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Digital Libraries with Embedded Values: Combining Insights from LIS and Science and

Technology Studies
Author(s): Kenneth R. Fleischmann
Source: The Library Quarterly, Vol. 77, No. 4 (October 2007), pp. 409-427
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
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DIGITAL LIBRARIES WITH EMBEDDED VALUES: COMBINING
INSIGHTS FROM LIS AND SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY STUDIES1

Kenneth R. Fleischmann2

In the digital age, libraries are increasingly being augmented or even replaced by
information technology (IT), which is often accompanied by implicit assumptions
of objectivity and neutrality, yet the field of science and technology studies (STS)
has a long history of studying what values are embedded in IT and how they are
embedded. This article seeks to unite the strengths of STS and LIS. First, the
relevant literature on the values embedded in technologies, IT, physical libraries,
and digital libraries is reviewed. Next, empirical and theoretical approaches for
studying the values embedded in digital libraries are proposed. Finally, the bound-
ary objects with agency framework is applied to digital libraries as a possible way
to address the need for comparative empirical research about what values are
embedded in digital libraries, how these values are embedded in digital libraries,
and the implications of these embedded values.

Introduction

There is much that the field of LIS can learn from its sister field of science
and technology studies (STS), an interdisciplinary field that focuses on
the social, cultural, ethical, and political dimensions of science and tech-
nology [1]. For example, as LIS moves its emphasis toward information
technology, especially from physical libraries to digital libraries, it is useful
to consult the existing STS literature on how values can be embedded in

1. The theoretical framework presented in this article is built upon research conducted by
the author as a result of funding from NSF awards SES-0217996 and SES-0521117. Portions
of this article were presented as a juried paper at the Association for Library and Infor-
mation Science Education (ALISE) Annual Conference on January 18, 2006, in San An-
tonio. The author would like to thank Al Wallace, David Hess, Ron Eglash, and Nancy
Campbell for reading and commenting on portions of this article and Bo Xie for her
careful and constructive comments on multiple drafts of this article.
2. Assistant professor, College of Information Studies, University of Maryland, College Park,
MD 20742-4345. E-mail kfleisch@umd.edu.

[Library Quarterly, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 409–427]


䉷 2007 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved.
0024-2519/2007/7704-0003$10.00

409

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410 THE LIBRARY QUARTERLY

technologies in general, and especially in information technology (IT).


The goal of this article is to combine insights from the fields of LIS and
STS and to demonstrate the applicability of a theoretical framework de-
veloped from an STS perspective to an LIS study of the values embedded
in digital libraries.
Values can be defined as “evaluative beliefs that synthesize affective and
cognitive elements to orient people to the world in which they live” [2, p.
2828]. Although they are a result of social interaction and may be shared
among individuals, values are a highly individualized and personalized
phenomenon.3 Steven Hitlin and Jane Allyn Piliavin [4] make a case for
reviving an emphasis on values throughout the social sciences. This article
attempts to follow this recommendation within the field of LIS.4
This article begins with a review of the STS literature, which has dem-
onstrated that both technologies in general and IT have embedded values.
Next, the article examines the types of values that are embedded in physical
and digital libraries, based on the existing LIS literature. The article iden-
tifies the key insights and limitations that can be drawn from existing
studies. Finally, the article ends by proposing directions for future research
on digital libraries with embedded values, including empirical research
that is multisited and comparative in nature, and a theoretical framework,
boundary objects with agency, that allows for a better understanding of
what values are embedded in digital libraries, how these values are em-
bedded in digital libraries, and the implications of these embedded values.

Technologies with Embedded Values

While the traditional technoscientific perspective has held that technol-


ogies are value neutral, this argument has been opposed by those within
the field of science and technology studies who argue that technologies
do contain embedded values and, thus, are an important focus for ethical
discussion.5 Langdon Winner [6–8], building upon the work of Lewis Mum-
ford [9] and Jacques Ellul [10], argues that the design of technologies is
a political process. Winner explains that “power, authority, freedom, and
social justice are embedded in technical structures” [7, p. 40]. Winner
provides the example of the atom bomb, the existence of which necessitates

3. As such, values can be contrasted with ethics, which are shared frameworks that govern
behavior and are codified as laws or norms [3].
4. While the field of LIS does not, strictly speaking, fit entirely within the label of a “social
science,” there are aspects of the field of LIS that bear a striking resemblance to the social
sciences.
5. While this section focuses on the technology studies literature, science studies scholars
such as Robert Proctor [5] similarly argue that science is also value laden.

