FINAL EXAM

Study Guide

Students will be tested on the assigned readings, lectures, in-class activities, and materials
presented in class. The Final Exam is cumulative and is worth 100 points total. You
will need a Scantron Form No. 882-ES, 1 blank sheet of paper, and a #2 pencil.

These are some of the concepts and terms that you should be familiar with.

1) Anthropology/ 4 fields
2) Discrete/ Mendelian traits
3) Charles Darwin (Natural Selection)
4) Vitamin D and sunlight
5) Science
6) Evolution
7) Speciation
8) Fixity of the species
9) Reproductively Isolated
10) Fitness
11) Cells of the body/ classes of cells
12) DNA/ RNA
13) Nucleotides
14) Hybrids/Hybridization
15) Chromosomes
16) Primates (apes vs. monkeys, etc.)
17) Sexual Dimorphism
18) Estrus
19) Stone tool technologies (Oldowan, Mousterian, Acheulean Aurignacian, etc.)
20) Hominins/Hominids
21) Homo floresiensis
22) Allen vs. Berman rule(s)
23) Multiregional continuity model, Compete replacement model, Partial replacement
models
24) Rickets and sun exposure
25) Pre-australopiths
26) Australopiths
27) Robust Australopiths
28) Gracile Australopiths
29) Homo habilis/rudolfensis
30) Homo erectus/ergaster
31) Neanderthals; Neanderthal Child/ Half-blood
32) Cro Magnon
33) Upper Paleolithic Humans
34) Homo heidelbergensis
35) Herto
36) BODO

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 37) OMO 1
38) Homo sapiens sapiens
39) The Race concept
40) Acclimatization: Short vs. long term
41) Malaria
42) Deforestation, soil erosion, global warming
43) Polytypic
44) Fat storage vs. obesity; Obesity and diabetes/ Paleolithic diet
45) Skin cancer/ frost bite
46) Anthropocene Age/ Anthropogenic
47) Bipedalism (HALLMARK OF HUMANITY)
48) Paleoindians/Clovis
49) Infanticide
50) MtDNA

Anthropology:
The scientific and humanistic study of human beings, both past and present.
As a discipline, Anthropology is HOLISTIC / interested in the WHOLE of the
human condition (history, biology, society, language, culture, etc.).
Science:
• The activity involved used to seek out reliable explanations for natural
phenomena.
o Scientific Method: A body of techniques used for investigating natural
phenomenon, acquiring new knowledge/ ideas, or integrating previous
ideas.
Evolution:
The gradual change(s) in the genetic structure(s) of a plant or animal population/
or change in a species over time/ the appearance of a new species (very slow and
gradual process).
Fixity of the Species:
The idea/belief that life-forms did not and could not change over time
Charles Darwin:
Naturalist: best known for his concept/idea of Natural Selection
Natural Selection:
“process of evolutionary change based on differential reproductive success (fitness)
of an individual w/in a species.” OR The process by which some organisms, with
features that enable them to adapt to the environment, preferentially survive and
reproduce, thereby increasing the frequency of those features in a population. OR
Genetic changes in the frequencies of certain traits in populations due to differential
reproductive success between individuals.
• Ex. Peppered moths.
• Natural Selection is not progressive- it doesn’t lead to perfect
organisms; traits are selected based on the environment.
Eugenics:
The idea of “race improvement” through the sometimes-forced sterilization of certain
groups or members, and the promotion of reproduction among other groups.

