Understanding the Self-Conscious Through the Administration of Psychedelic Drugs

George Chakalos, Josephine Chu & Benjamin Picket

April 7, 2017
Consciousness & Psychedelic Drugs
DIS: Cognitive Neuroscience of Consciousness
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS & PSYCHEDELICS
1

Abstract
This paper aims to understand the self-conscious by looking at its transformation when
influenced by psychedelic drugs, such as Ayahuasca and psilocybin. Recent studies have found
that increased activity in the Default Mode Network (DMN) is associated with a resting state,
while a decrease in activity is associated with external task-oriented activities. Thus, it has been
theorized that the DMN is undeniably linked to one’s self-consciousness. Through this paper, we
demonstrate that not only is there reduced activity in the DMN upon the ingestion of
psychedelics, but there is also a collapse in the functioning of the DMN/Talk Positive Network
(TPN). This finding suggests that psychedelics interfere with our self-conscious state by
requiring focused introspection, rather than the typical mind wandering that results in heightened
activity within the DMN. Additionally, the breakdown in the DMN/TPN anti-correlation
provides evidence for why the boundary between the self and the environment is blurred in a
drug-induced state of mind. Furthermore, this paper gets at the notion of the hard versus easy
problem by analyzing studies in which participants reported different experiences on the same
psychedelic drug administered under identical conditions. This has shown that, although research
can locate the seat of the self-conscious, it fails to explain the “what-is-likeness” of an
individual’s experience. All of this serves as evidence for Ned Block’s theory of consciousness
that states that self-consciousness is separate from access, phenomenal, and monitoring
consciousness. Further research is needed to investigate the elements involved in forming the
subjective experience of self-consciousness under the influence of psychedelic drugs.
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS & PSYCHEDELICS
2

Introduction
Psychedelic drugs undoubtedly impact the conscious state of mind. However, human
consciousness is not a single entity; there are multiple components to it. Recognizing the
multiple components of consciousness, researchers have been looking into the role psychedelics
play in self-consciousness. A number of papers have found evidence in support of the notion that
activity in the Default Mode Network (DMN) – a group of midline brain structures associated
with internal thought processing – can be disrupted by externally oriented thoughts (i.e. goal-
oriented decisions) and psychedelic drugs. As such, alteration in activity in these brain structures,
specifically after taking psychedelic drugs, has led researchers to conclude that the seat of self-
consciousness in the mind is located in the DMN. The first section of this paper will focus on
research that suggests that the DMN is inextricably tied to self-consciousness. By looking at
changes in brain activity among participants who have been administered psychedelic drugs, this
paper will argue in favor of the fact that there is a neural correlate of self-consciousness. Using
Block’s four-part theory of consciousness, this paper will lend further evidence to the belief that
self-consciousness is its own separate entity. The second section of this paper will further
demonstrate that, while self-consciousness may be linked to a particular set of brain structures
across all individuals, it by no means suggests that the way in which a psychedelic drug impacts
one’s sense of self will be consistent across individuals. It is easy to say that self-consciousness
is tied to the DMN, but it is much harder to explain why each person’s experience with the same
drug in the same setting is different. Lastly, this paper will explore the potential therapeutic
benefits offered by the administration of psychedelic drugs. Research in this area began in the
1960s and 70s and has recently experienced a resurgence in interest amongst psychologists,
though it remains highly contested and controversial. The study of consciousness is still in its
infantile stages, but this paper seeks to unpack one particular aspect of consciousness – the self –
through the lens of psychedelic drugs.

An Overview of Block’s Theory of Consciousness

Block (1995) refers to consciousness as a “hybrid” or “mongrel concept,” explaining that
there are actually four different types of consciousness: access, phenomenal, monitoring, and
self-consciousness (227). Access consciousness is representational and is used for reasoning,
cognitive function, and behavior control. Phenomenal consciousness, on the other hand, consists
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS & PSYCHEDELICS
3

of an individual’s experiences, such as sensations and feelings. Even though access and
phenomenal consciousness interact, phenomenal consciousness encompasses all aspects of one’s
experience, while access consciousness is limited to the aspects that can be verbally reported.
Monitoring consciousness involves internal monitoring – a higher order thought about one’s
current state that is arrived at “nonobservationally and noninferentially” (Block, 1995, p. 235).
Finally, self-consciousness is “the possession of the concept of the self and the ability to use this
concept in thinking about oneself” (Block, 1995, p. 235). This last form of consciousness is the
most malleable and most significant type of consciousness with regards to the study of the
psychological effects of psychedelic drugs.

