52 23.33 64.15
401c I/5 7.7 177.33 1.15 0.17 6.7 0.711 61.8 3.89 73.37 22.75
402 I/6 7.8 189.15 1.08 0.13 7.8 0.236 21.9 3.92 78.29 17.79
II 145 II/1 7.8 182.05 1.39 0.159 8.7 0.084 6.0 3.90 75.76 20.34
147A II/2 7.9 182.05 1.73 0.187 9.2 0.084 4.8 3.28 76.29 20.43
II/3 7.8 193.88 1.27 0.164 7.7 0.698 54.9 4.39 76.93 18.67
II/4 7.7 179.69 1.49 0.176 8.4 0.502 33.8 3.78 78.74 17.48
198 II/5 7.9 224.61 1.12 0.149 7.5 0.419 37.4 5.50 79.45 15.10
147B II/6 7.6 177.33 1.78 0.201 8.8 0.776 43.7 5.53 61.77 32.70
II/7 7.6 193.88 1.65 0.204 8.1 0.558 33.8 16.20 65.62 18.20
II/8 7.7 186.78 1.61 0.181 8.9 0.698 43.4 8.80 68.93 22.27
285 II/9 8.0 222.25 1.21 0.101 12.0 0.447 36.8 7.65 73.58 18.77
147C II/10 7.9 231.71 1.03 0.124 8.3 0.837 81.0 6.79 69.63 23.58
III 323 III/1 7.8 191.51 1.96 0.156 12.6 0.363 18.5 1.96 67.28 30.77
326 III/2 8.5 153.68 0.72 0.13 5.5 0.614 85.4 3.39 65.98 30.63
330 III/3 8.4 167.87 1.88 0.197 9.5 0.537 28.6 4.02 65.93 30.05
335 III/4 8.3 241.16 0.82 0.114 7.3 0.558 67.7 1.54 70.27 28.19
333 III/5 8.5 241.16 1.28 0.09 14.2 0.580 45.2 3.61 70.41 25.98
294 III/6 8.5 238.8 1.88 0.147 12.8 0.139 7.4 7.72 76.64 15.64
8.4 205.7 0.99 0.101 9.8 0.169 17.0 3.48 64.90 31.62
321 III/7 8.4 252.98 1.13 0.106 10.6 0.364 32.2 2.56 73.67 23.77

sequence I and II/7 in sequence II), with predominant low peaks and those belonging to an actual sample (sample I/2
molecular weight fraction (F3 < 10.000 Da) and a four- to from sequence I).
fivefold increase with respect to the average values in the high
molecular weight fraction (F1 > 100.000 Da).
Sequence I

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses
The concentration of target compounds (excluded 24-ethyl-
5β-cholestan-3β-o (5β-stigmastanol) and 24-ethyl-5β-
cholestan-3α-ol (epi-5β-stigmastanol)) in analyzed samples
can be seen in Online resource 4. The percentage of each
compound, calculated using each ratio A/IS versus the total
amount of the analyzed compounds, is shown in Online re-
source 5. The calculated ratios can be found in Table 2. In the
studied sample set, the low values of 5β-stanols obtained do
not allow to clearly establish a marked fecal contribution.
Nevertheless, the calculated ratios proved to be useful to in-
terpret and corroborate data from other analytical techniques.
An explanatory chromatogram can be seen in Online resource
6 highlighting the match between the analytical standards
Ratio 1 (see Table 2 for numbering of the different ratios)
showed a potential fecal contribution for samples from units
401a (I/1and I/2) and 401b (I/3). Considering ratio 2, no sam-
ple exceeded the theoretical threshold of 0.7 that indicates
fecal pollution. The highest values were measured again for
unit 401a (samples I/1, 0.48 and I/2, 0.51). Considering ratio 3
from Evershed and Bethell (1996) and expanding it using the
one of Bull et al. (2002) (ratio 4)—i.e., taking into account the
possibility of conversion of coprostanol to epicoprostanol un-
der anaerobic conditions—all samples were in the range be-
tween 0.25 and 1.5. The highest values were recorded for units
401a (sample I/1—0.88 (ratio 3) and 1.10 (ratio 4); sample I/2,
0.99 (ratio 3) and 1.19 (ratio 4)) and 401b (sample I/3, 0.97
(ratio 3) and 1.24 (ratio 4)). These higher values in ratios 1, 2,
3, and 4 are coherent with the subdivision of this sequence in
Archaeol Anthropol Sci
two parts highlighted by physico-chemical analyses (see BSoil
analyses^ above). Ratio 5 showed that all the samples in se-
quence I exceeded the threshold of 38%, with values between
40.8% (unit 401c, sample I/5) and 49.8% (unit 401a, sample
I/2), a circumstance that can tentatively be interpreted as an
indicator of mixed contributions (see Bull et al. 2002).
