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Article history: Recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) concrete has attracted more and more attention worldwide in recent
Received 22 April 2016 years due to the exhaustion of natural coarse aggregate and environmental pollution from construction
Received in revised form and demolition waste in civil engineering. In this study, experiments were carried out on over 100
23 December 2016
specimens to investigate the mechanical properties and failure mode of concrete with different volume
Accepted 19 January 2017
Available online 27 January 2017
content of steel fibers (0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2%) and different RCA replacement ratio (0%, 30%, 50% and
100%) under direct shear load. The results show that addition of steel fibers can effectively improve the
shear strength and shear toughness of RCA concrete. For a given compressive strength, the RCA
Keywords:
Recycled coarse aggregates
replacement ratio has negligible impact on shear strength, but shear deformation and toughness increase
Steel fibers as RCA replacement ratio reaches above a ‘limiting value’. A shear strength formula for steel fiber
Direct shear reinforced RCA concrete (SFRCAC) based on compressive strength and characteristic coefficient of steel
Shear strength fiber has been put forward.
Shear toughness © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2017.01.006
0958-9465/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 D. Gao et al. / Cement and Concrete Composites 79 (2017) 1e8
replacement and steel fiber content on the mechanical character- overall coarse aggregate by weight, steel fiber volume content (Vf ),
istics of concrete under direct shear [19,20]. and concrete cube compressive strength (fcu ) were the main pa-
In this study, a series of experiments was carried out to inves- rameters used in this study. According to the regulations 5.3.2 in
tigate the mechanical properties of SFRCAC under direct shear. The Chinese Standard JGJ/T 240e2011 [23], for RCA belonging to cate-
objective of this study is (1) to evaluate the shear strength of gory Ⅱ, the standard deviation used in RCAC mixture design can
concrete with different RCA replacement ratio and steel fiber con- take the same value of NCAC when the RCA replacement ratio is
tent; (2) to quantify the coupling effect of RCA replacement and below 30%, and the RCA replacement should be blow 50%. Since the
steel fiber content on the deformation of concrete in direct shear; final aim is to use RCA instead of NCA in structural element, based
and (3) to characterize the crack pattern of SFRCAC specimens on these considerations, this research investigates rg as 0%, 30%,
under direct shear. This paper, to the best of the authors' knowl- 50%, and 100%. The common volume content of steel fibers added
edge, is the first systematic study focusing on the coupling effect of into concrete is typically up to 2%, when viewed from the cost and
steel fibers and RCA on the shear strength and deformation of workability performance; the volume ratio of steel fibers Vf in this
concrete at present, which will be of significance for engineering research was taken as 0, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%. As 30 MPa-60 MPa
practice and will provide a necessary data base for the design respectively are the common concrete grades currently used in
methodology of RCA concrete structures. structural elements in China, so fcu was taken as 30, 45, 60 MPa.
Mixture design of SFRCAC were based on target compressive
2. Experimental program strength (fcu ¼ 30 MPa, 45 MPa, 60 MPa) and target slump (50 mm),
a new mixture design method was used here [24], where water-
2.1. Materials cement ratio and water content were changed to ensure that ten
groups of SFRCAC achieved the target compressive strength and
Portland cement (P.O 42.5) was used in all mixtures. The coarse slump with different rg and Vf . The concrete mixture proportions of
aggregate included nature coarse aggregate (NCA) and recycled the 10 groups are listed in Table 2.
coarse aggregate (RCA). RCA was waste commercial ready-mixed
concrete obtained from a concrete testing station. The waste con- 2.3. Specimen preparation
crete was crushed in a jaw crusher, and sieved to 20 mm maximum
size. The NCA was crushed limestone with the same maximum size Concrete was mixed using a shaft mixer. First, all aggregates and
of 20 mm. Particle size distribution of coarse aggregates are shown steel fibers were mixed for 2 min to ensure the steel fibers were
in Fig. 1, all satisfied the ASTM-C33 limitation [21]. Table 1 shows well dispersed. Then cement was added and mixed for another
the properties of RCA and NCA measured from test in this study. minute. Finally, water and water reducing agent were added to the
Compared to NCA, RCA had lower specific gravity, higher water mixer, and mixed for another 2 min. No segregation or bleeding of
absorption and higher porosity as expected due to the cement paste concrete or balling of steel fibers was observed in any of ten mix-
present. According to Chinese Standard [22], where RCA are clas- tures in this study.