The Default Mode Network and the Talk Positive Network

Over the last decade, researchers have theorized that self-consciousness is located in the
DMN. From a holistic point of view, the DMN is associated with mind wandering, self-
reflection, and introspection (Fortier & Milliere, 2017). Broken down, however, there are
different components to the DMN that contribute to self-consciousness. For example, “activity in
the precuneus correlates with self-reflection processes and autobiographical memory retrieval,
while the activation of … [the] insular cortex is related to self-awareness, as well as to the
processing of emotional information” (Tagliazucchi et. al, 2016, p. 1067). In opposition to the
DMN is the Talk Positive Network (TPN), a neural network that specializes in tasks relevant to
the external world. The two networks are said to be “anti-correlated” in order “to guarantee the
functionally important distinction between the internal world and the external one” (Fortier &
Milliere, 2017, p.10). In a sober individual, the DMN has increased activity when one is at rest,
compared to the activity levels detected when a participant is executing a task focused on the
external environment. Therefore, mind wandering, an involuntary stream of thought that often
goes unnoticed, involves the DMN. Functional neuroimaging techniques further demonstrate that
remembering the past and planning for the future – components involved in mind wandering –
lead to increased activation in this area (Palhano-Fontes et. al. 2015). In fact, there are now more
than 24 papers that buttress the theory that the DMN shows stronger activity in a resting state
compared to when a task is being completed (Qin & Northoff 2011).
Psychedelic research further proves that the DMN and TPN are diametrically opposed
systems and that the DMN is vital in creating self-consciousness, by illustrating that activity in
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS & PSYCHEDELICS
4

these regions are temporarily altered by mind-altering substances. For example, psilocybin has
been shown to consistently disturb self-consciousness by “decreas[ing] the integrity of important
resting brain state networks associated with the sense of self (such as the DMN)” (Nour &
Carhart-Harris 2017, p.178 ). The alpha power of the network, an indicator of local synchronous
activity, is significantly reduced in the posterior cingulate cortex – the hub of the DMN. There is
an increase in whole brain integration and decrease in DMN network activity (Nour & Carhart-
Harris 2017). Furthermore, fMRI studies using Ayahuasca, a dimethyltryptamine-containing
plant species with hallucinogenic effects, show that the drug not only increases introspection but
also reduces activity in the DMN. The first plausible explanation is that the decrease in DMN
activity results from the concentration and focus that the drug itself demands. “Tripping” on
Ayahuasca has been described as requiring labor and effort and, as a result, the participants can
be thought of as performing “internally generated labor equivalent to a task” (Palhano-Fontes et.
al. 2015, p.8). An alternate explanation draws a comparison between meditation and tripping.
Meditation leads to further “introspection, self-perception, and affects mind wandering”
(Palhano-Fontes et. al. 2015, p.8). Meditation, like Ayahuasca, organizes and draws attention to
our thoughts, which consequently reduces activity in the DMN. Activity in the DMN thus
increases during mind wandering and decreases when attention is brought to mind wandering.
In addition to the noticeable changes in activity within the DMN, there is also a change in
the aforementioned DMN/TPN anti-correlation. Typically, the two systems compete to
distinguish between that which is relevant to the external versus the internal world. Under the
influence of psychedelics, however, this boundary becomes blurred. The imaginings of the mind
become integrated with the real world that truly exists outside of the mind. As Nour and Carhart-
Harris (2017) highlight, “distortions of self-experience are a central feature of … the psychedelic
state … In these contexts, … [there is a] feeling of increased unity with others and one’s
surroundings” (177). Interestingly, just as the boundary between the self, the environment, and
reality breaks down, so too does the anti-correlation activity between the DMN and TPN (Fortier
& Milliere, 2017). The collapse of this dichotic system explains the alteration in participants’
self-consciousness: they lose the ability to sense that they exist apart from their environment
(Carhart-Harris et. al., 2014). Consequently, this aspect of consciousness is unequivocally
altered, as demonstrated by self-reports and neuronal imaging techniques.
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS & PSYCHEDELICS
5

The Easy and the Hard Problem of Consciousness: A Critique of Self-Consciousness’