Samples I/1, I/2, and I/3 were characterized by the lowest
values of the so-called Bherbivore relative contribution^ ac-
cording to ratio 6 (74.8, 66.4, and 68%, respectively). For the
other samples of the same sequence, the values for this proxy
increased with depth, reaching the highest value in sample I/6
(unit 402, 91.9%).
Sequence II
According to ratio 1, only two samples from unit 147B (II/6,
II/7) show a weak potential fecal contribution. No samples
exceed the theoretical threshold of 0.7, indicating fecal contri-
bution according to ratio 2. The highest values of this ratio in
sequence II were obtained in unit 147B (samples II/6, II/7, and
II/8, respectively, 0.57, 0.53, and 0.55). This is in line with the
subdivision of the sequence based upon physico-chemical
analyses, with two main episodes of sedimentation and with
sample II/6 (unit 147B) marking a difference. Proxies 3 and 4
show quite low values for this sequence, in the range between
0.25 and 1.5, with the highest value for unit 285 (sample II/9,
1.08 (ratio 3) and 1.32 (ratio 4)). Considering ratio 5, only
samples II/9 and II/10 exceeded the 38% threshold, with
values of 51.9 and 38.8%. The fecal contribution appears to
be exclusively of herbivore origin according to ratio 6, with
the exception of samples II/9 (unit 285) and II/10 (unit 147C).
Nevertheless, given the overall low quantities of target com-
pounds, ratios 5 and 6 can only be used tentatively.
Sequence III
No sample from this sequence showed fecal contribution con-
sidering ratio 1 or 3, albeit units 333, 335, and 330 (samples
III/5, III/4, and III/3) show the highest values of the latter
(0.63, 0.52, and 0.56, respectively—the theoretical threshold
being 0.7). These values are the highest measured values
among the entire sample batch. Considering ratios 3 and 4,
unit 333 (sample III/5) is characterized by values of 1.55 and
2.06, respectively, the highest ones between all the analyzed
samples and both above the threshold (1.5), indicating human-
sourced pollution (Bull et al. 2002). According to ratio 5, all
samples exceed the value of 38%, except unit 323 (sample III/
1, 35%), with all the samples showing mixed contributions.
The lowest value in unit 333 (sample III/5, 34.9%), shows the
highest value for Bother contributions^ (65%) of all analyzed
samples. Overall, in sequence III, ratio 3 indicates a potential
fecal contribution in the bottom part of the sequence,
Interestingly, values close to fecal contribution according to
ratio 2 and above the threshold (1.5) for ratio 4, together with
mixed contribution highlighted by the other two ratios (5, 6)
occur in unit 333, formed within a household. Carnivore-
omnivore excrement fragments have been observed in thin
sections from such unit and are also scattered—albeit in low
quantities—in units above.
Principal component analysis
The total variance accounted by the first two principal com-
ponents (PCs) was around 75%.
In the score plot on the left side of Fig. 8, two groups of
samples could be identified, related respectively to the se-
quences II and III, while samples belonging to sequence I
were quite dispersed. Exceptions to this were samples C53
(reference sample of natural alluvial sands from the deep sub-
strate), III/5 (unit 333 in sequence III), as well as I/1 and I/2
(unit 401a in sequence I). The loading plot on the right side of
Fig. 8 put in evidence the relationship between the variables,
which could be grouped as follows: the first group included
A–B–G and O–P which had positive loadings for both the first
two PCs; the second group was formed by F–I and L–M–N,
characterized by positive loadings for PC1 and negative load-
ings for PC2; the third group was represented by H with neg-
ative and positive loadings respectively for PC1 and PC2.
Variable D was outside the aforementioned groups and it
showed significant (negative) loading only for PC1. Samples
from unit 401a in sequence I (I/1 and I/2) resulted isolated
from the rest of the samples of the same Sequence, showing
the highest positive values of the variables A–B–G and O–P
of the whole dataset. This result indicated mixed contributions
within these two samples: omnivore feces (relative high con-
centration of coprostanol/cholesterol and absolute amount of
coprostanol), degraded organic material (high values of 5α-
cholestanol/cholesterol), and potential organic material com-
ing from herbivore fecal inputs (high values of the markers
linked to the variables O–P).
