MAKERERE UNIVERSITY BUSINESS SCHOOL

MASTERS OF SCIENCE IN LEADERSHIP AND GOVERNANCE

SEMISTER : ONE

YEAR : ONE, ACADEMIC YEAR: 2016/2017

COURSE UNIT : ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR MLG 8621

TOOL : CONCEPTUALIZATION OF ORGANIZATIONAL

CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR

LECTURERS : PROFESSOR MUNENE JOHN

DR. KASEKENDE FRANCIS

GROUP MEMBERS

NAME REGISTERATION STUDENT SIGNATURE

NUMBER NUMBER

SEWANTE LUKE 2016/HD10/3009U 211017092

TUSHABE MONICA 2016/HD10/3010U 209016422

NDIFUNA MUHAMADI 2016/HD10/3006U 216020315

BAIGULANIRA DANIEL 2013/ HD10/2311U 213022145

KIIGE YAHAYA 2014/HD10/458U 21009173

ERIC HALL
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION ONE ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of Opportunity .................................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Explanation of the Best Practices in the Conceptual Frame Work ................................................... 5
SECTION TWO .................................................................................................................................... 7
EXPLANATION OF THE VARIABLES ........................................................................................... 7
2.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 7
2.1 Personality......................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Motivation ......................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.0 Intrinsic motivation ........................................................................................................................ 9
2.2.1 Extrinsic motivation ....................................................................................................................... 9
2.3 Job Satisfaction ................................................................................................................................. 9
2.4 Commitment ................................................................................................................................... 10
2.5 Organizational Citizenship Behaviour ............................................................................................ 10
2.5.0 Conscientiousness ........................................................................................................................ 10
2.5.1 Civic Virtue.................................................................................................................................. 11
2.5.2 Courtesy ....................................................................................................................................... 11
2.5.3 Altruism ....................................................................................................................................... 11
2.5.4 Sportsmanship .............................................................................................................................. 12
SECTION THREE.............................................................................................................................. 13
3.0 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 13
3.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSONALITY AND COMMITMENT ..................................... 13
3.3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JOB SATISFACTION AND ................................................ 17
3.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMITMENT AND OCB ........................................................ 19
SECTION FOUR .................................................................................................................................. 24
4.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 24
4.1 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 24
4.3 CASE STUDY: OASIS UGANDA ................................................................................................ 24
References ............................................................................................................................................. 28

i
 TOOL: CONCEPTUALIZATION OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP

BEHAVIOUR

SECTION ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The write up contains a summary of the book called “Conceptualization of

Organizational Citizenship behaviour ”; written by Dennis W. Organ to explain the

different ways in which Organizational Citizenship Behaviour can be understood and

its dimensions. The book has been summarized into four chapters: chapter one

contains the background of the study, statement of the opportunity, purpose of the

study, the conceptual framework and the description of the conceptual framework.

Chapter two; provides an explanation of the constructs in the conceptual framework

and some terms. Chapter three; examines the relationship between the constructs in

the conceptual framework. Chapter four; presents the conclusion and story within the

context of the topic in Ugandan setting.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The efficiency and effectiveness of organizational performance is determined by both

the formal and informal employee contributions. The formal employee roles are

recognized under the employees’ job description. The informal contributions are not

explicitly stated in the job description of the employee, the individual employee

chooses whether to execute them or not without expecting any formal reward from the

organization. When summed up, these informal contributions lead to efficiency and

effectiveness of both the employee and the organization.

For example, in the case of Oasis Uganda, in the IT skills training Project is a young

man by the name of Jimmy. He was recruited as an IT trainer who had earlier been a

beneficiary of the same project. For exhibiting high performance while a beneficiary,

1
he was recruited as a staff to train the vulnerable youth in IT skills. Jimmy being a

passionate and committed employee was promoted to Project Manager as he had

proved competent for more responsibilities.

Jimmy was social and friendly to every staff, volunteer and beneficiary. He cracked

funny and healthy jokes that made everyone happy hence creating a jolly mood at the

work place. He worked long hours that stretched beyond his working time and this

was because he loved the work that he did. He did this without demanding time off in

lieu or pay for extra working hours. He is a staff that renders a helping hand to fellow

staff even when he has not been asked to help.

