0lliec A Level Physics Key Terms - BW

A-Level Physics Key Terms Cheat Sheet
by 0llieC (0llieC) via cheatography.com/38321/cs/11952/
Mechanics Mechanics (cont)
Scalar A quantity without direction. Displacement Displacement (y) against Time (x).
Length/Distance, Speed, Mass, Temperature, Time, -Time Graph Gradient = Velocity
Energy Acceleration = Δgradient
Vector A quantity with both direction and magnitude Velocity- Velocity (y) against Time (x)
Displacement, Velocity, Force (inc. Weight), Acceleration, Time Graph Gradient = Acceleration
Momentum ΔGradient = ΔAcceleration
Equilibrium When all forces acting on an object are balanced and Area = Displacement
cancel each other out.  There is no resultant force Variable Differentiate 
Free-body A diagram of all the forces acting on a body, but not the Acceleration x
Diagram forces it exerts on other things. The arrows indicate v
magnitude and direction. a
Δa
Principle of For a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise
Moments moments equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments.  Integrate 
Moment The product of the size of the force and the perpendicular Acceleration- Acceleration (y) against Time (x).
distance between the turning point and the line of action Time Graph Gradient = ΔAcceleration
of the force. 0 Gradient = No acceleration  constant velocity.

Constant Gradient = constant acceleration
Couple A pair of forces with equal size which act parallel to each
Area = Velocity
other but in opposite direction. E.g. turning a car's steering
NB: Remember to treat area below the time axis as
wheel.
negative!
Centre of The single point from which the body's weight acts
Newtons 1st The velocity of an object will not change unless a
Mass through. The object will always balance around this point.
Law resultant force acts on it.
To calculate for uniform objects: Σmx = Mx̄
Newtons 2nd F = ma
SUVAT v = u + at
Law The acceleration of an object is ∝ to the resultant force
(Constant s = 1/2 (u+v)t
acting upon it. (for objects with a constant mass)
Acceleration) v2 = u2 + 2as
Points to remember:
s = ut + 1/2 at2
• Resultant Force is vector sum of all the forces
s = vt - 1/2 at2
• Unit = N
• Ensure mass is in kg
• Acceleration is in the same direction as resultant force.
Newtons 3rd If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B

Law exerts an equal but opposite force on object A
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Mechanics (cont) Mechanics (cont)
Freefall When there is only gravity acting upon an object. i.e. motion Elastic Kinetic energy is conserved i.e. no energy is dissipated as
with an acceleration of g (9.81ms-2) Collision heat or other energy forms.
The same SUVAT equations apply, however, u = 0 and a = Impulse An extension of N2L. Impulse is the product of force and
g {{ng}} NB: 'direction' of motion, dictates the sign of g time and is equal to the momentum of that body.
Projectile An object given an initial velocity, then left to move freely FΔt = Δ(mv)
Motion under g. There is separate horizontal and vertical motion Also equal to the area under a force-time graph.
with time being the only common attribute. Both motion Work The energy transferred from one form to another.
follows SUVAT equations but horizontal motion has no Done W = Fd
acceleration. Work Done = The force causing motion x distance moved
Friction Force that opposes motion. When in a fluid (liquid or gas) it Power The rate of work done over time
is drag, drag depends on: P = ΔW/Δt
• Viscosity of the fluid P = Fv  derived from combining P and W = Fs
• Speed of object
Force-Dis‐ Area = Work Done
• Shape of the object
placement‐
Graph
For all frictional forces
Conservati Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, only converted
• Force is in the opposite direction to motion
on of from one form to another, but the total energy of a closed
• Can never increase speed or induce motion
Energy system will not change.
• They convert kinetic energy  heat.
Efficiency useful output/input in terms of energy or power.
Lift Upwards force on a object in a fluid
Terminal When frictional forces equal the driving force. For a falling
Materials
Speed object, when drag equals the force due to their mass.
Momentum The product of the mass and velocity of an object. Density ρ = m/V
Momentum in any collision is conserved (when no external A property all materials have and is independent of both
shape and size.
forces are involved)
Limit of The point where Hooke's law no longer applies. On a
Inelastic Not all of the kinetic energy is conserved. Momentum
Proportio force-extension graph, the limit of proportionality is where the
Collision however is conserved.
nality line is no longer straight

Materials (cont) Materials (cont)
Hooke's F = kΔL Yield The point on a stress-strain graph where the material stretches
Law The force is proportional to the extension of a stretched wire. Point without any extra load.
k is the stiffness constant  a measure of how hard it is to
Brittle When a material breaks after a certain about of force is applied.
stretch ness The line simply stops on a stress-strain graph. The same thing
Elastic The point on a force-extension graph where the line begins to applies on a force-extension graph, the line just stops.
Limit curve. Beyond this point, permanent deformation occurs where
the wire will no longer return to its original shape. Thermal Physics
Force-E Straight section  Gradient = k Kelvin A temperature scale that is in terms of an atoms
xtension Loading and unloading plot a loop, if a stretch is elastic, the movements.
Graph curve starts and finishes in the same position (the origin). If °C  K
plastic deformation occurs, the unloading line has the same
+ 273
gradient (k) but crosses the x axis at a different point
Absolute The lowest theoretical temperature of anything  0 K = -
Zero 273°C
Area = Elastic Strain Energy
Internal The internal energy of a body is the sum of the randomly
The area between the loading and unloading line (after plastic Energy distributed kinetic and potential energies of all its particles
deformation) is equal to the work done in deforming the Closed A system where no matter or energy is transferred in or out
material System of the system
Tensile The ratio of forced applied and cross-sectional area. Heat Heat is always transferred from a hot area/substance to a
Stress stress = F/A Transfer cold area/substance.
Tensile The ratio of extension to original length, it has no units and is Specific The amount of energy required to heat up 1kg of the
Strain just a ratio.
Heat material by 1°C/1 K
strain = ΔL/L
Capacity ΔQ = mcΔT
Youngs The ratio of tensile stress and tensile strain Energy Change is equal to the product of the mass, specific
Modulus E = FL/AΔL heat capacity and the change in temperature.
The YM of a material is the constant value up to the limit of
proportionality,
Stress- Stress (y) against Strain (x).

