Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) as a Biondicator of Copper and

Cadmium Toxicity. A Bioavailability Approach ( January 2017 )

- Maria A. Silvaa, Tatiana C. S. Mottaa , Diogo B. Tintorb, Thiago A. Douradob , Amanda L. Alcântarab,
Amauri A. Menegáriob , José R. Ferreiraa

Cadmium and copper have been intensively investigated through fish bioassays in acute and chronic
exposures.

The contamination of aquatic ecosystems by these metals is a consequence of the rapid population
growth, increased urbanization, expanded agricultural activities and exploitation of natural resources,
threatening the biota in these ecosystems.

Cadmium, a non-essential metal, has been investigated in environmental studies due to its toxicity to
marine species, even when present in low concentrations. Exposure to this chemical element may
disturb the central functions and physiological processes, thus leading to diseases in organisms.
Cadmium exposure may lead to adverse effects on fish growth, reproduction, liver (and other organs)
functions and inhibition of calcium uptake by the gills, causing hypocalcemia, which represents the key
mechanism of toxicity induced by this metal.

Copper is an essential element which plays an important role in cellular metabolism of organisms. When
present in higher concentrations, however, it may become toxic. The effects of copper toxicity in fish
include histopathological alterations in the liver and gills, growth reduction, oxidative stress damage to
hepatic metabolism and inhibition of enzymes activity Na+/K+-ATPase, resulting in Na+ homeostasis
break down. In this context, several experiments have been carried out with tilapia, generally involving
the species Oreochromis niloticus and Oreochromis mossambicus used as indicator organisms in field
surveys.

In view of its easy handling, adaptation to confinement, laboratory maintenance, susceptibility to

various pollutants and economic importance, the species O. niloticus has been widely used in
environmental studies as well as in evaluating the toxicity of contaminants in aquatic ecosystems.

In the present work, the average lethal concentrations estimated (LC50-96h) for CuCl2, CdCl2 and their
combinations in O. niloticus were determined. Emphasis was given to the acute poisoning signs in fish
under stress conditions to these chemicals during experimental exposures. To the best knowledge of the
authors, the combined toxicity of mixed solutions of CuCl2 + CdCl2 to this species was demonstrated for
the first time.

As fish under stress conditions produce metallothioneins (Mts) as a response for essential and non-
essential metals uptake, another objective of this work was to predict concentrations of the investigated
metals in order to assess for the dynamic of Mts formation in O. niloticus at sub-lethal levels inducing its
formation in a given concentration interval. In addition, several aspects related to the fish bioassay
structure and operation were found out. Finally, under the established conditions, the availability of
both metals to fish were simulated by using an aquatic speciation model.

http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0103-50532017000100143

Clinical diagnosis and chemical confirmation of ciguatera fish

poisoning in New South Wales, Australia 2016
- Hazel Farrell, Anthony Zammit, D Tim Harwood, Paul McNabb, Craig Shadbolt, Jennifer Manning,
John A Turahui, Debra J van den Berg, Lisa Szabo

Ciguatera Fish Poisoning is the most commonly recognized foodborne disease caused by the
consumption of fish species that have been bioaccumulated natural toxins through their diets.
Ciguatoxin and related chemical compounds (CTXs) are naturally occurring. The toxins are produced by
marine micro-algal species within the dinoflagellate genus Gambierdiscus. Accumulation of CTXs in the
marine food chain typically result from herbivorous fish grazing on the toxin-producing micro algae,
which are in turn preyed upon by larger carnivorous fish. The toxins are metabolised to more toxic forms
as they move up the food chain.