sified into three categories, in which category Ⅰ is the best, and can The slump of fresh concrete was tested right after the mixing
be used as NCA. RCA used in this test is belong to category Ⅱ, which process. For each mixture, six 150 mm 150 mm 150 mm cubic
is in the middle level and is recommended for use in concrete specimens were cast for compressive strength (fcu ) and splitting
compressive strength below 40 MPa. The fine aggregate was river tensile strength (fts ), six 150 mm 150 mm 300 mm prism
sand with a fineness modulus of 2.67 and apparent density of specimens were cast for elastic modulus (Ec ), four
2556 kg/m3. The water reducing agent was polycarboxylate 100 mm 100 mm 300 mm prism specimens were cast for shear
superplasticizer, with the dosage being about 1% of cement weight strength (ff v ) and shear deformation. The specimens were cast in
and the water-reducing ratio being 25%. The plasticizer was used to steel moulds, and compacted on a vibration table. The specimens
ensure that all the concrete mixtures had the similar slump. The were demoulded after 24 h and cured in a moisture room at
coarse aggregate used was in its air-dry condition. The steel fibers approximately 95% relative humidity (RH) and 20 C. The tests were
used in this study were hooked at both ends with a tensile strength performed at the age of 28 days.
of 1000 MPa, a mean diameter (df ) of 0.559 mm, a mean length (lf )
of 30.5 mm, and an aspect ratio (lf =df ) of 54.6.
2.4. Test procedures
2.2. Test parameters and mixture proportions
The specimens were tested on a servo-hydraulic closed-loop
RCA replacement rate (rg ), defined as the percentage of RCA in testing machine with a capacity of 3000 kN. All test methods
conducted the China Standard [25]. Firstly, three
150 mm 150 mm 150 mm cube specimens were tested at a
loading rate of 0.6 MPa/s to failure to obtain the cube compressive
100
strength (fcu ). Six 150 mm 150 mm 300 mm prism specimens
Pretentage passing/%
80 were tested for elastic modulus (Ec ) following Chinese Standard GB/
T50081 [26], Ec is the secant modulus calculated at stress from
60
Table 2
Summary of concrete mixture proportions.
Group w/c Water (kg/m3) Cement (kg/m3) NCA (kg/m3) RCA (kg/m3) Fine aggregate (kg/m3) Steel fiber (kg/m3) Water reducer (kg/m3)
0.5 MPa to 0:4fc . Three 150 mm 150 mm 150 mm cube speci- 62.3 MPa, respectively), where rg ¼ 50% and Vf ¼ 1%. Overall, the
mens were tested for splitting tensile strength (fts ) with a loading peak load and critical deformation corresponding to peak load in-
rate of 0.06 MPa/s. The splitting tensile strength was calculated by crease with the increase of compressive strength. The load-
Eq. (1). deformation curves of C30R50F1 and C45R50F1 are similar, but
the ascending branch of load-deformation curve for C60R50F1 has
fts ¼ 0:637 Fmax =A (1) slight difference which is mainly reflected in the higher deforma-
tion in the first loading stage (load below 40 kN) than the other two
Where Fmax is the peak load, N; A is the splitting surface area. The curves for C30R50F1 and C45R50F1. The transition zone near peak
mean value of three test results was recorded as fts , MPa. load on load-deformation curve is wider at the lower strength. The
The shear test setup is shown in Fig. 2. Two linear variable descending branches of C45R50F1 and C60R50F1 are nearly par-
displacement transducers (LVDTs) were employed on the specimen allel, which means they have similar properties after shear failure.
to measure the relative deformations between the two shear sec- However, C30R50F1 presents an obvious “weakening” which is
tions. The load was recorded with a load transducer. The ultimate mainly display by the steeper slope of descending branch-after the
shear strength was calculated as following: transition stage. In this case, the compressive strength of concrete is
. too low for the steel fibers to give good reinforcement effect as in
ff v ¼ Pmax 2beff deff (2) C45R50F1 and C60R50F1.