Strain Gradient = Young's Modulus
Graph Area = strain energy per unit volume

Thermal Physics (cont) Thermal Physics (cont)
Specific The specific latent heat of fusion (  Solid) / vaporisation ( Ideal Gas pV = nRT
Latent gas) is the quantity of thermal energy needed/will be lost to Equations n = number of moles
Heat change the state of 1kg of the substance. R = molar gas constant
Q = ml
where m is the mass and l the latent heat. pV = NkT
N = number of molecules
When a substance changes state, there is a period where the k = Boltzmann constant
temperature of the material is constant, as the internal energy
rises, this is due to the latent heat. A way of remembering which n is which. Moles will be small,
therefore small n. Number of molecules will be large so, big
Boyle's At a constant temperature, pV is constant. i.e.
N.
Law p1V1 = p2V2
On a p-V plot, the higher the line, the higher the temperature. Kinetic The pressure exerted by an ideal gas can be derived by
Theory considering the gas as individual particles.
Charles' At a constant pressure: V is directly proportional to its
pV = 1/3 x Nm(Crms) 2
Law absolute temperature T
Crms is the root mean square speed.
V1/T1 = V2/T2
Pressure At a constant volume: p is directly proportional to its absolute

Assumptions
Law temperature.
• All molecules in the gas are identical
p1/T1 = p2/T2
• Gas contains a large number of molecules
Molecular the sum of the masses of all the atoms that make up the • The volume of the molecules is negligible when compared
Mass molecule. to the volume of the container/gas as a whole.
Relative The sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms. Brownian Random motion of particles suspended in a fluid  helped
Molecular Motion provide evidence that the movement of the particles was due
Mass to the collisions of the fast randomly-moving particles, which
supported the model of kinetic theory.
Avogadro The number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon isotope 12 6C.
Constant NA = 6.02 x10 23 mol-1 Average 1/2 x m(Crms ) 2 = 3/2 x nRT/N
Kinetic 
Molar The mass of a material containing NA molecules
Energy 1/2 x m(Crms ) 2 = 3/2 x RT/NA
Mass
Particles and Radiation
Proton & The 2 Baryons that make up the nucleus of an atom.

Neutrons Comprised of 3 quarks. Protons have a relative charge: +1,
neutrons: 0. Both have a relative mass of 1 (1.67 x10-27 kg).

Particles and Radiation (cont) Particles and Radiation (cont)
Electron A fundamental lepton, with a charge of -1. Cannot be broken Photon A discrete packet of electromagnetic radiation with 0 mass.
down into other subatomic particles. Relative mass of 1/2000 E = hf = hc/λ
(9.11x10-31 kg)
Antiparticle The corresponding antiparticle to any particle has the same
Nuclide The general notation of elements. mass and rest energy but opposite charge.
Notation Pair When 2 of the same particles collide at high speed and
A ZX
Production produce a particle-antiparticle pair. The energy of the
Proton The number of protons in an atom. Defines the element. For a collisions is converted into the pair. Also occurs when a
Number neutral atom, proton no. also == the electron number photon has enough energy to produce an electron-positron
(Z) pair.
Emin = 2E0 (in MeV)
Nucleon AKA Mass Number - number of total nucleons (protons +
Number neutrons) Annihilatio When a particle and antiparticle collide producing 2 photons
(A) n in opposite directions.
Emin = E0
Specific The ratio of a particles charge to its mass. Specific meaning
Charge per kg. This collision is used in PET scanners to detect cancers.
S.C. = Charge (Q) / Mass (kg) Hadron Particles that can feel the strong force. Either a baryon or a
Isotope Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number meson depending on its quark structure
of neutrons. Affects the stability of a atom Baryon A hadron consisting of 3 quarks. All are unstable except a
Strong A strong force that holds atoms together at small distances, free proton - all eventually decay into a proton.
Nuclear strong enough to overcome the electrostatic repulsion of the Proton: uud
Force protons. Neutron: ddu
Distances Baryon A quantum number which is always conserved. Baryons

Repulsive: <0.5 fm (0.5 x10-15m) Number have a B.N. of +1. Antibaryons have a B.N. of -1 and all
Attractive: 0.5 to 3 fm other particles have a B.N of 0.
Rapidly falls to ) after 3 fm. Mesons A hadron consisting of 2 quarks - a quark-antiquark pair.
Alpha Occurs in big atoms (82+ protons). Atoms emits a helium There are 9 possible combinations, making either Kaons or
Decay nucleus (2 protons 2 neutrons). Particles is too big to be kept Pions.
(α) stable by the SNF. Lepton A fundamental particle that doesnt feel the strong force.
Beta- Emission of a electron and anti-electron-neutrino. Happens in Interacts via the weak interaction.
Minus neutron rich particles. In nucleus structure terms, a neutron
Lepton Another quantum number that is always conserved. Must be
Decay turns into a proton by changing an d quark to a u quark,
Number separate for lepton-electron number and electron-muon
(β-) emitting an electron and anti-electron-neutrino.
number.
Beta- Emission of a positron and an electron neutrino. One of the
Plus atoms protons, changes a u quark to a d quark, changing to a
Decay neutron emitting a positron and an electron-neutrino.
(β+)