As a project manager, he fixed time outside his role to help IT students understand the

concept of IT even when his role did not practically necessitate him to be in class to

teach but rather to manage the project. He did this by creating time on Saturdays to

open the centre for half a day to support and help students with their revision and IT

practical activities. As a result, IT students’ performance improved and in a period of

two years, the number of students getting jobs improved from 10% in 2012 to 70% in

2014. Jimmy’s informal contribution made this happen.

Jimmy was easily approachable, most employees found it easy to ask him for

anything even when they didn’t directly work under him. Many times he helped fix

staff’s computers that were broken or faulty even when OU had technicians in place

to fix such problems. He helped out staffs that were struggling with how best to write

their work reports and those that had little skills on how to use computers. His helping

character won him ‘employee of the year’ an award he did never expected. Staff had

secretly voted for him on this award to show how much they appreciated him.

2
One particular year (February 2014), the Organisation recruited a new Fundraising

and Communications’ officer by the name of Victoria because the former one had

resigned. As a Communications’ and Fundraising Officer, Victoria’s role was to

solicit funding for all the three projects in the three Oasis Uganda Projects namely, IT

skills training, Child Sponsorship and Family Empowerment and resettlement Project.

Her other role was to build networks with other Organizations. She faced a challenge

of coming up to speed with her role. She joined the Organization at a time when the

Organization was concluding its financial year and many deadlines had to meet before

the financial year closed. The OU country Director had oriented her and prepared her

for her new job but shestill lagged behind because job clarity still lacked.

One evening, Jimmy found Victoria on her own in one of the offices working on a

funding proposal but all signs showed she had no idea of what she was working on.

She was expected to use a new computer program called In-Design which she had

never used before for such high professional work. Jimmy showed Victoria how to

write the report using the program. He also offered to help her with learning the

required new programs as long as she created time after work. For a period of two

weeks, Jimmy helped Victoria understand her job and also showed her some of the

best ways of writing funding proposals and donor reports.

After a period of two weeks, Victoria became a confident staff, who was able to write

high quality funding proposal and Donor reports and after three months, she passed

her probation and became a permanent staff. Her report writing skills improved from

20% in February 2014 to 75%in April 2014

3
 As a result of Jimmy’s discretionary behaviour, many staff’s IT skills improved from

20% to 80% as they were able to produce good quality reports using Ms Word and In

–Design programs.

He was also able to build networks with other Organizations hence seizing new

opportunities for OU. An example is when he was able to build a network with a

Kenyan Organization-Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) which as a result

offered to sponsor five senior staff of OU on a Lead On Course in South Africa. This

happened when he had attended a conference on Leadership and seized an opportunity

to collaborate with YALI. It was not part of his job to build networks but as a result,

he was able to secure a funding proposal to sponsor senior staff for a one year

Leadership course in South Africa. As a result of the Leadership course, staffs’

performance efficiency and productivity improved and made them efficient leaders.

Therefore, it is important to note that for employees to exhibit discretionary

behaviour, organisations need to create a condusive environment that enhances

employee motivation and commitment for Organization’s efficiency and

effectiveness.

1.2 Statement of Opportunity

Employee discretionary behaviour can lead to organizational efficiency and

effectiveness. This can be achieved through employee motivation, commitment and

job satisfaction.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to establish the relationship between an employee’s

personality, commitment, motivation, job satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship

Behaviour.

4
1.4 Conceptual Framework
ERSONALITY OCB
 Extrovert  Altruism/helping
 Openness  Courtesy
 Agreeableness  Sportsmanship
 Civic virtue
 Conscientiousness

COMMITMENT
MOTIVATION
 Affective
 Intrinsic  Normative
 Extrinsic
 Continuance

JOB SATISFACTION
 Rewards
 Promotion
 Recognition

1.4 Explanation of the Best Practices in the Conceptual Frame Work

The above framework depicts that Personality leads to commitment, commitment

leads to Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. Motivation leads to commitment and

commitment to Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. Job satisfaction leads to work

commitment and commitment leads to Organizational Citizenship Behaviour.