The shear load-deformation curves of SFRCAC with different
Where ff v is the ultimate shear strength, MPa; Pmax is the peak RCA replacement ratio (rg ) are shown in Fig. 3(b), where Vf ¼ 1%. It
shear load, N; beff is the effective width of the specimen, that is the can be seen that the four curves are very close, in which the peak
average value of the width of the two shear sections), mm; and deff load has a slight decrease and critical deformation has a slight in-
is its effective depth, that is the average value of the depth of the crease as rg increases from 0 to 100%, so the reinforcing effect of
two shear sections), mm. At least four specimens in each group steel fibers on shear behavior of RCAC is similar with that of NCAC.
were tested and their average ultimate shear strength values are This phenomenon is different from the previously published results
presented in the following sections. that shear strength had decreasing trend with the increase of RCA
replacement ratio [27]. There are probably two reasons which can
explain these results: one reason is that the water-cement ratio
3. Test results and analysis used here was slightly reduced with the increase of RCA replace-
ment ratio to ensure these four groups specimens had similar
3.1. Load-deformation curves compressive strength; the other reason is that specimens in this
paper are reinforced by steel fibers, steel fiber can provide the
The shear load-deformation curves of SFRCAC obtained from the bridging effect to prevent the micro-crack expansion, especially can
tests are shown in Fig. 3. improve the shear strength and corresponding deformation of
Fig. 3(a) shows the load-deformation curves of SFRCAC with concrete.
different compressive strength (fcu ¼ 30.7 MPa, 46.8 MPa and
280 are nearly parallel with different steel fiber content. This indicates
C30R50F1 that the crack resisting effect of steel fibers on deformation does not
240 increase with the increase of fiber content after shear failure. This
C45R50F1
C60R50F1 may be because the shear resistance of SFRCAC may be mainly
Shear load/kN
200
provided by concrete matrix rather than and the steel fibers after
160 shear failure.
120
3.2. Shear strength
80
The cube compressive strength (fcu ), splitting tensile strength
40 (fts ), and shear strength (ff v ) of SFRCAC are shown in Table 3. When
0 rg ¼ 50% and Vf ¼ 1%, ff v and fts increases with the increase of fcu ,
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 this is consistent with the previously published conclusion that to
(a) Shear deformation/mm improve the shear strength, the first way consists on the increase of
the compressive strength of the concrete [16]. However, as fcu in-
creases from 34.7 MPa to 62.3 MPa, ff v =fcu decreases; ff v =fts de-
280 creases slightly. The same trend can be found in the research for
natural aggregate concrete, where Vf ¼ 1% [28]. Although shear
C45R0F1
240 strength of SFRCAC has the same increasing trend as with
C45R30F1
compressive strength increasing, the increase in the ratio de-
C45R50F1
Shear load/kN
200 creases. This is related to the fact that the brittleness of concrete
C45R100F1
increases with compressive strength, so the ff v =fcu has obvious
160
decreased compared with ff v =fts , which only has slight decrease.
120 As the RCA replacement ratio (rg ) increases from 0 to 100%,
where Vf ¼ 1%, the shear strength ff v decreases from 12.8 MPa to
80 11.7 MPa, only a very slight decrease of 1.1 MPa. This is different
from many previous conclusions that shear strength declines with
40
the increase of the RCA replacement rate [20,27,29]. However, these
0 conclusions were drawn based on the same mixture proportion,
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 where the compressive strength, tensile strength and shear
(b) Shear deformation/mm strength of concrete generally decrease with the increase of RCA
replacement ratio in this case. In this paper, our study was based on
(b) target compressive strength, although rg increases from 0 to 100%,
these specimens have similar compressive strength of about
320 45 MPa. This indicates that when SFRCAC has similar compressive
C45R50F0 strength and same steel fiber content, RCA replacement ratio has a
280 C45R50F0.5 slight effect on the shear strength, which is presented clearly in
C45R50F1
240 Fig. 4(a), where the ratios of shear strength to compressive strength
C45R50F1.5
Shear load/kN
originating from this paper and other related literature are plotted
200 C45R50F2
with different RCA replacement ratios [29e31]. Although the
160 mixture proportions and experimental methods from these sources
vary, ff v =fcu from same literature present results in a range with
120
nearly a straight line parallel to X axis with rg increases from 0 to
80 100%. This indicates that the RCA has consistent influence on the
shear strength and compressive strength of concrete. But the values
40
of ff v =fcu from this test are much higher than others, likely due to
0 the 1% volume ratio steel fibers used here. The steel fiber rein-
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 forcement effect on shear strength is much larger than that on
(c) Shear deformation/mm compressive strength.