Particles and Radiation (cont) Magnetic Fields (cont)
Strange Particles that have a property of strangeness - contain a Magnetic The force on one metre of wire carrying a current of 1 A at
Particles strange/anti-strange quark. Flux right angles to the magnetic field. AKA The strength of the
Created via the strong interaction Density magnetic field
Decay via the weak interaction B = F/Il
Rules of conversation mean that strange particles are only Magnetic flux density is the force by the current meter
produced in pairs. Magnetic When current flows, a magnetic field is induced.
Strangen Another quantum number - however it can change by ±1 or 0 Field Right hand rule:
ess in an interaction. around a • Curl Fingers around "wire".
wire • Stick up thumb
Quark A fundamental particle that makes up hadrons. There are 6
types:up/down, top/bottom, strange/charm. Thumb :Direction of current
Fingers: Direction of magnetic field
Quark There is no where to get a quark on its own, when enough
Confinem energy is provided, pair-production occurs, with one quark Solenoid A cylindrical coil of wire acting as a magnet when carrying
ent remaining in the particle. electric current. Forms a field like a bar magnet.
Weak β+ and β- are both examples of weak interactions, which is Force on A current-carrying wire, running through a magnetic field
Interactio interaction via the weak force, the force acting between a generates a resultant field of the one induced by the current
n leptons. Current- and the pre-existing one. The direction of the force is
Carrying perpendicular to the current direction and the mag. field.
Feymann A diagram of particle interactions, with:
Wire
Diagram Wavy Lines : Exchange Particle
Straight Lines : Particles in/out of the interaction (with arrows LeFt- For finding the direction of the Force.
indicating direction) hand • Thumb upwards

Rule • First finger forwards
• Second finger to the right (perpendicular to f.f.)
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic A region where a force acts, force is exerted on Thumb:Force/Motion

Field magnetic/magnetically susceptible materials (e.g. iron). First Finger:Field
Magnetic Lines that show a magnetic field. They run from north to the Second Finger:Current
Field south pole of a magnet. The more dense the lines are, the
Charged F = BQv
Lines stronger the field
Particles
in a
mag.
field

Magnetic Fields (cont) Magnetic Fields (cont)
Circular For a charge travelling perpendicular to a field is always Flux Linkage The amount of field lines being cut
Path perpendicular to the direction of motion  The condition for NΦ = BANCos(θ)
circular motion. where θ is the angle between the normal to the coil and
the field. (if it is perpendicular, θ = 0°
F = mv 2/r can be combined with F = BQv.
Faraday's Induced e.m.f. is proportional to the rate of change of flux
Rearranged for r, this shows that: Law linkage...
• r increases if mass or velocity increases ε = NΔΦ/Δt
• r decreases if the mag. field strength is increased or the
Lenz's Law The induced e.m.f. is always in such a direction that it
charge increases
opposes the change that caused it.
• f = v/2πr
•Combined with r = mv/BQ  f = BQ/2πm e.m.f in a NΦ = BANCos(ωt)
rotating coil ε = BANωSin(ωt)
Particle A cyclotron consists of 2 hollow semiconductors, with a
Accelerat uniform magnetic field applied perpendicular to the plane of
Flux Linkage and Induced e.m.f. are 90° out of phase.
or the D magnets. An A.C. is applied. Charged particles are fired
into the D's. They accelerate across the gap between Generator Ek is converted into electrical energy, the kinetic energy
magnets, taking the same amount of time for the increasing turns a coil in a magnetic field so that they induce a
radius. electric current.
Magnetic The number of flux lines through a certain area hence{{n}}Φ = Right-hand For Generators.
Flux BA Rule • Thumb upwards
In other words its the amount of flux passing through an area • First finger forwards
Electrom Relative motion between a conductor and a mag. field, causes • Second finger to the left (perpendicular to f.f.)
agnetic an emf to generate at the ends of the conductor as the
Induction electrons accumulate at one end. Thumb:Force/Motion
First Finger:Field
Second Finger:Current
Alternating Current that's direction changes over time. The voltage

Current across the resistance goes up and down.
Root Mean Vrms = V0/sqrt(2)

Squared Irms = I0/sqrt(2)
(rms) Power
Prms = Irms x Vrms

Magnetic Fields (cont) Engineering
Transfor A device that uses electromagnetic induction to change the Moment A measure of how difficult it is to rotate an object or change
mer size of a voltage for an alternating current. of Inertia its rotational speed
An alternating current flowing in the primary coil causes the I = Σmr2

core to magnetise/demagnetise continuously in opposite This equation means that the moment of inertia is dependent
directions. This produces a rapidly changing magnetic flux in the masses, and their distribution, so a solid disk may
in the core (made of magnetically soft material. The have a lower moment of inertia than a hoop.
changing flux passes through the secondary coil induces a Rotational The rotational kinetic energy of an object is dependant on its
alternating e.m.f. if the same frequency but different voltage Kinetic moment of inertia.
(if the no. of turns is different) Energy Ek = 1/2 x Iω2
Transfor P.Coil: Vp = Np x ΔΦ/Δt Rotational The SUVAT equations can be applied directly to rotational
mer S.Coil: Vs = Ns x ΔΦ/Δt SUVAT motion, but with rotational's counterparts:
Equations s  θ (rads)
Combines to: u  ω0
Ns/Np = Vs/V p v ω
a α
Inefficienc • Eddy Currents (looping currents induced by changing flux)
ies in a  create opposing magnetic fields reducing its strength  t  t
Transfor reduced by laminating the core so that current cannot Torque When a force causes an object to turn, the turning effect is
mer flow between the cores layers torque.
• Heat Generation  due to the resistance in the coils  T = Fr
reduced by using a wire with a low resistance T = Iα
• Magnetising/Demagnetising the core  energy is wasted Work & The work done is the product of the force and the angle
as the core is heated  reduced by using a magnetically Power turned by:
soft core, which has a small hysteresis loop, this the W = Tθ
energy required to create/collapse the field is minimised
Power is the amount of work done in a given time:
P = Tω
Efficiency Equations as Δθ/Δt = ω
efficiency = IsVs/IpVp  powerout/power in
Frictionalk Torque occurs in real world systems therefore:
Tnet = Tapplied - Tfrictional