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DIGITAL LIBRARIES—EMBEDDED VALUES 411

an authoritarian power structure to prevent a global catastrophe. Winner


also cites works by Plato [11], Friedrich Engels [12], and Alfred D. Chan-
dler [13] that connect technological development with a need for au-
thoritarian power structures. Technologies, Winner argues, are inherently
political and can be used to enhance either democracy and equality or
hierarchical and inegalitarian power structures. Finally, Winner explains
that designers are unquestionably political actors, whether or not they see
themselves as such, and further that the design of new technologies should
be opened up to users as well as to citizens in general, so that it can become
a more democratic and inclusive process.
Building on the work of Winner, Richard E. Sclove [14] argues that
values and politics are embedded in technologies, while at the same time,
“technologies—like other social structures—influence, but do not deter-
mine social reality” [14, p. 22]. According to Sclove, however, technologies
do not have political meaning in a social vacuum. Rather, a technology’s
political valence is largely determined by its social context. Technologies
do not have fixed meanings, but rather their meanings are subject to local
interpretation. Similarly, technologies can also be polypotent, in the sense
of having multiple meanings or valences. These potencies may be either
focal or nonfocal functions. Focal functions are central, intended effects,
while nonfocal functions are less intentional and potentially more insidious
in their effects. Similarly to Winner, Sclove writes, “nuclear weapons are
designed focally to coerce, deter, or destroy other societies, but they con-
tribute nonfocally to legitimating authoritarian government institutions
within the societies that possess them” [14, p. 22]. Sclove argues that so-
cieties must be aware of and involved in producing technologies and their
focal and nonfocal polypotencies, while at the same time, technologists
should be aware of the social ramifications of their design work and should
use their positions to work toward equalizing power relations rather than
reinforcing or further stratifying unequal power structures.
Deborah G. Johnson [15] provides a framework for understanding em-
bedded values within the context of technological development. She breaks
the ways that values become embedded in technologies into four catego-
ries: moral/metaphysical, support, material, and expressive. Johnson ex-
plains that in the moral/metaphysical embedding of values, “values pervade
the invention and production of a technology, and these values are put into
technology in such a way that they cannot be separated from it” [15, p. 22].
The support meaning of embedded values is based on the use of technol-
ogies, such that the choice to use a particular technology is indicative of a
particular value decision. Material embedding of values comes in two flavors:
technologies convey values in their design, and design is compatible with
specific types of social relationships, often related to authority and power.
Finally, according to the expressive meaning of embedded values, technol-

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ogies have values because they have social meaning. She argues that these
four means of embedding values are not mutually exclusive, but rather they
can all simultaneously apply to the same technology.
According to David J. Hess, “all research is ultimately guided by values”
[16, p. 15]. Hess [17] introduces the concept of “technototemism” to
explain how value differences are coconstituted with technical differences.
Technototemism explains how race-, gender-, and class-related differences
and technoscientific differences mutually construct each other, allowing
technologies to influence our dynamic understanding of social difference
and simultaneously embedding values related to social difference within
different technoscientific artifacts. Thus, Hess’s framework provides a nu-
anced approach to studying technologies with embedded values.6

Information Technologies with Embedded Values

Applying Sclove’s [14] work to IT, Douglas Schuler [18] provides the ex-
ample of community networks as an IT with embedded values. The Seattle
Community Network (SCN), which he was involved in founding, was de-
signed using several explicitly stated principles that involve commitment to
access, service, democracy, the world community, and the future. Writing
about the development of the SCN, he recalls, “Fortunately, it was realized
early on that the technology, policy, and processes should be driven by a set
of principles rather than the reverse” [18, p. 336]. He lists six core values
of new communities (including community networks): “conviviality and cul-
ture; education; strong democracy; health and well-being; economic equity,
opportunity, and sustainability; and information and communication” [18,
p. 12]. These core values serve as the organizing structure for SCN and for
his beliefs about the need for and requirements of community networks in
general. Values are at the core of Schuler’s view of the design of community
networks, since these values should, according to Schuler, determine the
technical and administrative aspects of a community network.
Schuler [18] and David Silver [19] argue that online communities should
be designed in a participatory manner that involves all users or at least a
broad cross section of users. Schuler argues that “developing a community
network is by definition a community project” [18, p. 335]. He argues that
all potential users of the community network should be involved in the
design of the network and that this participation should be facilitated and
encouraged. In his analysis of a less than fully participatory online com-