Test results from Table 3 show that, when rg ¼ 50%, Vf increases
Fig. 3. Shear load-deformation curves with different (a) Compressive strength; (b) RCA from 0 to 2%, ff v rises from 6.2 MPa to 14.6 MPa, increasing by 135%;
replacement ratio; (c) Steel fiber content. the steel fiber has significant reinforcing effect on the shear
strength of SFRCAC. The relationship between ff v =fcu and Vf is
shown in Fig. 4(b), in which the test data originate from this paper
The shear load-deformation curves of SFRCAC with different 0
and previous literature [16,32,33], the compressive strength fc from
percentages of steel fibers contents are shown in Fig. 3(c), where,
other literature had been multiplied by the corresponding adjust-
rg ¼ 50% and fcu is approximately 45 MPa. It can be seen that both
ment coefficient 1.25 to convert to fcu [34]. From Fig. 4(b), it can be
peak load and critical deformation increase significantly with the
seen that ff v =fcu is roughly proportional to steel fiber content when
increase of steel fiber content. These five ascending branches are
Vf is below 1.5%. The increasing trend of ff v =fcu is distinctly weakens
nearly overlap. The transition zones near the peak load are more
when Vf is above 1.5%. This may be due to the higher Vf may easily
wide with the increase of steel fiber content as the steel fibers can
cause the uneven distribution of steel fibers, which will lead to the
provide a larger bridging effect to prevent its crack propagation.
lower bonding strength between steel fibers and concrete matrix,
After peak load, the load drops dramatically for C45R50F0 without
and also produce some weak regions where no steel fibers. So an
steel fiber, while the load drops obviously slower for other four
optimum steel fiber volume content exists for a given RCAC, beyond
specimens with steel fibers. The slopes of the descending branch
which the reinforcing effect of steel fiber on the shear strength
D. Gao et al. / Cement and Concrete Composites 79 (2017) 1e8 5
Table 3
Strength, slump and elastic modulus.
Specimen No. Slump/mm Elastic modulus/GPa fcu/MPa fts/MPa ffv (Test data)/MPa ffv (Calculated value)/MPa Wf v =J
Note: All strengthes were tested at 28 days. ffv calculated value were calculated by Eq. (4).
0.20 [30] sorption. In the present work, the bending toughness is often
determined using the ASTMC1609-12 test methods since they are
0.15 the most widely used and reported methods for characterizing
fiber-reinforced concrete behavior. This test provides the determi-
0.10 nation of specimen toughness based on the area under the load-
deflection curve up to a prescribed deflection [35]. In order to
0.05 evaluate the energy absorption ability of SFRCAC under direct shear,
0.0 0.5 1.0
the area under shear load-deformation curves from initial point to
(a) rg
0.30
0.25
This paper,
ffv/fcu
lf/df=54.6
0.20
[16],lf/df=35
[16],lf/df=60
0.15
[31],lf/df=47
[32],lf/df=32.3
0.10
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
(b) Vf/%
Fig. 4. Relationship of ff v =fcu with different (a) rg ; (b) Vf . Fig. 5. Relationship between ff v =fv and lf .
6 D. Gao et al. / Cement and Concrete Composites 79 (2017) 1e8
peak point is calculated, which is defined as the shear fracture limit value RCAC can achieve same mechanical properties as that of
energy (Wf v ); a similar method had been used in previous literature NCAC, this limit value is affected by the property of RCA.