Engineering (cont) Engineering (cont)
Flywheels A flywheel is a heavy wheel that has a high moment of Angular Angular Momentum = Iω
inertia, meaning once spinning it is hard to stop. They are Momentum
charged as they are spun, turning T into rotational kinetic Iinitial x ωinitial = Ifinal x ωfinal
energy. It is used as a energy storage device  if energy is Angular Momentum IS** conserved
needed, the wheel decelerates and provides some of its
Angular Impulse = Δ(Iω) = TΔt
rotational energy to another part of the machine.
Impulse
Flywheels maximused for energy storage are dubbed 1st Law of Q = ΔU + W

flywheel batteries. Thermodynam
ics If energy is transferred to the system: Q = +ve
Factors that effect storage: If work is done on the gas: W = -ve
• Mass  If the mass is increased, the moment of inertia and If the internal energy increases:U = +ve
hence the r. Ek
• Angular Speed  if the angular speed is increasd, the For closed systems, the first law can be applied, also
energy stored increases with angular speed2, so increasing known as non-flow processes as no gas flows in or out.
the a.speed, greatly increases energy storage. To apply the law, it is assumed to be an Ideal Gas.
• Spoked Wheel  this again increases the moment of Isothermal ΔU = 0
inertia as the mass is distributed further away from the center. (Constant Therefore Q = W
• Material  Carbon fibre is generally used as it is strong temperature) There is no change in internal energy... no change in
and allows for higher angular speeds Change temperature therefore:
• Friction Reduction  lubrication is used to reduce friction pV = Constant.
as well as superconducting magnets to stop contact and
therefore friction. Vacuums are also used so air resisitance is pV plot is a curve, with higher lines indicating a higher
not a factor. temperature. The work done is the area under the line.
Uses Expansion is   and is positive.

• Smoothing Torque  Flywheels are used to keep systems Compression is   and is negative.
relying on torque running smoothly
Adiabatic (No Q=0
• Breaking  especially in F1 cars, flywheels are used to
heat transfer) Therefore ΔU = -W
harness some of the force when breaking to allow for faster
Change pV γ = constant
acceleration afterwards
• Wind Turbines  to provide stable power for days without
Steeper gradient than a isotherm's plot. There is a
wind and/or peak times
greater amount of work done for an adiabatic change
than a isotherm

Isobaric W = pΔV 4- • Induction  The piston starts at the top of the cylinder, and
(Constant Therefore V/T is constant Stroke moves down increasing the volume of the gas above it. A air-
Pressure) Petrol fuel mixture is drawn in through an open inlet valve. Pressure
Changes Engine remains constant just above atmospheric.
No work done. • Compression  The inlet valve is closed, the piston moves up
the cylinder. Work is done on the gas, and the pressure
Isometric W=0
increases. Just before the end of the stoke, a spark ignites the
(Constant Therefore Q = ΔU and p/T is constant
air-fuel mixture. Temperature and pressure increase.
Volume)
• Expansion  The explosion expands and pushes the piston
Changes Work done = area under straight line
back down. Work is done as the gas expands, there is also a
Cyclic A System that undergos a number of combinations of
net output. Just before the bottom, the exhaust valve opens and
Process processes. They start at a certain pressure and volume
the pressure reduces.
and return to it at the end of a cycle.
• Exhaust  The piston moves up the cylinder and the burnt
gas leaves through the exhaust valve, the pressure remains
constant just above atmospheric.
4- Induction Stroke  Only air is drawn.

Stroke Compression  The air is compressed enough to have a
Diesel temperature to ignite diesel fuel  just before the end of the
Engine stroke, diesel fuel is sprayed in and ignites.
Expansion & Exhaust  The same as petrol

Indicated Pindicated = Area of p-V loop x cycles per second x no. of Refridg A reverse heat engine where the cold space is the actual fridge.
Power cylinders erator Whilst the hot space is the surroundings, the fridges aim is to
The net work done by the cylinder in one second. extract as much heat from the cold space to the surroundings.
Output The useful power at the crankshaft Coeffici COPref = Qc/W = Qc/(Qh-Qc) = Tc/(Th-Tc)
Power P = Tω ent of COPhp = Qh/W = Qh/(Qh-Qc) = Th/(T h-Tc)
Prefor‐
Friction The power lost due to friction between moving parts
mance
Power Pfriction = Pind - Pbrake
Engine Pinp = Calorific Value x Fuel Flow Rate Mechanical Electricity

Efficiency Efficiency = Pbrake/Pind Affected by energy lost due to
Current The rate of flow of charge. Conventionally running from + to
moving parts Thermal Efficiency = Pind/Pinp Heat
(I/A) -. Measured my an Ammeter (in series)
energy transferred into work Overall Efficiency = I = ΔQ/Δt
Pbrake/Pinp
Potential The work done in moving a unit charge between 2 points. 1
2nd Law Heat engines must operate between aheat source and a Difference V = 1JC -1. Measured by a voltmeter (in parallel)
of heat sink Engine Efficiency = W/QH = (QH - QC)/QH Max (V/V) V = IR / V = W/Q
Thermod Theoretical Efficiency = (TH - TC)/TH
Resistance A measure of how difficult it is to move current around the
ynamics
(R/Ω) circuit.
Heat A Source of heat (TH) R = V/I
Engine 
Ohmic Under constant physical conditions, I is proportional to V. On
QH
Conductor a graph of I (y) against V (x), the gradient is equal to 1/R.

Filament A filament lamp has an IV characteristic of a cubic (s shape)
Heat Engine  W
Lamp going through the origin. The heat in the filament causes the

resistance to increase - the particles in the filament vibrate
QC
more, meaning its harder for the current-carrying electrons

to move through it, therefore resistance increases as the
Heat Sink (TC)
current increases.
Reverse Hot (TH)
Heat 
Engine QH

Heat Engine  W

QC

Cold (TC)

Electricity (cont) Electricity (cont)
Diode A diode only allows current to flow in one direction. The IV Electromoti The amount of electrical energy the battery provides and
characteristic is virtually no current until the threshold voltage, ve Force transfers to each coulomb of charge.
where the voltage increases exponentially. The threshold (e.m.f.) ε = E/Q
voltage is approx. 0.6V
Internal The resistance inside cells.
Resisti How difficult it is for current to flow through a material. Depends Resistance ε = I(R + r)
vity on:
Kirchhoff's The total current entering a junction is equal to the total
• Length of the wire
First Law current leaving it, i.e. current is split when it reaches a
• Cross-sectional area
junction
• Resistance.
Kirchhoff's The total emf of a series circuit, equals the sum of the pd
ρ = RA/L
Second across each component, i.e. pd is split between components
Unit: Ωm
Law in series but not parallel.
The lower the resistivity, the better it is at conducting electricity.
ε = ΣIR
For Reference: Copper: 1.68x10-8 Ωm Resistance Series: RT = R1 + R 2 + R3 + ...