Most of the samples belonging to sequence II showed
negative scores for PC1 and positive scores for PC2, as
they were characterized by an exclusive herbivore con-
tribution. Instead, sample II/9 (sequence II, unit 285)
was characterized by score values more similar to the
ones of samples belonging to sequence III, probably due
to its mixed contribution (herbivore, 60.4%; other,
39.6%) and its fecal contamination (I = 0.51).
According to their score values, samples related to
Sequence III showed mixed contributions, the herbivore one
increasing with decreasing score values for PC1. In fact, sam-
ple III/1 (unit 323) was 100% herbivore (H), while sample III/
5 (unit 333) was characterized by the lowest value of H and
highest fecal contamination (I = 0.63) within the dataset, albeit
possibly of post-depositional origin.

The reference sample C53 showed the highest values of H
and D, while the lowest values of all the other variables, indi-
cating no evidence of fecal contamination.
Discussion
Some characteristics are common for all units. The silty clay
loam/silt loam texture, the presence of chrysophycean
stomatocysts, and the carbonate content are coherent with
sediments of the Brenta/Bacchiglione floodplain. These, how-
ever, have been heavily transformed and reworked by
humans, and no natural input of alluvial sediments—a com-
mon occurrence in many urban sites located in alluvial set-
tings (see Nicosia et al. 2012; Cremaschi and Nicosia 2010)—
was observed.
A general discourse can also be made for the organic status
of the studied units. The quality of HS in the three studied
sequences is shown by gel filtration analysis, which reveals
their molecular weight distribution. The latter is regulated by
the amount of organic inputs and by the balance between
mineralization and humification processes. The mineraliza-
tion process, through microbial activity, decomposes sub-
stances and transforms them into simple inorganic substances.
On the contrary, the humification process consists in the for-
mation of high molecular weight substances, by means of
resynthesis and neogenesis processes, starting from the sub-
stances that make up the plant and animal residues. The rate of
degradation of the organic starting substances (mineralization
process), and its evolution in humic substances (humification)
is influenced by the environmental conditions (temperature,
presence of water and oxygen) and the recalcitrance of the
starting material.
The low percentage (around 10%) of HS fraction F1 (>
100 kDa), measured in the majority of samples, suggests a
scarce quantity of high-level macromolecules, like alkylic
and aromatic compounds, that can be easily accumulated
and included in the humic carbon structure (Zech et al.
1997), e.g., through hydrophobic interaction (Piccolo 2009).
The intermediate fraction (F2, between 100,000 and
10,000 Da) is the most abundant and represents humic matter
that accumulated but has not yet undergone the polyconden-
sation process. The lowest fraction (F3 < 10.000 Da), typical
of compounds that have only undergone the hydrolysis pro-
cess (Dell’Agnola and Nardi 1979), is around 20%, a further
demonstration of the difficult transformation of organic sub-
stances into HS. In light of these considerations, the
pedoclimatic conditions impeded the polymerization and
polycondensation of HS and promoted the accumulation of
HS of medium molecular weight. This characteristic is due
to a scarce oxygenation that prevents the final equilibrium of
humic products. Generally, at the end of the first phase, the
low molecular weight HS should assemble as associations of
Archaeol Anthropol Sci
self-heterogeneous and relatively small molecules and stabi-
lized predominantly by weak dispersive forces (Nardi et al.
1991). On the contrary, in our samples the self-association of
small molecules is low (see values of F1 in Table 3).
Field observations and soil micromorphology provided the
necessary contextual data (sensu Goldberg and Berna 2010) to
interpret the results of soil chemical and GC/MS analyses. It
was possible to distinguish two main types of anthropic
deposits:
1) In situ, trampled, domestic occupation deposits (base of
sequence III, units 333 and 321). These do not show sig-
nificant differences in soil chemical parameters with re-
spect to units deriving from simple dumping (see below).
This is not surprising as most likely occupation deposits
like these are the parent material of dumped units.
Interestingly, these household deposits are the most pol-
luted by fecal material according to ratios 2, 3, and 4
(Table 2) and exhibit a mixed contribution (even if
ratios 5 and 6 in Table 2 must be used with caution).
This probably derives from a promiscuous use of the liv-
ing space, with humans and animals co-existing under the
same roof and in extremely poor hygienic conditions.
This is in line with the picture of post-roman urban dwell-
ing taking places in insubstantial huts or tuguria, often
found in written sources and well documented
archeologically (Brogiolo 2011).