When the management adopts strategies of creating conducive work environment,

employees are more motivated and committed to perform the acts of Altruism,

Courtesy, Conscientiousness, Sportsmanship and Civic virtue which improve the

organizational effectiveness and efficiency inform of increased productivity and

performance.

5
That is why Jimmy’s help to the staff and to Victoria in particular through helping her

learn how to use important computer programmes, and write professional reports and

good funding proposals is considered key to the effectiveness of the organization. It

first of all directly helped facilitate Victoria work with ease being sure of what she

was doing, and later through her probation period and being able to meet the deadline

of the closure of the financial year. She was able to improve her report writing skills

and the funding proposals she wrote brought in more funds to the Organization.

Jimmy’s helping hand explains why Victoria’s report writing skills improved from

20% in February 2014 to 75% in April 2014, and why also , IT students’ performance

and the number of students getting jobs improved from 10% in 2012 to 70% in 2014.

6
 SECTION TWO
EXPLANATION OF THE VARIABLES
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Section two focuses on explanation of variables including personality, motivation

commitment, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviours.

2.1 Personality
Personality refers to enduring patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour that are not

likely to change over time and explain people’s behaviour across different situations

(Costa & McCrae, 1989; Funder, 2001).

Personality can be best described by the five factor model (FFM) that acts as almost a

universal template with which to understand the structure of personality in the

organizations. The FFM dimensions include; openness to experience (ideas),

agreeableness (compliance, straight forwardness), conscientiousness (order,

dutifulness, competence), Extroversion (warmth, gregarious, activity) and

Neuroticism (Costa & McCrae, 1992)

Personality of openness to experience creates positive association between various

characteristics associated with idea generation and those used to depict openness (for

example, imaginative, original, flexible, unconventional; Feist, (1998). From the case,

openness to experience is seen where jimmy is interested in newness, uniqueness like

opening up new networks for Oasis Uganda with Young African Leadership Initiative

that enabled him to get five positions for senior staff to take on a lead on course in

South Africa.

Personality of agreeableness can be through compliance and straight forwardness

which leads people in organizations to be outspoken, uninhibited, and sometimes

7
 social because these people are generally friendly, good natured, cooperative, helpful,

courteous, and flexible (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Witt et al., 2002).

According to Barrick, et al. (2005) argued that extraversion is key determinant of

social behavior. People who are high in extraversion are generally sociable, assertive,

active, bold, energetic, adventuresome, and expressive (Goldberg, 1992). Thus, those

who are highly extraverted display more flexible behaviors and make them more

likely to show discretionary behaviors. Form the case this can be seen where Jimmy

mood is positive towards helping.

Individuals who are neat, punctual, careful, self disciplined and reliable at work

(Conscientious) also could also be predisposed to develop behaviors which extend

beyond the expected task performance behaviors. For example jimmy was

conscientious in Oasis Uganda that’s coming on weekends to train IT students out of

his initiative.

2.2 Motivation
Motivation can best be defined as ‘an internal state that induces a person to engage in

particular behaviours’ (Spector, 2003). Motivation seeks to answer the question why

people behave as they do. It also focuses on what energizes and directs the behavior

of people in organisations.

According to Freud (1914) says that behaviour is motivated by a drive and thus noted

that sex and aggression are two important drives. And Maslow’s motivation is built on

needs which he distinguished into five: physiological needs, safety needs, love needs,

esteem needs, the need for self-actualization and physiological need (Maslow, 1943).

Motivation can be intrinsic and extrinsic.

8
2.2.0 Intrinsic motivation
A person is motivated to perform well because of some subjective rewards or feelings

that he expects to receive or experience as a result of performing well.’ Therefore an

individual performs well in his or her job to satisfy the higher order needs, which will

ultimately lead to intrinsic motivation.

2.2.1 Extrinsic motivation

A mabile et al. (1994), defines extrinsic motivation as ‘the incentive to work primarily

in response to something apart from the work itself, such as reward or recognition or

the dictates of other people’. Thus an activity is performed to attain a certain outcome.