[32], The shear toughness index (Kv ) is defined as shear fracture Overall, shear toughness index of RCAC has no decrease with the
energy per unit compressive strength of concrete as Eq. (5): increase of rg , this conclusion is different from many other litera-
ture [37e39], where the property of RCAC decreased with the rising
. of rg because the same mixture design method of NCAN and RCAC
Kv ¼ Wf v fcu (5) were used in these studies and which lead to RCAC has lower
compressive strength than that of NCAC. However, the four group
Where, Kv is shear toughness index; Wf v is shear fracture energy, J; specimens in this study were reinforced by 1% steel fiber and had
fcu is compressive strength, MPa; Calculated values of Kv for SFRCAC similar fcu and fts , the shear toughness index has same changing
in this paper are shown in Fig. 6. trend with the change of elastic modulus.
In general, addition of steel fibers can dramatically improve the From Table 3, we know that when rg ¼ 50% and Vf ¼ 1% , fts , ff v
toughness of RCA concrete and the steel fiber volume fraction Vf and Ec all increase with the increase of fcu except Kv . Kv has a slight
has important impact on shear toughness. When Vf ¼ 2%, the shear increase when fcu increases from 34.7 MPa to 46.8 MPa, and has a
toughness index increases as much as four times compared to that marked decrease when fcu increases from 46.8 MPa to 62.3 MPa
without steel fibers. However, the increase of toughness index is although Wf v is nearly constant. This may be that steel fiber and
not linear with increase of Vf but has a significant increase when Vf coarse aggregate have greater impact on shear toughness than
increases from 0.5% to 1%, when Vf is below 0.5%, the reinforcing compressive strength when compressive strength is above 45 MPa.
effect of steel fiber on toughness is not apparent. This may be due to This conclusion can be well explained by the property of RCA, the
the fact that there are many inherent small cracks in RCA, and there crushing index of this type of RCA is 17.7%which may easily cause
is too low steel fiber content to prevent the crack extension. In RCA damage rather than cement matrix damage when compressive
order to improve the shear toughness of RCAC, Vf should be greater strength is above 40 MPa, where the damaged RCA can be easily
than 0.5%. found in shear failure section as shown in Fig. 7. So for RCA
The relationship between shear toughness index and RCA belonging to category Ⅱ, although the compressive strength of RCAC
replacement ratio displays interesting “two platforms” phenome- may achieve 60 MPa by using lower water-cement ratio, the shear
non. When rg increases from 0% to 30%, the shear toughness index toughness can't be improved effectively.
is nearly constant, then it has an obvious increase as rg increases
from 30% to 50%, after that it continues to keep constant when rg 3.4. Failure mode
increases from 50% to 100%. There are many related results about
the impact of the RCA replacement ratio on the property of RCAC: The shear experiment showed that the failure process and crack
such as, medium compressive strength concrete made with 25% of pattern of SFRCAC specimens were greatly affected by steel fibers.
recycled coarse aggregates achieved the same mechanical proper- For the specimens without steel fibers, when visible tiny cracks
ties as that of conventional concrete employing the same quantity occurred along the shear sections (Fig. 2) fracture happened
of cement and the equal effective w/c ratio [8]; in other research, immediately. The specimens lost their integrity and were split into
not much significant difference is observed in compressive strength three parts along the shear section after damage. Two typical
of RAC up to 50% replacement of coarse aggregate [36]. In Chinese broken cross sections are shown in Fig. 7, in which each section is
Standards, when RCA replacement ratio is less than 30%, the stan- corresponding to two photos, the section is smooth just like if cut
dard deviation of strength used in the mixture design can take the with a knife. It can be seen clearly that some RCA has been broken
same value with NCA concrete [23]. Analysing all these conclusions on the shear section in Fig. 7, this is because the strength of RCA is
mentioned above, one regulation can be summarized: there is a lower than the strength of cement matrix so that shear cracks go
limit of rg value for a given strength of RCAC, when rg is below a through the RCA directly. There are two weak links in RCA, one is
3.0
rg=50% Vf=1% rg=50%,Vf=1%
2.55
2.5
Shear toughness index
1.62 1.68
1.5
1.5
1.0
0.61
0.47
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0 30 50 100 30 40 50 60
Vf/% rg/% fcu/MPa
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