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 o Promoted heavily by Fancis Galton (Darwin’s cousin) who suggested “civilized
society was being weakened by the failure of natural selection to eliminate unfit
and inferior members.”
Francis Galton (1822-1911)
o Argued for government regulations on marriage and family size
o Known for the concept Eugenics, or idea concerning “race” improvement among
“fit” and “less fit” populations.
There are two basic types of cells that make up the human body:
1. Somatic cells:
body tissues, muscles, bones, skin, brain, etc.; all cells not involved in reproduction
(dust mites eat these dead cells)
2. Sex cells or gametes:
cells involved in reproduction/ passing of genetic info. (eggs and sperm).
DNA:
Deoxyribonucleic acid
DNA controls the structure of proteins and is the primary carrier of genetic
(hereditary) information. DNA structure is a double helix or twisted ladder
structure. The sides of the ladder are made up of sugar and phosphate units, while
the rungs of ladder are composed nitrogen bases.
DNA has 4 bases (guanine, cytosine, adenine, and thymine)
RNA:
Single stranded molecule composed of alternating molecules or oxygen and
phosphate. RNA serves as a vital assistant to DNA is protein synthesis.
Chromosomes:
Each species has a specific number of chromosomes.
H. sapiens have 46 chromosomes
Autosomes:
Chromosome pairs: 1-22, contain most all of the genetic information for our
physical characteristics except sex determination (Male or Female).
Sex Chromosomes: are X & Y.
Senescence:
The physiological decline in all systems of the body that often occurs near the end
of life. Senescence is usually associated with aging.

Primate can be classified into two suborders:

1. Strepsirhini
o Ex. Lemurs, Lorises, Galagos
o Strepsirhini are united by three derived features: tooth/dental comb,
grooming claw, and unenclosed orbits/ no postorbital closure.
2. Haplorhini:
o Ex. old and new world monkeys, apes, and tarsiers.
o Includes infraorder
§ 1. Tarsiiformes
• Ex. Tarsiers
§ 2. Anthopoidea
• A. Old world Monkeys

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 • Ex. Baboons
o Dental formula: 2123/2123
o Canine premolar honing complex
B. New World Monkeys
Dental: 2132 or 2133/ 2132 or 2133
C. Apes
Dental: 2123/2123
Y-5 Molar pattern
Canine premolar honing complex
D. Humans
Dental: 2123/2123
Y-5 molar pattern
No canine shearing complex
New World Monkeys:
All ranked under the parvorder: Platyrrhini. All under the superfamily:
Ceboidea. Ex. Howler monkey
o Found geographically: Southern Mexico and Central and South
America
Old World Monkeys:
All under the parvorder: Catarrhini. All under the superfamily:
Cercopithecoidea. Ex. Baboons
o Found geographically: Africa and Asia
Apes
All classified under the superfamily: hominoidea.
o The family Hominidae includes: Great apes (Orangutans, gorillas,
chimpanzees, bonobos), and humans.
Estrus:
The period of sexual receptivity in non-human female mammals that is correlated
with ovulation.
Sexual Dimorphism:
Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same
species (overall body size, canines, muscle mass, or hair color)
Hominins/hominids
• Members of an evolutionary group that include modern humans (homo sapiens
sapiens) and humanlike ancestors (now extinct bipeds)
Hominins and apes
Humans did not evolve from apes, but rather descended from them. Humans at
one time shared a common ancestor with apes (7-8 MYA). After the split, humans
formed one branch of the human evolutionary tree, while apes formed a separate
branch. The “Missing Link” concept is a myth; many branches represent the
human evolutionary tree.
Partial Replacement Model:
The Partial replacement model postulates that modern humans expanded out of
Africa. Interbreeding among modern humans and regional pre-modern
populations was modest, about 1-4%. Partially replaced populations in Europe
(Neanderthals)