2) Units deriving from dumping of domestic waste (all re-
maining units). The overall irregular variation with depth
of soil chemical parameters (see Table 3) confirms several
episodes of dumping of domestic waste, with two main
phases of accretion observed in both sequences I and II.
The irregular distribution with depth concerns also the
concentration of fecal biomarkers. In sequence I, unit
401a resulted the only one showing fecal contribution
when ratio 1 is used (Table 2). However, as stated by
Bull et al. (2002), this proxy should be used with caution
because it may be affected by differential losses of cho-
lesterol due to either preferential utilization and/or degra-
dation in aerobic environments or reduction under anaer-
obic conditions (Wardroper et al. 1978; Quirk et al. 1980;
Bull et al. 2000). Unit 401a shows also the highest value
according to ratio 2 (Bull et al. 1999a, b—although con-
stantly below the theoretical threshold of 0.7) in sequence
I. This could be explained by the presence of several
carnivore/omnivore excrement fragments, observed in
thin section.
In sequence II, based on field observations, on the presence
of mixed archeological materials dating from the first- to the
tenth-century AD, and on the irregular trend with depth of soil
chemical parameters, we can again infer several dumping ep-
isodes. As mentioned above, these can be grouped in two
Archaeol Anthropol Sci
Fig. 8 Score (left) and loading (right) plots of PC2 versus PC1. In the
score plot samples from the three sequences are differently colored: I,
blue; II, red; III, green. Key (variables from fecal markers): A,
coprostanol/total analyzed sterols (%); B, coprostanol/cholesterol; G,
5α-cholestanol/cholesterol; O, (5β-stigmastanol)/(5β-stigmastanol +
5α-stigmastanol); P, (5β-stigmastanol + Epi-5β-stigmastanol)/(5β-
stigmastanol + epi-5β-stigmastanol + 5α-stigmastanol); F, (coprostanol/
main periods of dumping, separated by a brief period of sta-
bility occurring on top of unit 147B. Fecal biomarkers appear
to confirm this bipartition of the profile, with higher concen-
trations in unit 147B and in those below when ratios 3 and 4
are employed.
PCA applied to fecal markers calculated from GC/MS data
was useful as a clustering technique in order to identify ho-
mogenous groups of samples within the dataset (Kaufman and
Rousseeuw 2005). This clustering reveals that each sequence
has Ba story of its own^ (this is particularly true for sequences
II and III, while sequence I is less neatly clustered, Fig. 8).
From the geoarchaeological standpoint, this means that not-
withstanding heavy human reworking (digging, quarrying,
dumping, etc.) and bioturbation, homogenization was not
complete across the site.
Conclusion
Archeological implications
The interdisciplinary analyses at the Baptistery of Padua
allowed for the identification of a series of in situ deposits
formed in the seventh-century AD as the result of human oc-
cupation with markedly Brural^ characteristics. These took
place in the frame of the re-use of the area for settlement
purposes, after the destruction of the fourth-century AD epis-
copal building.
The remaining units have been interpreted as deriving from
the repeated dumping of household waste. We referred
(5α-cholestanol + coprostanol); I, (coprostanol + epicoprostanol)/(5α-
cholestanol + coprostanol + epicoprostanol); L, coprostanol/5β-
stigmastanol; M, (coprostanol + epicoprostanol)/(5β-stigmastanol + epi-
5β-stigmastanol); N, (coprostanol/(coprostanol + 5β-
stigmastanol))*100); H, herbivore relative contribution (%); D,
epicoprostanol/coprostanol
throughout this paper to Bdumping^ for lack of a more
precisely definable human action. It must be stressed
that in Roman cities in north Italy and in the rest of
the empire, waste disposal was strictly regulated (see
Furlan 2017 for a review of the topic; see also Gelichi
2000). Waste included both Bsolid^ domestic and indus-
trial rubbish as well as liquid and solid fecal residues,
the latter disposed of by an efficient sewer system. The
overall low levels of fecal contaminations recorded by
GC/MS at the Padua Baptistery permitted to exclude a
link between Dark Earth formation and the collapse of
the roman sewer, a hypothesis postulated for some north
Italian cities in the 1980s (see La Rocca 1986; Brogiolo
et al. 1988; Brogiolo 2011). It is rather the accumula-
tion of solid rubbish (i.e., artifacts, ecofacts, and their
encasing sedimentary matrix) inside the city and not
anymore in dumps extra muros that is at the base of
the formation of these anthropic deposits and, conse-
quently, of many Dark Earths. In such a framework,
these form of anthropic accretion embody the tangible
outcome of the change in the life ways of cities after
the collapse of the Roman regulatory system, a phenom-
enon well known by historians (see, among others,
Galinié 2004 and Brogiolo 2011). In being basically
accumulations of waste, Dark Earth and any other type
of anthropic deposit of any age bears no specific differ-
ences from (as stated also by Carver 1987). When not
marking a change in the style of sedimentation with
respect to an underlying Roman Bpast^—that is, outside
the narrow use of the term (see Chapter 1)—Dark Earth

appears to be even less differentiable from any other anthro-
pogenic accretion deposit.