For example, when someone is performing his job for money (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

2.3 Job Satisfaction

Locke (1976), defines job satisfaction as "a pleasurable or positive emotional state

resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences." Hulin and Judge (2003)

argue that job satisfaction is best to be classified into cognitive and affective forms of

satisfaction, with cognitive being the more thoughtful and logical type of appreciation

of work experiences, and affective satisfaction being more influenced by a person’s

emotional responses to the environment. And Staw et. al. (1986) found that job

satisfaction is to some extent an individual trait.

Spector (1997) lists 14 common facets of job satisfaction: Appreciation,

Communication, Coworkers, Fringe benefits, Job conditions, Nature of the work,

Organization, Personal growth, Policies and procedures, Promotion opportunities,

Recognition, Security, and Supervision. That means that how a manager controls each

of these facets determines the level of job satisfaction in the employees.

9
2.4 Commitment
Beckeri, Randal, and Riegel (1995) looked at commitment in a three dimensions. That

is a strong desire to remain a member of a particular organization, a willingness to

exert high levels of efforts on behalf of the organization and a strong belief in and

acceptability of the values and goals of the organization.

According to (John Meyer and Natalie, 1991), commitment can be explained using a

three component model of commitment. The three components are having affection

for your job (affective commitment), Fear of Loss of one’s job (continuance

commitment), and Sense of obligation to stay (normative commitment).

2.5 Organizational Citizenship Behaviour

Originally, Organ (1988) defined organizational citizenship behaviour as any acts that

are discretionary and not explicitly or directly recognized by the formal system of

performance management that tends to enhance the functioning and performance of

the organization. More recently, however, Organ (1997) reviewd this definition,

conceptualizing organizational citizenship behaviour as any form of performance that

supports the social or psychological environment in which the work tasks are

embedded a definition that more closely corresponds to contextual performance, as

defined by Borman and Motowidlo (1993, 1997).

2.5.0 Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness consists of behaviors that go well beyond the minimum role

requirements of the organization (Law, Wong, & Chen, 2005). These behaviors

indicate that employees accept and adhere to the rules, regulations, and procedures of

the organization.

10
2.5.1 Civic Virtue
Civic virtue is characterized by behaviors that indicate the employee’s deep concerns

and active interest in the life of the organization (Law et al., 2005). This dimension

also encompasses positive involvement in the concerns of the organization (Organ et

al., 2006). Examples of civic virtue can be seen in daily affairs such as attending

meetings and keeping up with what is going on with the organization in general. Civic

virtue can also be demonstrated on a larger scale by defending the organization’s

policies and practices when they are challenged by an outside source.

2.5.2 Courtesy
Courtesy has been defined as discretionary behaviors that aim at preventing work-

related conflicts with others (Law et al., 2005). This dimension is a form of helping

behavior, but one that works to prevent problems from arising. It also includes the

word’s literal definition of being polite and considerate of others (Organ et al., 2006).

Examples of courteous behaviors are asking fellow employees if they would like a

cup of coffee while you are getting one for yourself, making extra copies of the

meeting agenda for your teammates, and giving a colleague ample notice when you

alter something that will affect them.

2.5.3 Altruism
Is defined by discretionary behaviors that have the effect of helping a specific work

colleague with an organizationally relevant task or problem. Helping behaviour has

been identified as an important form of citizenship behaviour by virtually everyone

who has worked in this area (Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996; Williams & Anderson,

1991). Conceptually, helping behaviour involves voluntarily helping others with, or

preventing the occurrence of, work-related problems.

11
2.5.4 Sportsmanship
Sportsmanship has been defined as willingness on the part of the employee that

signifies the employee’s tolerance of less-than-ideal organizational circumstances

without complaining and blowing problems out of proportion. Organ et al. (2006)

further define sportsmanship as an employee’s “ability to roll with the punches” even

if they do not like or agree with the changes that are occurring within the

organization.

12
 SECTION THREE
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Section three focuses on relationship of the variables including personality, motivation,

commitment, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviours.

3.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSONALITY AND COMMITMENT

At Oasis Uganda, we see Jimmy a vibrant employee full of energy, and friendly to

every staff. He is found to cracking funny jokes that make everyone happy and this

creates a jolly mood at the work place. And thus this has made Jimmy to be more

attached and identified to Oasis Uganda through working long hours simply because

he loves the work that he does. Jimmy is found of identifying networks for company,

working on weekends and thus this has influenced his emotional attachment and

devotion to the organization (Meyer-Irving-Allen 1998).