6. The emphasis on democratizing technology shared by STS scholars such as Winner, Sclove,
Johnson, and Hess is consistent with the user-centered design approach advocated by many
LIS and IT scholars, which is discussed below.

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DIGITAL LIBRARIES—EMBEDDED VALUES 413

munity, the Blacksburg Electronic Village (BEV), Silver [19] argues that
the combination of the lack of user participation in the development of
the BEV and the nonrepresentative group of designers and administrators
involved in developing the BEV led to the omission of important issues
such as race, gender, and sexuality as discussion topics within the BEV.
Silver argues that this shortcoming in the design of the BEV limits the
participation of users by restricting the range of issues that can be discussed
on the BEV, and that participation in use is limited largely because of
shortcomings in access to and participation in the design process. Thus,
participation in design and use can often be interrelated, such that more
egalitarian use is often a product of more participatory design approaches.
Schuler and Silver thus work to construct new strong counterpublics [20]
through the participatory design of digital spaces that in turn encourage
participation by users.
In her collaborations with Helen Nissenbaum, Batya Friedman [21] has
found that values play an important role in the design of IT. Specifically,
Friedman and Nissenbaum have identified freedom from bias [22] and
user autonomy [23] as values that can be embedded in IT by designers.
Friedman [24] argues that additional study is necessary to explore in more
detail how values are embedded in IT. Philip Brey [25] emphasizes the
importance of the embedded values of justice, autonomy, democracy, and
privacy. Amy Pearl and colleagues [26] make a similar argument for ed-
ucational simulations and computer games, focusing on values related to
gender and age. Chuck Huff and C. Dianne Martin [27–30] argue that
the ethical implications of IT are so significant that “it is unethical to ignore
the values embedded in technological artifacts” [29, p. 80]. Thus, there is
compelling evidence that values are embedded in technologies in general
and IT in particular.

Libraries with Embedded Values

Libraries are typically assumed to be objective and neutral, yet since the
information provision carried out by libraries occurs in a cultural context
and culture is never value neutral, libraries are indeed shaped by values
[31]. Thus, like other technological systems, libraries contain embedded
values. This section explores examples of values that are embedded in
libraries. The following section will explore the relevance of these values
to digital libraries.
In his article, “To Reposition a Research Agenda: What American Studies
Can Teach the LIS Community about the Library in the Life of the User,”
Wayne Wiegand [32] focuses on two particular values embedded in li-
braries: the library as a place and the library as a source and site for reading.

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He builds on the work of Jürgen Habermas [33] to argue that libraries