across Parallel: 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R 2 + 1/R3 + ...
Semico A group of materials that arent as good as conducting as
Circuits
nductor metals, however, if more energy is supplied, the resistance
lowers  more charge carriers are released. Potential A circuit with a voltage source and resistors in series. The
Divider voltage of one of the resisitors can vary and therefore be
Superc A metal that can be cooled, and the resistivity is reduced. There
used to detect certain changes when thermistors and LDRs
onducto‐ is no resistivity below the critical.
are used.
r The main uses are for strong electromagnets, power cables
with no energy loss and fast electronic circuits with minimal
Gravitational Fields
energy loss.
Power The rate of transfer of energy. Force A region in which a body experiences a non-contact force.
(P/W) 1W = 1JS-1 Field
Newtons The force a body experiences due to gravity is dependant on

P= E/t = IV = V2/R = I2R Law of its weight, the weight of the object exerting the force and the
Energy E = ItV = V2t/R = I2Rt Gravitati distance between them  An inverse square law.
(E/J) on F = GmM/r2
kWh  J NB The result of this is the magnitude of the force, the
kWh x 3.6x106 direction is always towards the centre of the mass causing the
gravitational force.

Gravitational Fields (cont) Gravitational Fields (cont)
Gravitatio The force per unit mass, depending on the location of the Orbital T2 ∝ r3
nal Field body in a field. Period PROOF
Strength g = F/m Proporti • Combine F=mv2/r and F = GmM/r2  Solve for v
Also a vector quantity, directed towards the centre of the onality • T = 2πr/v  Sub in v
mass causing the force.
Escape The minimum speed an powered object needs to leave the
Velocity gravitational field of a planet
g = -ΔV/Δr
Synchro When an orbiting object has an orbital period equal to the
Earth's g ≈ 9.81 Nkg-1
nous rotational period of the object its orbiting
Radial Point masses have a radial gravitational field (such as Orbit
Field planets):
Geostati An satellite in orbit of a body that remains in the same place 
g = GM/r2
onary it has the same time period. It would have to be over the
Gravitatio The gravitational potential energy that a unit mass would Orbit equator to be a true geostationary orbit
nal have. It is negative on the surface of a mass and increases
Low Satellites that orbit between 180 and 2000 km above Earth.
Potential with the distance from the mass. It can also be considered as
Orbiting They are designed for communication and as they are low-
the energy required to fully escape the body's gravitational
Satellite orbit, they're cheaper to launch and require less powerful
pull
transmitters.
V = -GM/r
Gravitatio The energy required to move a unit mass. When an object is EM Radiation and Quantum
nal moved, work is done against gravity  ΔW = mΔV
Photoelectr The emission of electrons from the surface of a metal in
Potential
ic Effect response to an incidence light, where the frequency of the
Difference
incidence light is above that of the metals threshold
Equipotent Lines/Planes that join points of equal gravitational potential
frequency.
ials  similar to contour lines on maps.
Threshold The lowest frequency of light that can cause electrons to be
Along these lines both ΔV and ΔW are zero, the objects
Frequency emitted from the surface of a metal.
energy isn't changing.
Work The minimum quantity of energy which is required to
Satellite Are smaller objects orbiting a larger object, they are kept in
Function remove an electron to infinity from the surface of a given
orbit by the force due to the larger body's gravitational field.
solid, usually a metal.
Φ = hf0
In terms of planets  Orbits are ≈ circular, therefore circular
motion equations apply.

EM Radiation and Quantum (cont) EM Radiation and Quantum (cont)
Maximum The energy a photon is carrying minus any other energy Line- When light with a continuous spectrum of energy (white light)
Kinetic loses. These energy loses explain the range of kinetic Absorpti pass through a cool gas. Most of the electrons will stay in their
Energy energies of the photons. The max is equal to hf, with no on ground states but some will be absorbed and excite them to
energy loss. Spectra higher states, these photons are then missing from the
hf = Φ + 1/2(m)(vmax) 2 spectrum causing black lines on the continuous spectrum.
Stopping The potential difference required to stop the fastest moving Diffracti When a beam of light passes through a narrow gap and
Potential electrons travelling at Ek(max) on spreads out.
eVs = Ek(max) Wave- An entity behaving with both particle and wave-like behaviour.
Particle Light has a relationship between wavelength and momentum:
Electron The kinetic energy carried by an electron after it has been
Duality DeBroglie's Wavelength:
Volt accelerated from rest to a pd of 1 V.
λ = h/mv
1eV = 1.6 x10-19 J
Electron When electrons are accelerated and sent through a graphite
Ground The lowest energy level of an atom/electron inside an atom.
Diffracti crystal, they pass through the spaces between the atoms
State
on producing a diffraction pattern
Excitation The movement of an electron to a higher level in an atom,
requiring energy.
Waves
ΔE = E1 - E2 = hf
Reflection When a wave is bounced back when hitting a boundary
De- An electron moving towards ground state releasing energy
Refraction When a wave changes direction as it enters a different
Excitation equal to the difference between the states in the form of a
boundary medium. The change in direction is as a result of
photon.
the wave changing speed in the new medium
Fluoresce The tubes contain mercury vapour, when a high voltage is
Diffraction When a wave spreads out as it passes through a gap or
nt Tubes passed across, producing free electrons, which collide with
the mercury electrons exciting them. When they return to the around a obstacle.
ground state, they release a photon in the UV range. These Displaceme The distance a wave has moved from its undisturbed
then collide with the tubes phosphorus coating exciting it's nt (x/m) position/its starting point. It is a vector quantity
electrons, and then when they return to the ground state they
Amplitude The maximum magnitude of displacement.
release photons in the visible light range
(A/m)
Line- A series of bright lines against a black background, with each Wavelength The length of one whole oscillation of the wave.
Emission line corresponding to a wavelength of light.
(λ/m)
Spectra