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Pre-australopiths
Sahelanthropus tchadensis
o 7-6 MYA
o Possible biped; foramen magnum is intermediate
o IF confirmed as biped; would be the oldest hominin
o Very ape like; large supraorbital brow ridge
o Small sagigtal crest
Australopiths; many different species
Most famous: “Lucy” AL-288-1
• Discovered by: Donald Johanson
• 40% complete
• 3.5-3.7 feet tall
• Reduced canines and molars (larger than modern humans)
• Smaller brain: 380-430cc; about the same size as a modern chimp
• Prognathic face/jaw
Taung Baby
• Analyzed by Raymond Dart
• Taung, South Africa
• Australopithecus  africanus  
• Commonly known as: Gracile australopith
Genus Homo (many different species)
Homo habilis:
A.K.A: the Handy man/human- “skilled human”
Earliest members of the genus homo, 2.4 MYA
Habilis like fossils were also found in Africa, however they exhibited slight
variations of the cranium and post cranial remains. Some researchers refer to
these habilis like fossils as Homo rudolfensis.
Homo erectus:
A.K.A: “upright man/human” - “set upright”
Discovered by: Eugene Dubois; a Dutch anatomist
Originally named: Pithecanthropus erectus by Dubois
Later re-named: homo erectus by Raymond Dart
First of the hominins to have been found outside of Africa; Indonesia.
Other H. erectus specimens have been found in Africa, Asia, Europe, etc.
First to have controlled fire; evidence from Zhoukoudian, China (debatable).
Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis):
Lived during the Pleistocene; VERY cold with periods of glaciations
Very genetically closely related to modern humans; argued as “misfits”
1st Neanderthal remains were found by limestone quarry workers.
Remains originally found were thought to be bones of a cave bear.
Large, more robust individuals; powerful muscles, short torsos, broad
thorax/barrel shaped chests (rib cage); large brains (average 1520cc)
Highly intelligent, based on elaborate stone tool assemblages
Very efficient game hunters (including large game); neck and cranial injuries are
often comparable to “Modern Rodeo Performers” – they were in close contact
with large game animals.

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 First to bury their dead (some were placed in a flexed position).
First to exploit marine resources (based on shell evidence found)
Omo Kibish (OMO 1):
Earliest discovery of Homo sapiens; partial cranium; not complete
Date: 195,000 years ago
Region: Africa; southernmost Ethiopia (Omo Kibish)
Very modern in appearance; presence of a chin
Herto remains:
Announced in 2003
Discovered by Tim White, UC Berkeley
Dates: 160,000-154,000
Region: Africa; Ethiopia
Large cranial capacity: 1,450 cubic centimeters; somewhat heavily built cranium
(looks similar to BODO).
Herto remains are some of the best-dated hominin fossils from this time period
anywhere in the world.
Skhul Cave:
Israel
130,000-100,000 Ya
10 individuals found; 1 of several possible sites where Neanderthals and H.
sapiens interbred.
Cro Magnon:
Discovered: 1868
Date: 28,000 YA
Rock shelter site at Les Eyzies, France
8 individuals were found; Cro Magnon is the most famous
Aurignacian tool assemblage is often associated with Cro Magnon
Hobbits (Homo floresiensis):
Also known as “Hobbits.”
Most famous is “FLO”
Announced in 2004
Found on the island of Flores, east of Java
13 individuals total
Date: 13,000- 18,000 ya (new dates as of March 30, 2016: 60,000-100,000 ya)
Due to their unique morphology (smaller in size), they were classified as a new
species: Homo floresiensis.
Smaller size; may be due to “insular dwarfing” or possible microcephaly (rare
disease; occurs in 1 out of 8,500 births in the United States).
H. floresiensis may possibly represent a late surviving group of H. erectus.
Deforestation:
The clearance/clearing or removal of a forest or group of trees in which the land is
soon after converted to non-forest use, such as farms (agriculture), ranches
(grazing areas), or urban use (housing for Homo sapiens/sapiens).
The destruction of natural resource areas, in particular forests, that are not given
the opportunity to regrow, often leads to extreme soil erosion.

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 Other effects of deforestation include: desertification, flooding, typhoons, global
warming, and extreme soil erosion; land slides.
Global warming:
Refers to an overall rise in the average temperature of the Earth. Increased
production of carbon dioxide and other green house gases such as methane and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s; now outlawed), deforestation, and decreased CARB/
smog regulations also contribute to global warming. Ice cores confirm excess
amounts of carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere.
Acid Oceans
Increased carbon dioxide in oceans; Carbon dioxide, when dissolved in oceans,
forms carbonic acid. Carbonic acid leads to higher levels of acidity, mainly near
the surface. Carbonic acid has been proven to inhibit shell growth in marine
animals (it dissolves their shells), and is suspected to cause reproductive disorders
in some fish (fish are also smaller in body size due to both over fishing and
increase levels of C02). Acid Oceans are often referred to as “the other CO2
problem.
Anthropocene/ Anthropogenic:
Refers to any negative effect caused by humans
Negative effects contribute to the destruction of the planet; global warming

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