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Copyright 2016 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE342.html 1
Orbits 101
Satellites Escape and Capture
(Comets, Meteorites)
2
Two-Body Orbits are Conic Sections
!irst Poin"
of Aries
Orbits 102
(2-Body Problem)
•! e.g.,
–! Sun and Earth or
–! Earth and Moon or
–! Earth and Satellite
•! Circular orbit: radius and velocity
are constant
•! Low Earth orbit: 17,000 mph = 24,000
ft/s = 7.3 km/s
•! Super-circular velocities
–! Earth to Moon: 24,550 mph = 36,000
ft/s = 11.1 km/s
–! Escape: 25,000 mph = 36,600 ft/s =
11.3 km/s
•! Near escape velocity, small changes
have huge influence on apogee
6
Newton’s 2nd Law
!! Particle of fixed mass (also called a point mass)
acted upon by a force changes velocity with
!! acceleration proportional to and in direction of force
!! Inertial reference frame
!! Ratio of force to acceleration is the mass of the
particle: F = m a
d dv ( t )
!" mv ( t ) #$ = m = ma ( t ) = F ! v (t ) $ ! f $
dt dt x
d # & # x &
! fx #
m # vy ( t ) & = # fy &
% &
F = % fy & = force vector dt # & # &
% f & #" vz ( t ) f
&% #" z &%
%" z &$
7
T dv ( t ) T T 1
v (T ) = ! dt + v ( 0 ) = ! a ( t ) dt + v ( 0 ) = ! F dt + v ( 0 )
0 dt 0 0 m
3 components of velocity
! v (T ) $ ! a (t ) $ ! v (0) $ ! f (t ) m $ ! v (0) $
# x & T#
x
& # x & T # x
& # x &
# vy ( T ) & = ' # ay ( t ) & dt + # vy ( 0 ) & = ' # fy ( t ) m & dt + # vy ( 0 ) &
# & 0# & # & 0# & # &
#" vz (T ) &% #" az ( t ) &% #" vz ( 0 ) &% #" fz ( t ) m &% #" vz ( 0 ) &% 8
Equations of Motion for a Particle
Integrating the velocity allows us to solve for the
position of the particle
! x! ( t ) $ ! vx ( t ) $
dr ( t ) # & # &
= r! ( t ) = v ( t ) = # y! ( t ) & = # vy ( t ) &
dt # & # &
#" z! ( t ) &% #" vz ( t ) &%
T dr ( t ) T
r (T ) = ! dt + r ( 0 ) = ! v dt + r ( 0 )
0 dt 0
3 components of position
! x (T ) $ ! v (t ) $ ! x (0) $
x
# & T# & # &
# y (T ) & = ' # vy ( t ) & dt + # y ( 0 ) &
# & 0# & # &
#" z (T ) &% #" vz ( t ) &% #" z ( 0 ) &% 9
( )
!C = ! E + " t # t epoch = ! E + " $t
11
Gm1m2
F=
r2
G : Gravitational constant = 6.67 ! 10 "11 Nm 2 /kg 2
m1 : Mass of 1st body = 5.98 ! 10 24 kg for Earth
m2 : Mass of 2 nd body = 7.35 ! 10 22 kg for Moon
r : Distance between centers of mass of m1 and m2 , m
13
µE 3.98 ! 1014 m 3 s 2
ag ! goEarth = 2 = 9.798 m s
2
=
Rsurface
2
( 6, 378,137m )
14
Gravitational Force Vector
of the Spherical Earth
Force always directed toward the Earth’s center
( x +
µ E " rI % µE * -
Fg = !m 2 $ ' = !m 3 * y - (vector), as rI = rI
rI # rI & rI
*) z -,
I
T dv ( t ) T T 1
v (T ) = ! dt + v ( 0 ) = ! a ( t ) dt + v ( 0 ) = ! F dt + v ( 0 )
0 dt 0 0 m
3 components of velocity
! v (T ) $ ! x r3 $ ! v (0) $
# x & T#
I
& # x &
# vy ( T ) & = ' µ E ( # y rI 3 & dt + # vy ( 0 ) &
0
# & # & # &
#" vz (T ) #" z rI #" vz ( 0 ) &%
3
&% &% 16
Equations of Motion for a Particle
in an Inverse-Square-Law Field
As before; Integrating the velocity allows us to
solve for the position of the particle
! x! ( t ) $ ! vx ( t ) $
dr ( t ) # & # &
= r! ( t ) = v ( t ) = # y! ( t ) & = # vy ( t ) &
dt # & # &
#" z! ( t ) &% #" vz ( t ) &%
T dr ( t ) T
r (T ) = ! dt + r ( 0 ) = ! v dt + r ( 0 )
0 dt 0
3 components of position
! x (T ) $ ! v (t ) $ ! x (0) $
x
# & T# & # &
# y (T ) &=' # v y (t ) & dt + # y ( 0 ) &
# & 0# & # &
#" z (T ) &% #" vz ( t ) &% #" z ( 0 ) &% 17
19
Work
“Work” is a scalar measure of change in energy
With constant force,
In one dimension
W12 = F ( r2 ! r1 ) = F"r
In three dimensions
W12 = FT ( r2 ! r1 ) = FT "r
With varying force, work
is the integral
r2 r2
" dx %
W12 = ! F dr = !