As with other micro-algal biotoxins, the visual appearance, taste or odours of fish are not affected by the
presence of CTXs. There is no process that will remove CTXs from fish prior to consumption, and cooking
or freezing the fish will not destroy the toxins. Fatalities from CFP are rare. However, documented
symptoms are wide-ranging and a combination of gastrointestinal, neurological and cardiovascular
effects can occur. Regional dif-ferences are apparent in reported CFP outbreaks and specific symptoms
will depend on the portion size and what part of the fish was consumed, along with the age and
wellbeing of the consumer. Gastrointestinal indicators include but are not limited to nausea, vomiting,
diarrhoea and stomach cramps while neurological features associated with CFP can involve tingling and
numbness in fin-gers, toes, around lips, tongue, mouth and throat, burning sensation or skin pain on
contact with cold water, joint and muscle pains with muscular weakness. The most characteristic
neurological symptom of CFP is that of temperature dysesthe-sia, although it is not reported in all cases.
The onset of the illness is usually within 24 hours of exposure and symptoms generally last 1–4 days but
can persist for weeks or months, and in extreme cases years. Symptoms can be exacerbated, or
individuals may suffer a relapse, by drinking alcohol. Such a wide array of symptoms, combined with a
lack of awareness of CFP, contributes to the infrequent reporting of illness. There is considerable overlap
of symptoms with other seafood ill-ness (e.g. diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, paralytic shellfish poisoning
caused by algal biotoxins or histamine contamination), while the chronic effects of CFP have similar
clinical manifestations as chronic fatigue syndrome, brain tumours or multiple sclerosis.
In Australia, the majority of CFP outbreaks have resulted from the consumption of fish caught in
Queensland and the Northern Territory waters, with the majority of documented cases involving
Spanish mackerel. Cases reported from other Australian states have been linked to imported fish from
warm-water tropical regions in Australia or internationally. Prior to the 2014 outbreaks, a CFP outbreak
was linked to 2 Spanish mackerel caught from northern New South Wales waters (Brunswick Heads) in
2002. Investigations into suspected CFP outbreaks in New South Wales by the NSW Food Authority in
2005 and 2009 were linked to fish originating from Fiji and Queensland, respectively (NSW Food
Authority, unpublished data).

https://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/cda-cdi4001-pdf-
cnt.htm/$FILE/cdi4001a.pdf
Ciguatera Fish Poisoning in East Asia and Southeast Asia (JUNE
2015)
- Thomas Y. K. Chan, Orazio Taglialatela-Scafati

Ciguatera is caused by consumption of tropical and subtropical reef fishes that have accumulated
ciguatoxins. CTX precursors are produced by the dinoflagellates Gambierdiscus species. Large predatory
fishes (e.g., moray eels, Spanish mackerels, groupers, barracuda and snappers) account for most of the
reported cases. Although ciguatoxic fishes and large outbreaks are mainly found in discrete regions of
the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean and Caribbean Sea, between the latitudes 35°N and 35°S, the incidence
and geographical distribution of ciguatera are increasing because of increased fish trade and
consumption, international tourism and climate changes. CTX found in the Pacific (P-CTX), Caribbean (C-
CTX) and Indian Ocean (I-CTX) regions differ in toxicity (P-CTX > I-CTX > C-CTX). This reflects the regional
differences in the composition of Gambierdiscus species, which show a >100-fold variation in toxicity.
Ciguatera is characterized by gastrointestinal, neurological, cardiovascular and other features. The
severity and occurrence of symptoms may reflect the amounts and types of CTX involved and ingestion
of CTX-rich fish parts (head, viscera, roe and skin) and concomitant consumption of alcohol may cause
more severe poisoning and prolonged illness.

In the Pacific Ocean region, the changing incidence and geographical distribution of ciguatera are
relatively well defined only in the Pacific Islands and Australia. In the present review, the main objective
is to report the incidence and epidemiology of ciguatera in the coastal countries of East Asia and
Southeast Asia (Figure 1), where there are rich supplies and growing demand for coral reef fishes.

Location [Ref.] Period Sex Age Details

(year)

Philippines

Basilan [31] August 8M11F 26 (4– 4 families, after eating parts of a single barracuda (Sphyraena
1988 61) c jello) f caught in the vicinity of Basilan Island, all 19 subjects
hospitalized, incidence in Isabela (the capital) was 0.4/100,000

Philippines
(cont.) c

1995– 38MF - Data g from Field Epidemiology Training Program and advisories
a
Nationwide? 2004 released by Department of Health
[32]
 [33] 1997– 1MF a - 1 imported case of ciguatera e from the Philippines with
2002 treatment in southern France

Iloilo [34] June 22MF (1–50) 2 families each consumed ~2 kg of red snapper (Lutjanus
a
2010 campechanus) e, all 22 subjects hospitalized