form an important public sphere that resists the tendency toward social
isolationism identified by Robert Putnam [34]. Wiegand also argues that
reading, especially of popular fiction, plays an important role in shaping
readers’ everyday lives. Thus, by examining the values embedded in li-
braries and digital libraries, it is possible to focus on libraries as places and
on reading in the lives of users.7
Former ALA President Michael Gorman has put a special emphasis on
the values of librarianship in his writings on the library professions. In his
book, Our Enduring Values: Librarianship in the 21st Century, Gorman [35]
identifies eight core values of libraries and librarians: stewardship, service,
intellectual freedom, rationalism, literacy and learning, equity of access to
recorded knowledge and information, privacy, and democracy. Gorman
also devotes chapters of his books Our Singular Strengths: Meditations for
Librarians [36] and Our Own Selves: More Meditations for Librarians [37] to
values. Due to his highly visible position, Gorman has brought great at-
tention to the issue of values in librarianship.
Christine Pawley [38] argues that the LIS curriculum, which is used to
train librarians, also contains embedded values. Specifically, Pawley argues
that the values of the LIS curriculum are evidence of hegemonic domi-
nation, such that the library and the profession of librarianship are used
as tools of class warfare. Pawley focuses on four specific ways that middle-
class values have been incorporated in the LIS curriculum: corporatization,
professionalization, scientification, and stratification. First, Pawley explains
that corporatization, as in the case of the Carnegie Corporation’s role in
the Williamson Report of 1923 and the W. K. Kellogg Foundation’s support
of the University of Michigan’s School of Information, allows corporate
values to enter into the LIS curriculum, leading to emphasis on mana-
gerialism and profit motives. Second, professionalization in the field of
LIS can be linked to a hierarchical view of librarianship (which is masked
by a gloss of pluralism) and to favoritism shown to other hyperempowered
professional groups at the expense of underserved and marginalized pop-
ulations. A third way that the LIS curriculum is influenced by middle-class
values is its attempt to present itself as a scientific field, thus adhering to
the norms of science, such as communalism, universalism, disinterestedness,
and organized skepticism [39], which have been critiqued by scholars in the
field of science and technology studies but yet remain commonly accepted
in popular discourse. Finally, the field of LIS stratifies literacy by privileging
some literature as “good” reading while trashing most popular fiction, and

7. References to specific values attributed to various LIS scholars in this section and the
following section are in some cases the result of a reading of particular works with a
particular emphasis on the concept of values, broadly defined.

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DIGITAL LIBRARIES—EMBEDDED VALUES 415

also through the new category of information literacy, which emphasizes


computing expertise that is easier for the economic elite to acquire.
Pawley’s [38] discussion of the values implicit in definitions of infor-
mation literacy resonates with the work of Kimmo Tuominen, Reijo Sa-
volainen, and Sanna Talja [40]. Pawley also connects the middle-class fa-
voritism of the LIS curriculum to its place in institutions of higher
education: helping to cement these class-based values. Pawley concludes
that in order to truly adhere to free and equitable access to information
as a meaningful value, the LIS curriculum should be reformed to include
additional emphasis on social theory, and, most of all, the debate over the
values embedded in the LIS curriculum should remain prominent rather
than allowing these values to become invisible and thus unquestionable.
Even seemingly straightforward and neutral tools of the library trade,
such as classification systems, have embedded values. Hope Olson [41]
makes this point eloquently, tracing the values embedded in both the
Library of Congress Subject Headings and the Dewey Decimal Classifica-
tion. Olson explains that these classifications privilege some categories and
materials over others. Specifically, she argues that “effective searching for
marginalized topics will require greater ingenuity and serendipity than
searching for mainstream topics” [41, p. 639], demonstrating the influence
that classification systems can have on access to information. Specifically,
she documents how the Library of Congress Subject Headings privilege
masculinity by treating women as exceptions to the male norm. In the case
of the Dewey Decimal Classification, Olson documents how “American
Literature in English” is grouped on the same level as “Slavic, Celtic, Asian,
African, American Aboriginal, and many other” literatures, demonstrating
that “the external organizing force, rather than the contents, determines
the correct shape” [41, p. 651]. Olson’s solution, following Drucilla Cor-
nell’s [42] Philosophy of the Limit, resonates with Donna Haraway’s [43]
advocacy of articulation over representation, as both are based on many
of the same influences, including bell hooks [44] and Trinh T. Minh-Ha
[45]. Noting the advantages of techniques such as free text searching,
Olson suggests that technology may be helpful in leveling the playing field
and facilitating access to information. Thus, Olson’s work leads smoothly
into the next topic, digital libraries with embedded values.