T
( ) $
fx dx + fy dy + fz dz , dr = $ dy '
'
r1 r1
$# dz '&
20
Conservative Force
Iron Filings
!! Assume that the 3-D force Around Magnet
field is a function of position
F = F(r)
!! The force field is conservative if Force Emanating
from Source
r2 r1
! F (T
r ) dr + ! ( r ) dr = 0
F T
r1 r2
Gravitational Force is
Gradient of a Potential, V(r)
22
Gravitational Force Field
Gravitational force field
µE
Fg = !m rI
rI 3
r2 r
µE 2
µ
# " m 3 rI drI + " m E3 rI drI = 0
r1
rI r1
rI
Potential Energy in
Gravitational Force Field
Potential energy, V or PE, is defined with
respect to a reference point, r0
PE ( r0 ) = V ( r0 ) = V0 ( ! "U 0 )
# µ & # µ & µ µ
!PE ! V ( r2 ) " V ( r1 ) = " % m + V0 ( + % m + V0 ( = "m + m
$ r2 ' $ r1 ' r2 r1
24
Kinetic Energy
Apply Newton’s 2nd Law to the definition of Work
dr dv
= v; dr = vdt F=m
dt dt
1 2 2 1
r2 t2 T t
" dv %
W12 = ! F dr = ! m $ ' v dt = mv = m "# v 2 ( t 2 ) ! v 2 ( t1 ) $%
T
# dt &
r 1 t 1 2 t1 2
t2 t
1 d T 1 2 d 2 1
= m ! ( v v ) dt = m ! ( v ) dt
2 t1 dt 2 t1 dt = m "# v22 ! v12 $% ! T2 ! T1 ! &KE
2
Work = integral from 1st to 2nd time
T (= KE) is the kinetic energy of the point mass, m
25
26
Interchange Between Potential and
Kinetic Energy in a Conservative System
E 2 ! E1 = 0
" µ 1 2% " µ 1 2%
$# !m r + 2 mv2 '& ! $# !m r + 2 mv1 '& = 0
2 1
P2
" µ µ% " 1 2 1 2%
$# !m + m = $ mv2 ! mv1 '
r2 r1 '& # 2 2 &
PE2 ! PE1 = KE2 ! KE1
P1
27
Specific Energy…
Energy per unit of the satellite’s mass
E S = PES + KES P1
1 " mµ 1 2 %
= $# ! + mv '
m r 2 &
µ 1
= ! + v2
P2
r 2
28
Angular Momentum of a Particle
(Point Mass)
h = ( r ! mv ) = m ( r ! v ) = m ( r ! r! )
29
Angular Momentum
of a Particle
•! Moment of linear momentum of
a particle
–! Mass times components of the
velocity that are perpendicular to
the moment arm
h = ( r ! mv ) = m ( r ! v )
•! Cross Product: Evaluation of a determinant with
unit vectors (i, j, k) along axes, (x, y, z) and (vx, vy,
vz) projections on to axes
i j k
r!v= x y z ( ) ( )
= yvz " zvy i + ( zvx " xvz ) j + xvy " yvx k
vx vy vz
30
Cross Product in
Column Notation
Cross product identifies perpendicular
components of r and v
i j k
r!v= x y z ( ) ( )
= yvz " zvy i + ( zvx " xvz ) j + xvy " yvx k
vx vy vz
Column % z(
# yv " zv
y ) &
( " 0 !z y % " vx %
notation $ '$ '
r ! v = % ( zvx " xvz ) ( =$ z 0 !x ' $ vy '
% (
(
% xv " yv ) ( $ !y x 0 ' $ vz '
%$ y x
(' # & $# '&
31
m
hS = r ! v = r ! v = r ! r!
