SLOPE STABILITY ANO

STABILIZATION
METHODS
Second Edition

LEE W. ABRAMSON
Hatch Mott MacDonald
Millburn, New Jersey

THOMAS S. LEE
Parsons, Brinckerhoff, Quade & Douglas
San Francisco, California

SUNIL SHARMA
University of Idaho
Moscow, Idaho

GLENN M. BOYCE
Parsons, Brinckerhoff, Quade & Douglas
San Francisco, California

A Wiley-lnterscience Publication
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
CONTENTS

PREFACE xvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxi

1 GENERAL SLOPE STABILITY CONCEPTS 1

Lee W. Abramson

1.1 lntroduction l l
1.2 Aims of Slope Stability Analysis l 2
1.3 Natura] Slopes l 2
1.4 Engineered Slopes l 3
1.4.1 Embankments and Fills l 3
1.4.2 Cut Slopes l 15
1.4.3 Landfills l 18
1.4.4 Retaining Structures l 24
1.5 Landslides l 25
1.5.1 Features and Dimensions of Landslides l 25
1.5.2 Landslide Rates and Types of Movements l 29
1.6 Factors Contributing to Slope Failures l 33
1.7 Basic Concepts Applied to Slope Stability l 34
l.8 Typical Input Data for Slope Stability Analyses l 36
1.8.1 Geologie Conditions l 36

v
vi CONT ENTS CONTENTS vii

1.8.2 Site Topography l 36 2.4.8 Clay Mineralogy l 82

1.8.3 Possible Effects of Proposed Con truction l 37 2.4.9 Seismic Effects l 84
1.8.4 Materia! Properties l 39 2.5 Landslides l 84
1.8.5 Shear Strength l 42 2.5.1 Landslide-Prone Occurrences l 85
1.8.6 Groundwater Conditions l 48 2.5.2 Fundamentals of Landslides l 93
1.8.7 Seismicity l 49 2.5.3 Useful Clues to Landslide Investigations and
1.9 Subsurface Mode! and Back-Analysis for Slopc Stabi lity Identifications l 95
Analyses l 5 1 References l 99
1. 1O Conclusions l 53
References l 53
3 GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS 102
Thomas S. Lee
2 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY PRINCIPLES 56
3.1 l ntroduction l 102
Thomas S. Lee
3.2 Review of Groundwater Fundamentals l 103
2.1 Introduction l 56 3.2.1 Movement of Groundwater l l 04
2.2 Types and Characteristics of Geologie Soil Deposits l 56 3.2.2 Principles of Groundwater Mechanics l 106
2.2.1 Alluvial Deposits l 57 3.3 Site Conditions l 108
2.2.2 Glacial Deposits l 65 3.3.1 Groundwater Levelsl 108
2.2.3 Eolian Deposits l 65 3.3.2 Zones l 108
2.2.4 Residua! Deposits l 67 3.3.3 Aquifers l 11 1
2.2.5 Colluvial/Talus Deposits l 69 3.3.4 Aquicludes l l I 2
2.2.6 Marine Deposits l 70 3.3.5 Perched Water l 112
2.2.7 Melanges l 71 3.3.6 Artesian Water l 11 4
2.2.8 Other Types of Deposits l 72 3.3.7 Springs l 114
2.3 Types and Characteristics of Rocks l 73 3.4 Types of Groundwater Flow l 115
2.3.1 Shales l 74 3.4.1 Runoff l 115
2.3.2 Sandstones l 75 3.4.2 Infiltration l 117
2.3.3 Limestones and Related Carbonate Rocks l 75 3.4.3 Regional Flow l 118
2.3.4 lgneous Rocks l 75 3.5 Fluctuation of Groundwater Levels l 121
2.3.5 Pyrocrastic Volcanic Rocks l 76 3.5.1 Rainfall l 121
2.3.6 Metamorphic Rocks l 76 3.5.2 Floods l 123
2.4 Geologie Features Associated with Slopes l 76 3.5.3 Snowme1t l 124
2.4.1 Soil/Rock Fabric l 77 3.5.4 Sudden Drawdown l 125
2.4.2 Geologica! Structures l 77 3.6 Infl uence of Geologica! Structures on Groundwater
2.4.3 Discontinuities l 78 Flows l 125
2.4.4 Groundwater l 78 3.7 Pore Pressures l 127
2.4.5 Ground Stresses l 79 3.7.1 Positive Pore Pressures l 128
2.4.6 Weathering l 79 3.7.2 Negative Pore Pressures l 131
2.4.7 Preex.isting Landslide Activities l 81 3.7.3 Measurement of Pore Pressures l 133
viii CONTENTS CONTENTS ix