Waves (cont) Waves (cont)
Period The time taken for a whole wave cycle. Constructi When 2 waves meet and their displacements are in the
(T/s) T = 1/f ve same direction, the displacements combine to give a bigger
Interferenc one.
Frequency The number of whole waves per second, passing a given
e
(f/Hz) point.
f = 1/T Destructiv When 2 waves meet and their displacement is in opposite
e directions, they cancel out 'destroying' the displacement. The
Phase A measurement of the position if a certain point along the
Interferenc displacement of the combined wave is the sum of the
wave cycle
e individual displacements.
Phase The amount by which one wave differs from another
Exactly When 2 points on a wave are a odd multiple of 180°/ apart.
Difference
Out of
Wave c = fλ
Phase
Speed
In phase When the phase difference of 2 points is 0 or a multiple of
Transverse The displacement of the particles/field is at a right angle to
360°/2 .
Wave the direction of energy transfer. e.g. a spring shaking up
Stationary The superposition of 2 progressive waves with the same
and down as displacement  and energy transfer is 
Wave frequency/wavelength and amplitude moving in opposite
Longitudinal The displacement of the particles/fields is along the line of
directions
Wave energy transfer
Node A point on a stationary wave where no movement occurs -
Polarisation A wave passing through a filter resulting in a polarised wave
zero amplitude. There is total destructive interference.
that oscillates in one direction only. 2 polarising filters at
right angles blocks all light as it blocks both directions. Antinode Points on a stationary wave with maximum amplitude -
Polarising filters are common sunglasses constructive interference
Glare Polarising filters reduces the amount of reflected light Resonant When the stationary wave produced has an exact number of
Reduction therefore reducing the intensity of the light on your eyes Frequency half-wavelengths
TV Signals TV signals are polarised by the rod orientation on the First When the stationary wave is at its lowest possible frequency
transmitting aerial. If the rods are lined up, you receive a Harmonic - a single loop with one antinode and a node at each end.
good signal. To find the freq of the nth harmonic, multiply the 1st
harmonics freq. by n.
Superpostio When 2 waves pass through each, at the instance where
f = 1/2l x sqrt(T/μ)
n the wave cross, the displacement is combined, then each
where μ is the mass per unit length, T is the tension in the
wave continues.
string and l is the length of the vibrating string.
Second Twice the frequency of the 1st harmonic. With 2 loops, 2

Harmonic antinodes and 3 nodes (one in the center)

Waves (cont) Waves (cont)
Amount of When a wave is passed through a narrow gap. Diffraction Lots of equally spaced slits very close together, produces a
Diffraction Gap > Wavelength  No diffraction Grating sharp interference pattern, therefore allowing more accurate
Gap = n x Wavelength  Minimal Diffraction measurements. The formula relates the distance between
Gap = Wavelength  Maximum Diffraction slits (d/m), the angle to the normal (θ/°), the wavelength
(λ/m) and the order of maximum(n)
Monochro Light of a signal wavelength/frequency and therefore a
dSin(θ) = nλ
matic Light single colour. Best for producing clear diffraction patterns.
The order of maximum is the number of bright spots away
White When white light is diffracted, the different wavelengths of
from the central spot (which has order 0)
Light light diffract by different amounts. The result is a diffraction
Refractive A measure of how optically dense a material is - the more
Diffraction pattern of spectra instead of single coloured fringes
Index optically dense, the higher refractive index.
Two- When waves from 2 sources interfere to produce a pattern.
n = c/cs
Souce In order to get a clear pattern, the sources must be
where c is the speed of light and cs is the speed of light in
Interferenc monochromatic and coherant
the material.
e
Coherancy If the waves produce have the same wavelength/frequency

Common Refractive Indexes
and have a fixed phase difference.
Vacuum = 1
Double-Slit Young's double-slit formula relate a waves fringe spacing Glass ≈ 1.5
Formula (w/m), its wavelength(λ/m), the slit separation(s/m) and the Water ≈ 1.33
distance from the screen(D/m) into a single formula
w = λD/s At a boundary: 1n2 = c1/c2 = n2 / n1
The relative refractive index from material 1 to material 2.
Note when using the refractive indexes of the materials its
2/1 rather than 1/2 with the speeds.
Snells n1Sin(θ1) = n2Sin(θ2)

Law When a ray of light travels from one refractive medium to
another.
Critical The angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction = 90°

Angle i.e. Sin(θcrit) = n2/n1 where n1>n2
Total When all light is completely reflected back into a medium at

Internal a boundary with another medium instead of being refracted.
Reflection Occurs when θi > θcrit

Waves (cont) Nuclear (cont)
Optical A very thin flexible tube of glass/plastic fibre in which light Distance of Ek = Eelec = Qnucleusqalpha/4πε0r
Fibre signals are carried across long distances and around Closest where r is the distance of closest approach
corners by applying TIR. The fibres are surrounded by a Approach
cladding with a high refractive index and a core of a lower
Electron λ≈hc/E where the first minimum occurs at:
refractive index. The light is refracted where the mediums
Diffraction sinθ ≈ 1.22λ/2R
meet and travels along the fibre.
Nuclear R = R0A1/3
Signal When some of the signals energy is absorbed by the
Radius
Absorbtion material of the fibre. The final amplitude is reduced.
Alpha Charge(rel): +2
Signal When the final pulse is broader than expected, which can
Decay (α) Mass(u): 4
Dispersion cause information loss as it may overlap with another signal.
Penetration: low
Modal Light entering at different angles and taking different paths, Ionising: high
Dispersion resulting in signals arriving in the wrong order  Single- Speed: slow
mode fibre is used to prevent this - light is only allowed to Affected by mag. field: y
folllow a very narrow path. Stopped by: paper/~10cm air
Material Different amounts of dispersion depending on wavelength.