Digital Libraries with Embedded Values

The emerging literature on digital libraries has already paid some attention
to the issue of values. For example, Bonnie A. Nardi and Vicki L. O’Day
[46] see values as one component of larger information ecologies—which
interact with people, technologies, and practices—and they relate this per-

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spective directly to digital libraries [47]. Similarly, in the case of one digital
library, the Afya Project, Ann Peterson Bishop and colleagues [48] consider
social values along with practice and consequences. Scholars have already
focused on some particular values of digital libraries, including usability
[49] and transparency [50]. The overall user-centered focus of many digital
library projects [e.g., 49, 51–53] is also indicative of attention to the values
of the users of digital libraries.
As Ross Atkinson [54] explains, “Information services are defined and
distinguished not only by their operations but also by their social goals
and motivating values” [54, p. 245]. Atkinson relates this argument to the
design of digital libraries, emphasizing that the selection of materials to
be included in physical and especially digital libraries is a key service func-
tion of a library. Peter Morville [55] argues that libraries and the Internet
share common values, including privacy, intellectual freedom, free ex-
pression, free and equal access to ideas and information, and resistance
to censorship. Similarly, Brewster Kahle, Rick Prelinger, and Mary E. Jack-
son [56] argue that libraries, including digital libraries, serve the values
of democracy, education, and the advancement of the underprivileged.
Jeffrey T. Penka [57] argues that digital libraries should endeavor to adopt
the same values as physical libraries, building on Gorman’s [35] writings
about the values of librarianship. Finally, Lorna Peterson [58] argues that
values are an often-overlooked yet important underlying consideration in
digital library design and use.

Summary of the Literature to Date

Overall, there are valuable preliminary studies that can contribute to an


understanding of the values embedded in various forms of IT, including
physical and digital libraries. This analysis of the literature demonstrates
the utility of focusing on the values embedded in IT for understanding
the human aspects of the design and use of various IT systems. At the same
time, the literature on the social, cultural, ethical, and political dimensions
of digital libraries discussed above demonstrates that there are values em-
bedded in digital libraries and provides some indications that these em-
bedded values have a significant impact on how digital libraries are de-
signed and used.8 Certainly, the literature to date is a good starting point
for studying the values embedded in digital libraries.

8. Here, the umbrella term “social, cultural, ethical, and political” is artificially introduced
in an attempt to focus on a particular type of digital library scholarship. As the emphasis
on designing and using digital libraries continues to increase, the scholarly studies of digital
libraries are also beginning to proliferate. Yet, because this literature currently appears to

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DIGITAL LIBRARIES—EMBEDDED VALUES 417

There are two major limitations of the literature on the values embedded
in digital libraries. The first limitation is that there is a lack of comparative
empirical research. Most of the studies reviewed above examine values
either in an abstract way or in relation to one specific digital library project.
Certainly this work is important at this early stage of research on digital
libraries and, when carefully put together, can yield some valuable insights,
such as the range of values that can be embedded in digital libraries, as
shown in this article. Yet, there is also a need for broader empirically
oriented comparative research that focuses on a broad spectrum of digital
library projects rather than a single digital library, while taking care to
incorporate the perspectives of the relevant stakeholders. Trying to com-
pare the values embedded in different digital libraries by reading various
studies using different frameworks, concepts, and methods has severe lim-
itations in terms of how comparable the data are in practice. Certainly, it
would be a valuable contribution to this literature to do a broader com-
parative study that incorporates a variety of digital library projects as re-
search subjects while incorporating as many of the relevant stakeholders
for each of these projects as possible.
A related limitation of the current literature on values embedded in
digital libraries is the lack of a broad, robust, and inclusive theoretical
framework that can simultaneously consider issues related to the design,
use, and maintenance of digital libraries as well as, once again, the varying
perspectives of the relevant stakeholders. Here, it is important to consider
how people and IT (in this specific case digital libraries) mutually shape
each other. The STS literature can prove useful, given its emphasis on the
mutual shaping of technology and society. This article adapts a theoretical
framework from the STS literature as a starting point for developing a
theoretical framework for understanding the values of digital libraries, how
they come into being, and what their implications are for digital library
design and use.

Applying the Boundary Objects with Agency Framework to Digital


Libraries

As noted above, the literature on values embedded in digital libraries


contains two major limitations: a lack of comparative research and a lack
of a theoretical framework. This section addresses the latter limitation,
demonstrating the potential applicability of the boundary objects with

be held together only by a common subject matter, digital libraries, it seems useful to
develop other ways to hold this literature together, such as the emphasis on values stressed
in this article.