Localization in the Brain
While recent studies demonstrate that the DMN and TPN play a key role in the creation
and functioning of self-consciousness, they fail to explain people’s varying experiences on the
same psychedelic drug in the same setting. The idea that each individual has his or her own
phenomenal experiences adds complexity to the study of consciousness, and as a result, makes it
a topic explored by many researchers and philosophers. For instance, Nagel (1974) talks about
how it is impossible for an individual to know what it is like to be someone else. He explains:
“… it tells me only what it would be like for me to behave as a bat behaves … I want to know
what it is like for a bat to be a bat. Yet if I try to imagine this, I am restricted to the resources of
my own mind …” (Nagel, 1974, p. 439). This distinction lays the groundwork for understanding
the easy and the hard problems of consciousness. Chalmers (1995) defines easy problems of
consciousness as those that can be explained by standard methods of cognitive science. Easy
problems are “straightforwardly vulnerable to explanation in terms of computational or neural
mechanisms,” which explain where in the brain a particular feature of consciousness is derived
(Chalmers, 1995, p. 2). The hard problem, on the other hand, involves the problem of experience.
Consciousness is more than information-processing; there is a subjective aspect to it that is
inherently more difficult to analyze. Lebedev et al. (2015) delves into the idea of ego-dissolution
under the influence of psilocybin. The study views “the self” as synonymous with Freud’s “ego.”
The study is grounded on previous research showing that psychedelic drugs are an “ideal
experimental means of perturbing the self or ego” (Lebedev et al., 2015, p. 3). After the
experiment, participants reported a variety of subjective ratings about their psilocybin-induced
experience. For example, some described the experience as “dreamlike,” while others said it was
more “supernatural.” Some said they felt they were “merging with [their] surroundings” and
others said they were more “suspicious and paranoid” (Lebedev et al., 2015, p. 4). The
participants’ differing feedback serves as evidence for the subjective nature of psychedelic
experiences. It is much easier for researchers to pinpoint a location in the brain, such as the
DMN, and argue that this is the area that self-consciousness resides. However, the experience, or
“what-is-likeness”, that each individual has and how it impacts their self-conscious state still
varies from person to person. It is here where researchers still fail to explain how psychedelics,
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS & PSYCHEDELICS
6

among many other stimuli, impact participants in a distinct manner. Thus, identifying the DMN
still does not answer the hard question.

The Therapeutic Implications of Psychedelic Drugs

Studies on psychedelic drugs’ effect on consciousness possess potential for therapeutic
benefits, as well. Understanding the positive aspects of psychedelics’ impact on the brain can
alter the negative connotations of these drugs. For instance, it is currently illegal to manufacture
and consume LSD and psilocybin in the United States, but despite the various reasons for
banning psychedelic drugs, research proves that psychedelics can actually be used to treat
disorders like stress and anxiety. According to Block (1995), problems like stress and anxiety are
rooted in self-consciousness, which explains why psychedelic therapy may be helpful. As
previously discussed, psychedelics can be used to break down “the self,” which can help people
not only further understand themselves but also reach conclusions about their surroundings
without judgements or biases. Leary (1968), a pioneer of psychedelic drug research, gave
convicted criminals psilocybin mushrooms to provoke an ego-dissolution, which succeeded in
decreasing the criminals’ future reincarceration rates. Speaking about his psychedelic experience,
one inmate said: “I felt helpless … then I realized it was my own mind doing it; it’s always been
my own mind imagining troubles and enemies” (Leary, 1968, p. 39). This report illustrates how
psychedelics can temporarily alter self-consciousness, allowing one to feel more connected with
one’s surroundings and reach conclusions about the self that may not have been achieved without
the help of psychedelics.

Discussion
The above literature encompasses studies involving LSD, Ayahuasca, and psilocybin, but
there are other forms of psychedelics and psychoactive drugs like MDMA that possess
hallucinogenic properties as well. Further investigation is needed to understand the extent to
which all psychedelic substances affect the brain. Although psychedelics provide an avenue for
analysis of the self-conscious, many of these subjective studies are nevertheless limited to verbal
reports. There is the issue of biased self-reports as well as the fact that not all thoughts can be
reported following the psychedelic experience. Participants may not remember or be able to
articulate everything. This confound is directly related to the fundamental flaw in Block’s theory.
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS & PSYCHEDELICS
7