m
Perpendicular to the orbital plane
33
µ " rI ( t ) % µ
a ( t ) = v! ( t ) = !!
r (t ) = ! 2 $ ' = ! r (t )
r (t ) # r (t ) & r (t )
3
… or
µ
r+
!! r=0
r3
34
Cross Products of Radius
and Radius Rate
Then
" µ %
r ! $!!
r + 3 r' = 0
# r &
r!r=0 r! ! r! = 0
… because they are parallel
µr T h
! ( r! " h ) h # # µ eT h = 0
T
r
0 0
!" µeT h = 0
!! e is perpendicular to angular
momentum,
!! which means it lies in the orbital plane
!! Its angle provides a reference direction
for the perigee 38
General Polar Equation
of a Conic Section
) # r &,
r T + r! ! h " µ % + e ( . = 0
* $r '-
Then
" rT r T %
h ! µ$
2
+ r e' = 0 h 2 = µ ( r + r T e ) = µ ( r + recos! ) = 0
# r &
h2 µ
r=
1+ ecos!
39
p h2 µ
r= = , m or km
1+ e cos! 1+ e cos!
! : True Anomaly =
Angle from perigee direction, deg or rad
40
Properties of Elliptical Orbits
Eccentricity can be determined
from apogee and perigee radii
ra ! rp ra ! rp
e= =
ra + rp 2a
rp = a / (1! e) ra = a / (1+ e)
p = h 2 µ = a (1! e2 )
!! Semi-minor axis, b, can be
expressed as a function of ra
and rp
b = ra rp
A = ! a b = ! a 2 1" e2 , m 2
42
Energy is Inversely Proportional to
the Semi-Major Axis
At the periapsis, rp
µ (1! e)
=!
2a (1! e )
µ
E =!
2a 43
44
“Vis Viva (Living Force) Integral”
Velocity is a function of radius and
specific energy
1 2 µ !µ $
v = +E v = 2# + E &
2 r "r %
!! Specific total energy, E, is µ
inversely proportional to the E =!
semi-major axis 2a
" 2 1% " 2 1%
vp = µ $ ! ' = µ $ ! '
# rp a & # a (1! e) a &
µ (1+ e)
=
a (1! e)
Velocity at apoapsis
" 2 1% µ (1! e)
va = µ $ ! ' =
# ra a & a (1+ e)
46
Velocities at Periapses and Infinity
of Parabola and Hyperbola
Parabola (a " ")
2µ
vp = v! = 0
rp
Hyperbola (a < 0)
" 2 1% µ
vp = µ $ ! ' v! = "
# rp a & a
47
d! d ( Ellipse Area )
h = µ p = r2 =2
dt dt
tf "f "f
r2 p3 d"
! dt = !
to "o µp
d" =
µ "!o (1+ ecos" )2
48
Anomalies of an Elliptical Orbit
Angles measured from last periapsis
! (or " ): True Anomaly
E (or # ): Eccentric Anomaly
M : Mean Anomaly
49
ae + ( p ! r ) e a ! r
cos E = =
a ae
r = a (1! cos E )
r! = E! aesin E
50
Relationship of Time to
Eccentric Anomaly
µ 1 " 2 h2 %
E =! = r! + 2 ' ! µr
2a 2 $# r &
where h 2 = µa (1! e2 )
(" 2 1 % +
then r 2 r!2 = µ *$ ! ' r 2 ! a (1! e2 ) -
) r a
# & ,
2
a3 dE
leading to (1! ecos E )2 "$# %'& = 1
µ dt
or
µ
dt = (1! ecos E ) dE
a3 51
!
t0
a3
dt = !E (1" ecos E ) dE
0
µ E1
3 ( 1
t " t 0 ) = ( E " esin E ) E = M 1 " M 0
a 0
a3 "µ2
P = 2! =! where E < 0 for an ellipse
µ 2E 3
Mean Motion, n, is the inverse of the Period
a 3 2!