In Philippines, ciguatera occurred in Basilan Province in August 1988, involving 19 subjects from 4
families, after eating a single barracuda Data from 60 foodborne disease outbreaks in 1995–2004 and
health advice released in Department of Health website had been reviewed and 38 ciguatera cases were
identified. A poison center in France reported a case of imported ciguatera from Philippines. In June
2010, 22 subjects from 2 families in Iloilo developed ciguatera after eating red snapper. Not shown in
Table 2 were local news reports cited by Mendoza, et al. there were 2 reports of ciguatera caused by
barracuda in 2001 (50 subjects affected) and 2006 (33 subjects affected) and 4 reports of unknown
types of fish poisoning in 2004–2008.

Discussion:

Ciguatera may cause severe acute illness, including life-threatening bradycardia and hypotension
respiratory failure, coma, neuropsychiatric features and, rarely, death. Many individuals may suffer
prolonged neurological illness, including fatigue, muscle weakness and paresthesia in the 4 limbs. Thus,
ciguatera, particularly its severe form, represents an important public health issue for endemic regions,
with significant socio-economic impact, especially in developing territories. To reduce the impact of
ciguatera worldwide, coordinated strategies to improve risk assessment, risk management and risk
communication are required. The systematic collection of accurate data on the incidence and
epidemiology of ciguatera should enable better assessment and management of its risk. However, in the
Pacific Ocean region, the changing incidence and geographical distribution of ciguatera are relatively
well defined only in the Pacific Islands and Australia.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4483640/
Lethal paralytic shellfish poisoning from consumption of green
mussel broth, Western Samar, Philippines, August 2013
- Paola Katrina Ching,ab Ruth Alma Ramos,ab Vikki Carr de los Reyes, Ma Nemia Sucalditob and
Enrique Tayagba Field Epidemiology Training Program, National Epidemiology Center,
Department of Health, Sta Cruz, Manila, Philippines. Department of Health, Sta Cruz, Manila,
Philippines.

Harmful algal blooms (HAB), commonly referred to as “red tides”, can be caused by many microalgae
such as the proliferation of Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum (Pbc) dinoflagellate. HAB is
predominant in tropical regions including the Philippines, with Pbc dinoflagellate-producing saxitoxin
causing paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). This neurotoxin is water-soluble, acid stable and relatively
heat stable even in high temperature.1 Toxin levels of 120 to 180ug can produce moderate symptoms
while levels of 400 to 1060ug can cause human death.2 Within 5–30 minutes, perioral tingling and
numbness extending to face and neck can occur. Uncoordination, respiratory difficulty and sensorium
alteration are evident in severe cases.3 Death can occur 1–12 hours after ingestion.4 Gastrointestinal
symptoms include vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal cramps.

The Philippines has the highest number of PSP cases reported in Asia5 with 2124 PSP cases and 120
deaths reported from 1983 to 2002. Green mussels (Pernavirides) and other bivalves were implicated
for most cases. The first PSP outbreak was reported in the Western Samar region in 1983, the same
region as this outbreak. The health hazards and socioeconomic impact of this outbreak prompted the
Philippine Government to create the Toxic Red Tide Monitoring Programme in 1984.

Eutrophication, or excessive enrichment of nutrients in the water, can stimulate algal blooms. Increased
phosphorous and nitrogen from sewage and agricultural run-off are conducive for phytoplankton
production. Many Filipinos residing in coastal areas are dependent on bodies of water for their income
and survival. Cambatutay Bay, which surrounds Bahay and Gallego coastal villages in Tarangnan, is the
primary source of the community’s livelihood. It is well known for its green mussel farms and products
like mussel chips, crackers and cookies. Tarangnan comprises 41 villages with a population of 25 703.

In July 2013, the Event-Based Surveillance & Response Unit of the National Epidemiology Center
received a report of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) with two deaths in Gallego village in Tarangnan,
Western Samar. A team from the Department of Health was sent to conduct an outbreak investigation
to identify the implicated source and to evaluate risk factors.

http://ojs.wpro.who.int/ojs/index.php/wpsar/article/view/302/485
- Important points lg to 