As of now, there is no way to solely observe phenomenality in self-consciousness, because

experiences become part of access consciousness once verbally reported. Moreover, the literature
proves the existence of self-consciousness at a neurological level as a distinct facet of
consciousness, thus advocating for Block’s theory, but it is important to note that it does not
suggest the four types of consciousness are exclusive of each other. For example, self-
consciousness and phenomenal consciousness can occur simultaneously. This then probes the
question of whether self-consciousness is a continuous phenomenon, and whether it evolves over
time or remains static. Many of these studies also do not distinguish between correlation and
causation, meaning that they do not provide sufficient evidence to conclude that psychedelic
drugs are the sole cause of decreased activity in the DMN. While the administration of
psychedelics has consistently interrupted function in the DMN/TPN, they do not explore other
confounds that could also lead to further focus on the external environment. Furthermore, the
inherent subjectivity of psychedelic experiences creates an issue for the therapeutic applications
of psychedelic drugs. If everyone has a different experience, then there is no way to consistently
predict the outcome, which adds to the precarious nature of drug administration. It is for this
reason and many others that psychedelic drugs ignite constant controversy in the political
domain. All in all, this paper merely scratches the surface of understanding consciousness. It is
important to acknowledge that the comprehensive impact of psychedelics is much more
complicated and beyond the scope of this paper.

Conclusion
Human consciousness is a fundamentally ambiguous concept. Not only are there multiple
facets, as described by Block, but there is also the subjective nature of consciousness that adds to
its complexity. Self-consciousness is especially difficult to record and understand. Evidence
shows that the DMN is the seat of the self-conscious, confirming the idea of a neural correlate of
consciousness. A decrease in activity in the DMN is linked to the degradation of self-
consciousness under the influence of psychedelics. Differing self-reports of psychedelic
experiences demonstrate the subjectivity of self-consciousness, highlighting the issue with
solving the hard problems of consciousness. Overall, this paper utilizes current research in
psychedelic drugs to prove Block’s theory that self-consciousness exists as a specific form of
consciousness, by pinpointing its location in the brain and analyzing its subjective nature.
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS & PSYCHEDELICS
8

References
Block, N. (1995). On a confusion about a function of consciousness. Behavioral and Brain
Sciences, 18(2), 227-287. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X00038188
Carhart-Harris, R., Fortier, M., & Millière, R. (2017). Psychedelics and consciousness. An
interview with Robin Carhart- Harris. ALIUS Bulletin, 1, 1-16.
Carhart-Harris, R., Leech, R., Hellyer, P., Shanahan, M., Feilding, A., Tagliazucchi, E., …
Nutt, D. (2014). The entropic brain: A theory of conscious states informed by
neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8.
Chalmers, D. (1995). Facing Up to the Problem of Consciousness. Journal of Consciousness
Studies, 2(3), 1-27. doi: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195311105.003.0001
Leary, T. (1995). The Effects of Consciousness-Expanding Drugs On Prisoner Rehabilitation.
High Priest (pp. 29-45). Oakland, CA: Ronin Publishing.
Lebedev, A., Lövdén, M., Rosenthal, G., Feilding, A., Nutt, D., Carhart-Harris, R. (2015).
Finding the Self by Losing the Self: Neural Correlates of Ego-Dissolution Under
Psilocybin. Human Brain Mapping. doi: 10.1002/hbm.22833
Nagel, T. (1974). What Is It Like to Be a Bat? The Philosophical Review, 83(4), 435-450.
doi: 10.2307/2183914
Nour, M. M., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2017). Psychedelics and the science of self-experience.
The British Journal of Psychiatry, 210(3), 177-179. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.116.194738
Palhano-Fontes, F., Andrade, K. C., Tofoli, L. F., Santos, A. C., Crippa, J. A., Hallak, J. E., . . .
Araujo, D. B. (2015). The Psychedelic State Induced by Ayahuasca Modulates the
Activity and Connectivity of the Default Mode Network. Plos One, 10(2).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118143
Qin, P., & Northoff, G. (2011). How is our self related to midline regions and the default-mode
network? NeuroImage, 57(3), 1221-1233. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.05.028
Tagliazucchi, E., Roseman, L., Kaelen, M., Orban, C., Muthukumaraswamy, S., Murphy, K., …
Carhart-Harris, R. (2016). Increased Global Functional Connectivity Correlates with
LSD-Induced Ego Dissolution. Current Biology, 26(8), 1043-1050.
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.02.010