The dumping that was observed at the Baptistery of Padua
can be the progressive accumulation of discard from living
spaces, as for example in sequence III (interval between units
335 and 323). Here, the slow buildup of waste is linked to
seventh- to eighth-century AD reuse of the area for settlement
purposes, documented during open area archeological exca-
vations. Dumping can also be faster, as for example when
backfill is accumulated for ground-raising purposes or to fill
a negative structure. This is most likely the case for sequence I
(chronology in course of determination) and sequence II
(ninth- to tenth-century AD), respectively. In both sequences,
two main episodes of dumping have been observed, based on
soil and geochemical properties. The presence of materials of
different ages mixed together proved to be the most robust
indicator to distinguish massive backfill episodes from slower,
gradual accretion.
Implications for anthropic deposits or Dark Earth
formation
Thin section analysis proved to be an effective method to differ-
entiate between slowly accreting, trampled in situ deposits and
units deriving from dumping. At the Padua baptistery, where
Dark Earth formed in response to the fast accumulation of
organic-rich domestic waste coupled with a slow rate of evolution
of organic to humic matter. The latter phenomenon is demonstrat-
ed by the low degree of maturity of humic substances in the vast
majority of samples. The impeded humification of organic carbon
might be linked to the occurrence of reducing conditions. These
are suggested by high values of 5α-cholestan-3β-ol (5α-
cholestanol) in some samples and by the presence of poorly ori-
ented dusty clay pedofeatures (deriving from oxidation of organic
matter and changes in redox conditions according to Banerjea et al.
2015a, b) in others. Reduction seems here primarily related to the
decay of organic matter, and not so much to waterlogging. Beside
the lack of redoximorphic features, it must be also stressed that the
site occurs on a topographic high, occurring 5–6 m higher than the
surrounding alluvial plain (formed due to the repeated superimpo-
sition of archeological strata—see the high-resolution digital ele-
vation models of Ferrarese et al. 2006; Ninfo et al. 2011). The
reducing conditions stressed the microbial community shifting
the populations from oxidative to reductive. Anoxic microorgan-
isms possess a great potential to drive the dynamic of humic matter
in the soil (Frankerberger Jr and Arshad 1995). The role of the
impeded evolution of organic substances in the formation process-
es of Dark Earth, and possibly in dark-colored anthropic accretion
deposits of any age (see Moinerau 1970; Nicosia et al. 2011),
deserves further study. Future research could also focus on the
identification and quantification through GC/MS of target com-
pounds (such as lignin and waxes) that could confirm the hypoth-
esis, often reported in literature, that Dark Earth derives from the
Archaeol Anthropol Sci
decay of wooden elements in buildings in perishable material (see
Macphail 1994; Yule 1990; Courty et al. 1989, p. 268; Macphail
et al. 2003; Goldberg and Macphail 2010, pp. 271–273).
Acknowledgements As required by the Italian system of research evalu-
ation, we indicate below the relative contributions of each author to the
different parts of the article.
Author contribution C.N. wrote paragraphs “Introduction,” “Materials and
methods,” “Field observations and profile description,” “Soil micromorphol-
ogy,” “Results,” “Field observations and profile description,” and
“Conclusion”. C.N., A.C.A., and G.P.B. co-wrote paragraph “Physical setting
and archaeological phasing.” A.E. and S.N. wrote paragraphs “Soil analyses
(under “Materials and methods”) and “Soil analyses.” (under “Results”). A.V.
wrote “Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analyses,” “Sample prepara-
tion,” (under “Materials and methods”) and “Gas chromatography-mass spec-
trometry analyses” (under “Results.”) F.B. wrote paragraph “Principal com-
ponent analysis” (under “Materials and Methods” and sub-paragraph
“Principal component analysis” in “Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
analyses.” All authors contributed equally to “Discussion.”
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