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agency framework for studying the design and use of digital libraries. The
following section will then demonstrate how this theoretical framework
can be applied to address the former limitation by proposing a comparative
study of values embedded in digital libraries.
The boundary objects with agency framework builds on three concepts
from the social sciences and especially the STS literature. The first concept
is the social world. The social world concept [59–61] is related to the
Chicago School of Sociology’s symbolic interactionist theory [62]. As de-
fined by Anselm Strauss [60], social worlds are characterized by their com-
mon activities, sites, technologies, and organizations.
The next important concept is the boundary object. Boundary objects
[63, 64] are hybrid entities that bridge multiple social worlds. As such, they
allow for communication and interaction across the social worlds. They are
a product of these overlapping social worlds and could not come into being
without preexisting intersections among the social worlds, caused in part by
hybrid individuals who simultaneously belong to multiple social worlds.
The third concept for this framework is nonhuman agency. Nonhuman
agency can be linked to multiple theoretical camps, but it is perhaps most
directly descended from actor-network theory [65, 66], which holds that
nonhuman actants can be enrolled by different sides within a conflict and
thus can exhibit agency in determining the outcome of the conflict.9 In
the boundary objects with agency framework, boundary objects exhibit
agency by reshaping the relationships among the constituent social worlds.
That is, once a boundary object is created at the intersection of multiple
social worlds, it does not passively sit at the intersection of the social worlds
but, rather, plays an active role in reshaping the relationships within and
among the constituent social worlds. Thus, just as social worlds influence
the development of boundary objects, boundary objects influence the de-
velopment of social worlds.
Thus, the boundary objects with agency framework involves three stages
of analysis. First, it is important to study the social worlds that predate the
creation of the boundary object. In doing so, it is possible to map out the
value conflicts that existed prior to the development of a new technology.
Next, it is important to study how the boundary object emerges at the
intersection of the social worlds. This allows for a better understanding of
how value conflicts shape the development of a technology. Finally, it is
important to study the agency exhibited by the boundary object in re-
shaping the relationships among the constituent social worlds. In this last
stage, the goal is to learn how the technology reshapes and reconfigures
value conflicts. The boundary objects with agency framework, including

9. Prominent theorists of nonhuman agency who do not necessary fit within the umbrella
of actor-network theory include Haraway [67] and Pickering [68].

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DIGITAL LIBRARIES—EMBEDDED VALUES 419

Fig. 1.—A boundary object at the intersection of social worlds

intersecting social worlds and a boundary object formed at the intersection


of these social worlds, is depicted in figure 1. Through these three stages,
it is possible to understand the complex relationships among people, tech-
nologies, and values.
The boundary objects with agency framework emerged from a study of
the values embedded in educational simulations [69–74].10 This study
found that values play an important role in the design, marketing, and
use of educational software. For example, the degree to which frog dis-
section simulation software either reproduces or reimagines frog dissection
has implications for whether the software is used to simulate or to substitute
for the activity of frog dissection, which in turn is connected to teachers’
and students’ values in the form of their adherence to animal advocacy
beliefs [69, 70]. Similarly, in the case of human anatomy simulation soft-
ware, the same choice is affected by and in turn affects the debate between
gross anatomy instructors and educational administrators over the relative
merits of hands-on learning and temporal, spatial, and economic efficiency
[70, 73].
The boundary objects with agency framework emerged from these two
case studies. In each case, it was clear that the educational simulation did
not spontaneously arise from nowhere but, rather, was a direct result of
ongoing processes of conflict and cooperation among various groups. The

10. This earlier study was funded by two awards from the National Science Foundation, a
Graduate Research Fellowship, and a Dissertation Research Improvement grant.