Used for: Smoke alarms  if the particles cant reach the
Dispersion  Monochromatic light prevents this.
detector, the smoke must be stopping them
Nuclear Beta Charge(rel): ±1

Decay(β^±) Mass(u): n/a
Rutherford An experiment that proved the current model of the atom 
Penetration: mid
Scattering that it is mostly empty space.
Ionising: weak
Speed: fast
Rutherford set up an experiment, with an alpha emitter
Affected by mag. field: y
pointed at gold foil. He observed the deflection of the
Stopped by: ~3mm of aluminium
particles and it showed that atoms have a concentrated
mass at the centre and are mostly empty space, which Used for: PET Scanners, In production of metals  the
disproved the plum-pudding model which was accepted
levels penetrating through the metal can be used to control
previously.
the thickness.
Gamma Charge(rel): 0
It showed that:
Decay(γ) Mass(u): 0
• Atoms = mostly empty space
Penetration: low
• Nucleus has a large positive charge, as some of the +ve
Ionising: very weak
charged alpha particles are repelled and deflected
Speed: c (speed of light)
• Nucleus must be tiny due to few particles being deflected
Affected by mag. field: n
by an angle > 90°
Stopped by: several cm of lead.
• Mass must be concentrated in the nucleus
Used for: PET Scanners  produced through

annihilation, cancer treatment.

Nuclear (cont) Nuclear (cont)
Background The low level of radiation that always exists. Must be Number N = N0e-λt
Radiation taken into account when measuring radiation. of where N0 is the original number of the unstable nuclei
unstable
Sources of • The Air  Radioactive radon gas released from rocks
Nuclei
Background • Ground/Buildings  Nearly all rock contains N = nNA
(N)
Rad. radioactive materials where n is the number of moles and NA is Avogadro's
• Cosmic Radiation  nuclear radiation from particle constant
collisions due to cosmic rays
Half-Life The average time the isotope takes for the number of nuclei
• Living things  living things are made of carbon, some
(T1/2) to halve.
of which is radioactive carbon-14
T1/2 = ln2/λ
• Man-Made  Radiation from industrial/medical sources
(Derived from N = N0e-λt)
Intensity I = k/x2
Intensity (Wm -2) = constant of proportionality Uses of • Carbon Dating  Using the amount of C-14 left in the
(W)/distance from source (m) Radiation organic material. Problems are that the material may have
been contaminated, high background count, uncertainty in c-
Radioactive It both spontaneous and random.
14 in the past and sample size may be too small
Decay
• Medical Diagnosis  Tracers that emit radiation to track
Spontaneous: Decay is not affected by external factors
things in the body
Random: It cannot be predicted when the next decay
Instability Nuclei are unstable when:
occurs
• Too many/not enough neutrons
Decay The probability of a specific nucleus decaying per unit
• Too many nucleons
Constant time. It is a measure of how quickly a isotope will decay.
• Too much energy
Activity (Bq) The number of nuclei that will decay each second.
A = λN If they nuclei lies on the N=Z line they are generally stable. If
where λ is the decay constant, and N is the number of they lie above, they undergo β- decay, if they lie below, the
unstable nuclei in the sample undergo β+ decay. If they have a Z number of over ~82
(Protons) they undergo α decay.
It can also be written as:
Mass The mass of a nucleus is less than the mass of its
Defect constituents. This energy difference is the mass defect and is
ΔN/Δt = -λN
lost to energy as E = mc2, energy and mass are equivalent.
(ΔN is always a decreasing number hence the neg sign)
Binding If you were to pull a nucleus apart, this binding energy would
A = A0e-λt Energy be the energy required to do so, equal to the energy released
when the nucleus formed.
A0 is the activity at t=0

Nuclear (cont) Nuclear (cont)
Average Average Binding energy per nucleon = Binding Nuclear • Control Rods  Usually made of carbon, they are lowered
Binding Energy/Nucleon number Fission and raised to control the rate of fission. The amount of fuel
Energy Reactors required to produce one fission per fission is the critical mass.
Nuclear When large unstable nuclei randomly split into smaller more Any less (sub-critical) then the reaction will eventually fizzle
Fission out. Any more, and the reactor could go into meltdown, which
stable nuclei. Energy is released as the smaller nuclei have a
is why control rods are used.
higher avg. binding energy per nucleon
• Moderator  Fuel rods are placed in the moderator, this
Nuclear When 2 smaller nuclei combine to form a larger nuclei.A lot of
slows down/absorbs neutrons to control the rate. The choice
Fusion energy is released because the new heavier nucleus has a
of moderator needs to slow down the neutrons enough to slow
higher avg. binding energy (if the 2 original nuclei are light
down neutrons enough to keep the rate of fission steady. It
enough). This is the energy that keeps stars burning
slows down neutrons through elastic collisions, a moderator
with a similar nucleon-mass to the neutrons.
• Coolant  is sent around the reactor to remove heat
produced by the fissio. The material is either liquid or gas at
room temp. Often it is the same water (heavy-water) as the
moderator and can be used to make steam and turn turbines.
• Shielding  Reactors are surrounded by thick concrete,
which shields and protects from radiation escaping and
anyone working there.
• Emergency Shut-down  All reactors have an
emergency shutdown where the control rods are completely
lowered into the reactor, thus absorbing all the neutrons
produced and slowing the reaction down as quickly as
possible.
• Waste  Unused uranium only produces α so can be
easily contained. Spent uranium however emit β & γ radiation.
Once removed from the reactor they are cooled and ten stored
in sealed containers until the activity is at a low enough level.

Further Mechanics Further Mechanics (cont)
Radian Objects in circular motion travel through angles, mostly Accelerati Is the gradient of the velocity time graph. Its maximum value
measured in radians. on (a) is ω2A
Rads to Deg:
Angle in deg x π/180 a = ω2x
Angular The angle an object rotates through per second. Mass- A mass on a spring is asimple harmonic oscillator. When
Speed ω = θ/t = v/r = 2π/T = 2πf Spring the mass is pulled/pushed from the equilibrium position, there
Frequency The number of revolutions per second. System is a force directed back towards the equilibrium position.
f = 1/T
F = kΔL where k is the spring constant and ΔL is the
Time The time taken for a complete revolution.
displacement.
Period
Centripetal Objects travelling in a circle are accelerating as their velocity