3.8 Water Levels for Design l 138 4.5 Testing Methods l 209
3.8.1 Generai l 138 4.5.1 1n Situ Testing l 209
3.8.2 Wetting Band Approach l 139 4.5.2 Geophysical Testing l 223
3.9 Field ldentification and lnterpretation of Groundwater 4.5.3 Downhole Geophysics Logging l 229
Conditions l !42
4.5.4 Mineralogy Tests l 232
3.9.1 Field ldentification of Groundwater Conditions l !42 4.5.5 Radiocarbon Dating l 235
3.9.2 Interpretation of Groundwater Conditions l 142 4.6 Exploration Program Design l 235
3. 1O Groundwater in Slope Stability Analysis l 144 4.6.1 Locations and Number of Boreholes l 235
3.1 0.1 Developing a Groundwater Mode! from 4.6.2 Depth of Boreholes l 237
the Field Data l 144
References l 238
3.10.2 Groundwater Effects on Slope Stabi lity l 146
3.10.3 Groundwater in Rock l 150
3.1 l Monitoring of Groundwater Pressures l 151 5 LABORATORY TESTING ANO INTERPRETATION 242
3.11. 1 Piezometers and Observation Wells l 151 Suni/ Sharma
3. 11.2 Installation of Piezometers l 157 5.1 lntroduction l 242
3.11.3 Fluctuating Groundwater Levels l 159 5.2 Effective Stress Concepts l 243
3. 12 Other Instruments-Rainfall Gages l 159 5.3 Mohr Circle l 244
References l 159 5.4 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion l 245
5.4.1 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope-Unsaturated
Soils l 247
4 GEOLOGIC SITE EXPLORATION 162 5.4.2 Mohr- Cou1omb Envelope in p-q Space l 249
Thomas S. Lee
5.5 EffectiveiTotal Stress Ana1ysis l 250
4.1 lntroduction l 162 5.5.1 Factors of Safety l 252
4.2 Desk Study l 166 5.6 Stress Paths l 254
4.2.1 Available Existing Data l 166 5.6.1 Typical Field Stress Paths l 257
4.2.2 Previous Geologie Explorations l 172 5.7 Shear Strength of Soils l 259
4.2.3 Identification of Landslide-Prone Terrains through 5.7.1 Shear Strength of Granular Soils l 260
Topographic Expressions l 173 5.7.2 Shear Strength of Fine-Grained Soi1s l 260
4.2.4 Air Photos l 175
5.7.3 Stress-Strain Characteristics of Soils l 261
4.3 Field Study l 183
5.7.4 Discrepancies between Field and Laboratory
4.3. 1 Site Reconnaissance l 183 Strengths l 263
4.4 Exploration Methods l 197 5.7.5 Strength Testing l 269
4.4. 1 Introduction l 197 5.7.6 Selection an d Preparation of Test Samples l 271
4.4.2 Auger Drilling l 198 5.7.7 Laboratory Test Conditions l 272
4.4.3 Rotary Wash Drilling l 200 5.7.8 The SHANSEP Method l 274
4.4.4 Limitations of Auger and Rotary Wash Drilling l 203 5.7.9 Triaxial Tests l 276
4.4.5 Sampling in the Ground l 203 5.7. l O Direct Shear Test l 283
4.4.6 Large Boreholes l 204 5.7.11 Direct Simp1e Shear (DSS) Test l 287
4.4.7 Test Pits l 205 5. 7. l 2 Unsaturated Tests l 288
x CONTENTS CONTENTS xi