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420 THE LIBRARY QUARTERLY

software was shaped by the conflict and cooperation, leading to values


being embedded within the software. At the same time, the software played
an important role in reshaping the relationships among these different
groups. For human anatomy simulation, the groups involved in the cre-
ation of the software were gross anatomy instructors, educational admin-
istrators, and simulation designers [70, 73]. In the frog dissection simu-
lation case study, the groups were biology educators, animal advocates, and
simulation designers [69, 70]. Both of these studies led to the development
of the boundary objects with agency framework.
This article argues that the boundary objects with agency framework
[73] can be a useful concept for understanding the connection between
values and other forms of IT, including digital libraries. Perhaps the most
closely related study to date that can provide evidence of the relevance of
this framework for studying digital libraries is Nancy A. Van House’s [53]
study of the University of California, Berkeley, Digital Library Project. In
her analysis of this project, Van House also discusses the relevance of the
conceptual building blocks of the boundary objects with agency framework,
including social worlds, boundary objects, and actor-network theory, for
studies of digital libraries. For example, Van House argues that digital
libraries are boundary objects that arise at the intersection of multiple
social worlds, including those of designers, librarians, and patrons. Van
House argues that as such, digital libraries are part of complex sociotech-
nical actor networks. Values figure into Van House’s analysis, especially
trust and credibility, although studying the values embedded in digital
libraries does not appear to be an explicit goal of her research. Importantly,
Van House does not unify these concepts into a framework such as the
boundary objects with agency framework. Rather, Van House focuses on
relating her findings to knowledge management in general, emphasizing
a similar goal of improving digital library design and use and, again, build-
ing on similar theoretical foundations but taking a slightly different path
to get there. As such, Van House’s chapter is a complementary work that
demonstrates the utility of these concepts for studying digital libraries, but
the boundary objects with agency framework goes beyond Van House’s
study in important ways, which will be discussed in more detail in the
following section.

Studying Digital Libraries as Boundary Objects with Agency

To better understand the role that values play in the design and use of
digital libraries, it is useful to apply the boundary objects with agency
framework [73]. As demonstrated by Van House [53], social worlds, bound-
ary objects, and actor-network theory can be fruitfully applied to studying

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DIGITAL LIBRARIES—EMBEDDED VALUES 421

digital library design and use. The application of this framework to the
issue of the values embedded in digital libraries allows for a better un-
derstanding of the social worlds that come together to create digital li-
braries, the stages of development of the digital libraries themselves, and
finally how digital libraries reshape the relationships within and among
the constituent social worlds.
To achieve this, it is important to identify the major stakeholders within
a given digital library project. Based on the literature to date, it appears
that there are three major stakeholder groups. First, there are the designers
who create the digital libraries. Next, there are the librarians who maintain
the digital libraries. Finally, there are the patrons who use digital libraries.
To understand how values influence the design and use of digital libraries,
it is useful to consider the different perspectives and values of each of
these groups as well as the interactions and relationships among these
groups.
Specific digital libraries are created by members of these social worlds.
One research question would be: how do the power relations among the
social worlds vary from one digital library to another, and what are the
implications of these power relations for conceptualizing each digital li-
brary? Certainly, it seems likely that there are some differences, for ex-
ample, between the user-centered digital library projects cited above and
digital libraries designed using a more traditional top-down approach to
information technology design. Yet, to explore this issue in more detail,
empirical research is necessary.
Digital libraries emerge at the intersection of these constituent social
worlds. For this stage, a second research question would be: how do dif-
ferent digital libraries come into being, and in what ways are digital libraries
shaped by the different values of the constituent social worlds? Here, the
literature cited above points at some starting points for the analysis, as
discussed above, yet there is still a need for systematic investigation of the
values embedded in digital libraries and how they are connected to the
constituent social worlds.
Following the boundary objects with agency framework, digital libraries
also have agency, in that they have the ability to reshape the relationships
among designers, librarians, and patrons. Here, a third research question
would be: how do digital libraries transform the relationships among de-
signers, librarians, and patrons, and how does this reshape the values of
these respective social worlds? An earlier study of frog dissection simulation
[69, 70] found that technological boundary objects have the ability to cause
social worlds to latch onto new peripheral values. Presumably, digital li-
braries have some unintended consequences and unexpected societal im-
pacts, yet once again empirical research is required to answer this question.
To answer these three research questions, it would be useful to undertake