P = 2! ! where n is the Mean Motion
µ n
53
# 1+ e E (t ) &
! ( t ) = 2 tan % tan
"1
(
$ 1" e 2 '
a (1! e2 )
r (t ) =
1+ ecos" ( t )
55
! x (t ) $ ! r ( t ) cos' ( t ) $
r (t ) = # &=# &
# y (t ) & # r ( t ) sin ' ( t ) &
" % " %
Velocity vector, in the orbital plane
! v (t ) $
x µ ! ' sin ( ( t ) $
v (t ) = # &= # &
# vy ( t ) & p # e + cos( ( t ) &
" % " %
see Weisel, Spaceflight Dynamics,
1997, pp. 64-66
56
!ext Time:
"lanetary Defense
57
#upplemental Ma$rial
58
First Point of Aries!
(Ecliptic Intercept at Right)"
59
Dimension of energy?"
Scalar (1 x 1)"
Dimension of linear momentum?"
Vector (3 x 1)"
Dimension of angular momentum?"
Vector (3 x 1)"
60
Sub-Orbital (Sounding) Rockets
1945 - Present
Canadian LTV
Black Brant XII Scout
61
Dynamic Equations
Analytic (Closed-Form) Solution
v x ( t ) = v x0
v!z ( t ) = !g ( z positive up ) v x ( T ) = v x0
x! ( t ) = vx ( t ) T
z! ( t ) = vz ( t ) vz (T ) = vz0 ! " g dt = vz0 ! gT
0
Initial Conditions
x ( T ) = x 0 + v x0 T
v x ( 0 ) = v x0
T
vz ( 0 ) = vz0 z (T ) = z0 + vz0 T ! " gt dt = z0 + vz0 T ! gT 2 2
x ( 0 ) = x0 0
z ( 0 ) = z0 63
Trajectories Calculated
with Flat-Earth Model
vx ( 0 ) = 10m / s
vz ( 0 ) = 100, 150, 200m / s
x (0) = 0
z (0) = 0
64
MATLAB Code for Spherical-Earth
Trajectories
Script for Numerical Solution
R = 6378; % Earth Surface Radius, km
tspan = 6000; % seconds
options = odeset('MaxStep', 10)
xo = [7.5;0;0;R];
[t1,x1] = ode15s('RoundEarth',tspan,xo,options);
for i = 1:length(t1)
v1(i) = sqrt(x1(i,1)*x1(i,1) + x1(i,2)*x1(i,2));
r1(i) = sqrt(x1(i,3)*x1(i,3) + x1(i,4)*x1(i,4));
end
Numerical Solution
r = sqrt(x(3)^2 + x(4)^2);
x (! ) = a cos (! )
y (! ) = b sin (! )
! : Angle from x - axis (origin at center) rad
66
Constructing Ellipses
F1P1 + F2 P1 = F1P2 + F2 P2 = 2a
Foci (from center),
! xf $ ! 2 $ ! $
& = # ' a ' b &, # a2 ' b2 &
2
#
# yf & 0 0
" %1,2 "# &% "# &%
67
Ellipses
b2
Eccentricity, e = 1! 2
a
b2
= 1! e; b = a 1! e
a2
68
How Do We Know that Gravitational
Force is Conservative?
Because the force is the derivative (with
respect to r) of a scalar function of r called
the potential, V(r):
µ µ
V ( r ) = !m + Vo = !m 1 2 + Vo
r (r r)
T
" !V !x % " x %
!V ( r ) $ ' µ$ '
= $ !V !y ' = m 3 $ y ' = (Fg
!r $ !V !z ' r
$# z '&
# &
This derivative is also called the gradient
of V with respect to r 69
Conservation of Energy
Energy is conserved in an elastic collision, i.e. no
losses due to friction, air drag, etc.
“Newton’s Cradle” illustrates interchange of
potential and kinetic energy in a gravitational field
70
Examples of Circular Orbit Periods
for Earth and Moon
Period, min
Altitude above
Surface, km Earth Moon
0 84.5 108.5
100 86.5 118
1000 105.1 214.6
10000 347.7 1905
71
GPS
Constellation
26,600 km Sun-
Synchronous
Orbit 72
Geo-Synchronous Ground Track
Geo-
Synchronous
Ground Track
42, 164 km
Marco
Polo-1 & 2
73
Background Math"
a ! (b ! c) " (a i c) b # (a i b) c
= ( aT c ) b # ( aT b ) c
dr
r r! = r i r! = r
T
dt 74