5.8 Pore Pressure Parameters l 291 6.7 Planar Surface Analysi l 345
5.8. 1 Skempton ·s Parameters l 291 6.7.1 Planar Surface Example l 348
5.8.2 Henkel"s Parameters l 291 6.8 Circular Surface Analysis l 349
5.9 l nterpretations of Strength Tests l 293 6.8.1 Circular Are (cf>, = 0) Method l 349
5.9.1 Triaxial Tests l 293 6.8.2 cf>, =O Example l 350
5.9.2 Direct Shear Tests l 298 6.8.3 Friction Circle Method l 350
5.9.3 Unsaturated Tests l 302 6.8.4 Ftiction Circle Example l 352
5.9.4 Selection of Design Shear Strengths l 302 6.9 Method of Slices l 353
5. 10 Other Properties l 305 6.9.1 Ordinary Method of Slices (OMS) l 358
5.10.1 Consolidation Tests l 306 6.9.2 Simplified Janbu Method l 360
5.10.2 Permeability Tests l 306 6.9.3 Simplified Bishop Method l 363
5. 10.3 Compaction Tests l 307 6.9.4 Genera1ized Limi t Equilibrium (GLE) Method l 364
5. 10.4 Classification Tests l 308 6.9.5 Janbu's Generalized Procedure of Slices (GPS ) l 367
5. 10.5 Interpretations ofCiassification Tests l 310 6.9.6 Method of Slices-An Example l 370
5.10.6 Shrinkl Swell Potenti al l 312 6.9.7 Contro( of Negative Effective Stresses l 375
5.10.7 SlakeDurability l 313 6.9.8 Comparison of Limi t Equilibrium Methods l 376
5.10.8 Collapsibi lity l 314 6.10 Selection and Use of Limit Equilibrium Methods l 378
5.10.9 Dispersivity l 315 6.10.1 Essential First Four Steps l 378
5.10. 10 Chemical Tests l 3 16 6.10.2 Se1ection of Analysis Method l 379
5.10.11 X-Ray Diffrac tion Analysis l 3 18 6.10.3 Considerations forAli Types of Analyses l 380
5. 11 Quality Control/Quality Assurance l 319 6.11 Design Charts l 380
References l 321 6.11.1 Historical Background l 381
6.11.2 Stability Charts l 381
6 SLOPE STABILITY CONCEPTS 329 6.12 Seismic Analysis l 393
Suni/ Sharma
6.12.1 Pseudostatic Method l 394
6.1 Introduction l 329 6.12.2 Newmark's Displacement Method l 396
6.2 Modes of Fail ure l 330 6.12.3 Accelerogram Selection for Newmark's
6.3 Factor of Safety Concepts l 332 Method l 398
6.4 Pore Water Pressures l 334 6.12.4 Computed Permanent Displacements l 399
6.4. 1 Phreatic Surface l 335 6.1 2.5 Tolerable Permanent Displacements l 408
6.4.2 Piezometric Surface l 336 6. 13 Other Factors Affecting Slope Stability Analysis l 409
6.4.3 Examp1e l 337 6.13.1 Effect ofTension Cracks on Stabi1ity Analysis l 409
6.4.4 Negative Pore Pressures l 339 6.13.2 Effects of Vegetation l 41 O
6.5 Block Analysis l 339 6.13.3 Foundation Loads on Slopes l 411
6.5.1 Example l 341 6.14 Three-Dimensiona1 Ana1ysis l 412
6.6 Infinite Slope Analysis l 343 6. 15 Rock Slope Stability l 413
6.6.1 Infinite S1opes in Dry Sand l 343 6. 16 The Finite Element Method (FEM) l 415
6.6.2 Infinite Slope in c-cf> Soil wi th Seepage l 344 6.16.1 Example of FEM Analysis of Slopes l 416
xii CONTENTS CONTENTS xiii

6.17 Computer Analysis l 419 7.7 Vegctation l 530

6. 17.1 Available ComputerProgra ms l 41 9 7.7.1 Generai Design Considerations l 531
6.18 Probabilistic Analysis of Slopes l 420 7.7.2 Vegetation Specie l 537
6. 18.1 Sources of Uncertainty l 420 7.7.3 Erosion Contro! Mats and Blankets l 538
6.18.2 Basic Probabi1ity Concepts l 421 7.7.4 Biotechnical Stabilization l 540
6.18.3 Re1iabi lity Index l 424 7.8 Surface Slope Protection l 54 1
6. 18.4 Probabilistic Formulation for Slopes l 427 7.8.1 Generai Design Considerations l 542
6.1 8.5 Probabilistic Analysis of Performance Function l 427 7.8.2 Shotcrete l 543
6.18.6 Quantifying Uncertainty l 436 7.8.3 Chunam Plaster l 544
6.18.7 Examples l 438 7.8.4 Masonry l 546
6. 18.8 Summary l 452 7.8.5 Rip-Rap l 546
References l 454 7.9 Soil Hardening l 547
7.9.1 Compacted Soi 1-Cement Fili l 547
7.9.2 Electro-osmosis l 548
7 SLOPE STABILIZATION METHODS 462 7.9.3 Thermal Treatment l 549
Lee W Abramson
7.9.4 Grouting l 549
7. 1 Introduction l 462 7.9.5 Lime lnjection l 550
7.2 Unloading l 463 7.9.6 Preconsolidation l 553
7 .2.1 Excavation l 463 7.1 0 Rock Slope Stabilization Methods l 559
7.2.2 Lightweight Fili l 468 7.10. 1 Removal ofUnstable Rock l 559
7.3 Buttressing l 470 7.10.2 Catchment l 562
7 .3. 1 So il and Rock Fili l 474 7.1 0.3 Flattening of Slope l 565
7.3.2 Counterberms l 474 7. 10.4 Buttresses l 565
7.3.3 Shear Keys l 475 7.10.5 Surface Protection l 566
7.3.4 Mechanically Stabil ized Embankments l 477 7.10.6 Reinforcement l 568
7.3.5 Pneusol (Tiresoil) l 480 7.10.7 Drainage l 568
7.4 Draioage l 482 7.10.8 Use of Explosives l 57 1
7.4.1 Surface Drainage l 482 7. 10.9 Rock Slope Stabilization Case
7.4.2 Subsurface Drainage l 483 Histories l 573
7.5 Reioforcement l 497 7. 11 Alternatives to Slope Stabilization l 584
7.5 .1 Soi1 Nailing l 497 7. 11.1 Complete Remova1 of Slide Zone l 585
7.5.2 Stone Columns l 507 7. 11.2 Facility Relocation l 585
7.5.3 Reticulated Micropiles l SI I 7. 11.3 Bridging l 587
7.5.4 Geosynthetically Reioforced Slopes 1 512 7. 12 Selection of Stabi lization Methods l 587
7.6 Retaining Walls l 520 7. 12.1 Goals l 588
7.6.1 Gravity and Cantilever Retaining Wal ls l 523 7. 12.2 Technical Constraints l 588
7.6.2 Driven Pi1es l 523 7. 12.3 Si te Constrai nts l 589
7.6.3 Drilled Shaft Walls l 524 7. 12.4 Environmenta1Constraints l 590
7.6.4 Tieback Walls l 524 7. 12.5 Aesthetic Constraints l 590
xiv CONTENTS CONTENTS xv