The Time period for a M-S System is given by:
Acceleratio is changing constantly. The acceleration is always acting
n towards the centre of the circle. T = 2π x sqrt(m/k)
a = v 2/r = ω2r
Pendulum A pendulum is an example of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator.
Centripetal Is the resolved force which is always directed towards the The time period for a pendulum is given by:
Force centre of the circle.
F = mv 2/r = mω 2r T = 2π x sqrt(l/g)
Simple An object undergoing SHM is oscillating to and fro, either Free Free vibrations involve no transfer of energy to/from the
Harmonic side of an equilibrium position. Vibration surroundings. If a mass-spring system is stretched, it will
Motion oscillate at its natural frequency fn.
It is defined as An oscillation in which the acceleration of
Forced Forced Vibration occurs when there is an external driving
an object is directly proportional to its displacement,
Vibration force. A system can be forced to vibrate by a periodic
which is always directed towards the equilibrium
external force. This is called the driving frequency, fd.
position
Displacem Displacement varies as a cosine/sine wave with a maximum fd << fn  Both are in phase
ent (x) value of A (Amplitude) fd >> fn  The oscillator will not be able to keep up and will
end up out of control. i.e. completely out of phase.
x = Acos(ωt)
Velocity Is the gradient of the displacement time graph. Its maximum

(v) value is ωA
v = ±ω x sqrt(A2 x2)
vmax = ωA

Further Mechanics (cont)
Resonance As fd → fn, the system gains more and more energy from
the driving force, thus the amplitude rapidly increases. The
system is now considered to be resonating. At resonance,
the phase difference between the driver and the oscillator is
90°.
Damping Any oscillating system loses energy to its surroundings 

damping. System are also deliberately damped to stop them
oscillating or minimise resonance.
Light Damping  Take a long time for oscillation to stop,

the amplitude is decreased slowly. Displacement-Time
Graph: sharp peak.
Heavy Damping  The amplitude decreases rapidly, and
oscillation takes much less time to stop.Displacement-Time
Graph: flat peak.
Critical Damping  Oscillation is stopped in the shortest
amount of time possible.
Over Damping  Systems with even heavier damping,
they take longer to reach equilibrium than a critically
damped system.


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A-Level Physics Key Terms Cheat Sheet

by 0llieC (0llieC) via cheatography.com/38321/cs/11952/

Mechanics Mechanics (cont)

of the force. 0 Gradient = No accele​ration  constant velocity.

Newtons 3rd If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Mechanics (cont) Mechanics (cont)

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Materials (cont) Materials (cont)

Stress​- Stress (y) against Strain (x).

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Thermal Physics (cont) Thermal Physics (cont)

Pressure At a constant volume: p is directly propor​tional to its absolute

Particles and Radiation

Proton & The 2 Baryons that make up the nucleus of an atom.

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Particles and Radiation (cont) Particles and Radiation (cont)

Dist​ances Baryon A quantum number which is always conserved. Baryons

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Particles and Radiation (cont) Magnetic Fields (cont)

indicating direction) hand • Thumb upwards

Magnetic A region where a force acts, force is exerted on Thumb:Force/Motion

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Magnetic Fields (cont) Magnetic Fields (cont)

Altern​ating Current that's direction changes over time. The voltage

Root Mean Vrms = V0/s​qrt(2)

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Magnetic Fields (cont) Engine​ering

An altern​ating current flowing in the primary coil causes the I = Σmr2

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Engine​ering (cont) Engine​ering (cont)

Flywheels maximused for energy storage are dubbed 1st Law of Q = ΔU + W

Uses Expansion is   and is positive.

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Engine​ering (cont) Engine​ering (cont)

4- Induction Stroke  Only air is drawn.

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Engine​ering (cont) Engine​ering (cont)

Engine Pinp = Calorific Value x Fuel Flow Rate Mech​anical Electr​icity

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Electr​icity (cont) Electr​icity (cont)

For Reference: Copper: 1.68x1​0-8 Ωm Resistance Series: RT = R1 + R 2 + R3 + ...

Newtons The force a body experi​ences due to gravity is dependant on

kWh  J NB The result of this is the magnitude of the force, the

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Gravit​ational Fields (cont) Gravit​ational Fields (cont)

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

EM Radiation and Quantum (cont) EM Radiation and Quantum (cont)

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Waves (cont) Waves (cont)

Second Twice the frequency of the 1st harmonic. With 2 loops, 2

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Waves (cont) Waves (cont)

Coherancy If the waves produce have the same wavele​ngt​h/f​req​uency

Snells n1Si​n(θ1) = n2Si​n(θ2)

Critical The angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction = 90°

Total When all light is completely reflected back into a medium at

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

Waves (cont) Nuclear (cont)

Material Different amounts of dispersion depending on wavele​ngth.

Nuclear Beta Charge​(rel): ±1

Used for: PET Scanners  produced through

By 0llieC (0llieC) Published 3rd June, 2017. Sponsored by ApolloPad.com

of the force. 0 Gradient = No acceleration  constant velocity.

Stress- Stress (y) against Strain (x).

Pressure At a constant volume: p is directly proportional to its absolute

Distances Baryon A quantum number which is always conserved. Baryons

Alternating Current that's direction changes over time. The voltage

Root Mean Vrms = V0/sqrt(2)

Magnetic Fields (cont) Engineering

An alternating current flowing in the primary coil causes the I = Σmr2

Engineering (cont) Engineering (cont)

Engineering (cont) Engineering (cont)

Engineering (cont) Engineering (cont)

Engine Pinp = Calorific Value x Fuel Flow Rate Mechanical Electricity

Electricity (cont) Electricity (cont)

For Reference: Copper: 1.68x10-8 Ωm Resistance Series: RT = R1 + R 2 + R3 + ...

Newtons The force a body experiences due to gravity is dependant on

Gravitational Fields (cont) Gravitational Fields (cont)

Coherancy If the waves produce have the same wavelength/frequency

Snells n1Sin(θ1) = n2Sin(θ2)

Material Different amounts of dispersion depending on wavelength.

Nuclear Beta Charge(rel): ±1

Centripetal Objects travelling in a circle are accelerating as their velocity

Velocity Is the gradient of the displacement time graph. Its maximum

Damping Any oscillating system loses energy to its surroundings 

Light Damping  Take a long time for oscillation to stop,