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422 THE LIBRARY QUARTERLY

Fig. 2.—A digital library as a boundary object

a comparative study that applies the boundary objects with agency theo-
retical framework to understanding how values are embedded in digital
libraries and the implications of these embedded values. First, it would be
useful to apply the same ethnographic approach, primarily including in-
terviews and participant observation, employed in the earlier study of values
embedded in educational simulations. In addition, it would also be fruitful
to apply research methods from the field of human-computer interaction,
such as contextual inquiry and think-aloud. Finally, online quantitative
methods can also be beneficial, including online surveys and online mon-
itoring. Applying these research methods to study how digital libraries
emerge as boundary objects at the intersection of the relevant social worlds
as well as the agency that they exhibit in reshaping the relationships among
these social worlds can lead to theoretically and empirically rich compar-
ative studies that address both of the major limitations of the existing
literature on the values embedded in digital libraries.
Thus, it seems useful to apply the boundary objects with agency frame-
work to digital libraries, as illustrated in figure 2. This research would
provide insights into the stakeholders of digital libraries, how digital li-
braries come into being, and the broader implications of digital libraries.
This research would also be of benefit to both the STS and LIS literatures,
as a conceptual framework adopted from the former can be fruitfully ap-
plied to the latter. Overall, the goal of an emphasis on the values of digital
libraries is to ensure that digital libraries are built and maintained to meet

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DIGITAL LIBRARIES—EMBEDDED VALUES 423

the needs of all stakeholders, especially the diverse and dynamic population
of digital library patrons.
Some modifications of the boundary objects with agency framework will
be necessary to ensure the success of the proposed study. For example,
the earlier application of the boundary objects with agency framework
focused on educational simulations, which were found to be one specific
type of boundary object, using Susan Leigh Star’s [63] typology, namely,
a terrain with coincident boundaries. As Van House [53] argues, digital
libraries belong to a different type of boundary object: repositories. In
addition, the constituent social worlds are obviously different, and indeed,
it may not be possible to know with certainty that these are the only three
relevant social worlds, since data may contradict the hypothesized social
worlds. Until data have been collected and analyzed, the hypotheses stated
here will remain open questions, although they do seem to be supported
by the literature, especially the work of Van House [53].
The proposed application of the boundary objects with agency frame-
work to digital libraries diverges from and goes beyond in important ways
the earlier application of the boundary objects with agency framework to
educational simulations as well as an earlier study of digital libraries that
used similar concepts. For example, Van House’s [53] study, as is the norm
in the digital library literature to date, focused on one particular digital
library. In contrast, this article proposes research that would instead com-
pare many different digital library projects, in order to gain a broader
perspective on digital libraries. Thus, this study would provide data that
could be used for a fruitful comparative analysis of the values embedded
in different digital libraries.
This study would also go beyond earlier applications of the boundary
objects with agency framework. Specifically, the previous study of the values
embedded in educational simulations [69–74] concentrated almost exclu-
sively on technologies that were already built and in wide release. In con-
trast, I am currently undertaking a collaborative study of the values em-
bedded in computational models, which focuses on studying technologies
as they are being built.11 The proposed research would unite the strengths
of each of these two projects by studying digital libraries at various stages
in the design process, so that it can be possible to study the same technology
both as it is being built and after it has been built. Data from the proposed
study will thus provide a more complete understanding of the values em-
bedded in digital libraries.
Both of these points speak to the potentially broad applicability of the

11. This ongoing study [75] is being conducted in collaboration with William A. Wallace of
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and is funded by two grants for collaborative research
from the National Science Foundation.

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424 THE LIBRARY QUARTERLY

findings of this proposed study. Because it will examine a wide range of


digital libraries, including digital libraries that have been built and digital
libraries that are being built, it is hoped that the findings of this proposed
research will be of use to a broad range of digital library designers, digital
librarians, and digital library patrons. Since digital libraries are such an
important emerging technology, it may thus be possible to have a sub-
stantive impact on their development, reinforcing the already ongoing
efforts discussed above that focus on user-centered design by ensuring that
the needs and values of all of the stakeholders in digital libraries are
explicitly considered and built into the their design.
The boundary objects with agency framework has already demonstrated
its worth in studying the values embedded in educational simulations
[69–74]. This theoretical framework should also be valuable in studying
the design and use of digital libraries because of the emphasis on the social
worlds involved in the design and use of digital libraries and how their
conflicts and cooperation both (re)shape and are (re)shaped by digital
libraries. In this way, the boundary objects with agency framework dem-
onstrates an important commonality between the fields of STS and LIS—
a shared emphasis on the human dimension of technology.

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