7.12.6 Schedule Constraints l 590 8.6.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of TDR

7. 12.7 Other Constrai nts l 59 ! over Inclinometers l 640
7. 12.8 Cost l 591 References l 641
7. 13 Probable Cost Analysis of Stabi lization Alternati ves 1 591
7.13.1 lntroduction l 59 !
7. 13.2 Developing Alternative Schemes l 592 9 SHALLOW FAILURES 643
Thomas S. Lee
7. 13.3 Estimating Outcomes and Probabilities l 592
7. 13.4 Determining Probable Costs l 593 9.1 Introduction l 643
References l 598 9.2 Seepage Flow Mechanism due to Infiltration l 644
9.3 Mechanism of Rainfall-Induced Landslides l 645
9.4 Field Loading Conditions l 647
8 DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, ANO MAINTENANCE 604 9.5 Correlations between Land Slides and Rainfall l 648
Glenn M. Boyce 9.5. 1 Antecedent Rainfall l 650
8. 1 Introduction l 604 9.6 Rainfall Thresholds for Prediction of Shallow Failures l 651
8.2 Contract Documents l 604 9.7 Types of Soils, Hydrogeologic, and Geomorphologic
Features l 652
8.2. 1 Contract Drawings l 605
9.7.1 Colluvium l 652
8.2.2 Specifications l 606
9.7.2 Loess l 653
8.2.3 Geotechnical Design Reports l 606
9.7.3 Debris Flows l 655
8.3 Inspection during Construction l 607
9.7.4 Residua! Soils l 656
8.3. 1 Inspection Guidelines l 607
9.7.5 Rapid Snowmelt l 657
8.3.2 Quality Control/Quality Assurance l 608
9.8 Effect of Permeability of Surfìcial Stability l 657
8.3.3 Instrumentation l 608
9.9 Standard Codes for Shallow Slope Stability l 658
8.3.4 Instrumentation Monitoring l 627
9. 10 Design Practice for Shallow Slope Stability l 661
8.4 lnspection following Construction l 630
9. 10.1 Debris Flow Hazard Mitigation l 662
8.4.1 Introduction l 630
9.10.2 Design of Loess Slopes l 663
8.4.2 Frequency of Inspections l 63 l
9. 11 Attendi ng Landslide Incidents l 664
8.4.3 Technical Inspections l 632
9. 12 Sumrnary l 665
8.4.4 Engi neering Inspections l 632
References l 665
8.4.5 Inspection Reports l 632
8.5 Maintenance l 633
8.5. 1 Access l 633 10 STABILITY OF LANDFILL SLOPES 669
8.5.2 Slope Performance Observations l 633 Lee W Abramson
8.5.3 Instruments l 637
10.1 Unique Nature ofLandfì lls l 669
8.5.4 Drainage l 637
10.2 Typical Landfill Configurations l 669
8.5.5 Adjacent Utilities l 638
10.3 Landfill Waste Engineering Properties l 675
8.6 Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) l 639 Geosynthetics in Landfìlls and E ngineering Properties l 679
10.4
8.6.1 Introduction l 639
10.4.1 Geomembranes l 680
8.6.2 Mechanics of TDR l 639 10.4.2 Geotextiles l 680
XVi CONTENTS

l 0.4.3 Geonets l 680

l0.4.4 Geogrids l 682
l 0.4.5 Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs) l 684
l 0.4.6 Eng ineering Properties of Geosynthetics l 685
l 0.4.7 Anchor Trenches l 686
l 0.5 Landfill Construction l 688
l 0.6 Slope Stability Considerations l 692
10.6.1 Excavation Slope Stability l 693
10.6.2 Waste Fili Stability l 696
l 0.6.3 Cover System Stability l 700
References l 702

IN DEX 703