Agreeableness and Affective Commitment

People with pleasing characters in organizations are very accommodating, trustful,

generous, tolerant, and compassionate. People high in this trait are always helpful and

ready to resolve issues by creating a win-win situation. Such people therefore develop

a strong attachment to their organizations. Bambacas, (2000).

For example in the case Jimmy’s attachment to Oasis Uganda developed over time as

a beneficiary of OU, his recruitment as the IT project manager. Jimmy is

accommodative, passionate and trustful employee. And this explains his promotions

after two years as IT trainer simply because of his competence in more

responsibilities.

13
Openness to Experience and Affective Commitment

People who are open minded are highly imaginative, have creative intellect; sensitive

to inner thoughts; have the capability to analyze matters differently, exhibit

intellectual curiosity, art, knowledge, independent-minded, have a preference for

innovation and diversity, curious to know hidden things and deductive from different

angles (Howard & Howard, 1995; Cattell & Mead, 2008; Mount, et al., 2005; McCrae

& John, 1992).

As a result such people develop the sense of attachment to their organizations are

feel they should continue with their organizations in order to achieve their creative

ideas created along their journey with organizations.

As a result Jimmy’s open mindedness and attachment to Oasis Uganda right from

being a student of the organization to an employ. His other striking behaviour is

about trying to build networks and looking out for new opportunities for Oasis

Uganda. In conferences or workshops, Jimmy always stands out as active in all group

activities. He goes ahead to build networks with other Organizations like Young

African Leaders Initiative (YALI) as we see in the case.

Conscientiousness and Normative Commitment

In Oasis Uganda we see Jimmy being organized, thoughtful and forward thinking.

Conscientious employees like jimmy are, orderly, dependable, graceful, show self-

discipline, acts dutifully and responsible. This has motivated him to continue his

employment at Oasis Uganda simply because the personality has highly influenced

his career success in the organization that’s why jimmy feel its right to serve Oasis

Uganda through internalizing its vision, goals , objectives, principles, values and its

14
mission (Meyer et al.,1993), and made him exceed his formal employment

description.

Openness to Experience and Continuance Commitment

Jimmy’s open mindedness made him identify gaps at Oasis Uganda for example,

fixing time outside his role to help IT students understand the concept of IT even

when his role did not practically necessitate him to be in class to teach but rather to

manage the project, setting time on Saturdays to open the centre for half a day and be

there to support and help students with their revision and IT practical activities, these

necessitated Jimmy’s continuance commitment to stay at the organisation as he was

aware of the risks, need with leaving. (Meyer et al, 1993). As a result of Jimmy’s

open mindedness and continued support in (IT) section, students’ performance

improved and in a period of two years and the number of students getting jobs

improved from 10% in 2012 to 70% in 2014.

Agreeableness and Normative Commitment

Jimmy’s generosity, tolerance and compassion while at Oasis Uganda, made him one

of the best employees at the organization and made him feel for requirement to

continue with his employment. For example Jimmy’s offer to helping Victoria on how

to write funding proposals and how to use the computer program of ON -

design on which she had no idea, helped Victoria to became a confident staff, who

was able to write high quality funding proposals and Donor reports and after three

months, she passed her probation period and became a permanent staff. Her report

writing skills improved from 20% in February 2014 to 75% in April 2014. Therefore

this accounts for Jimmy’s sense of requirement to continue with the employment at

Oasis Uganda.

15
 Conscientiousness and Continuance Commitment

Jimmy’s abilities in terms forward-thinking and thought fullness, led to his self-

discipline, dependable, and cautious about Oasis Uganda activities and thus his

consciousness to stay at organization. Jimmy was forward thinking in terms of

identifying gaps at place of work especially the network connections with Kenyan

company of Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) which as a result offered to

sponsor five senior staff of Oasis Uganda on a Lead on Course in South Africa.

Dependable in the way that all the IT trainees started depending on Jimmy because he

had offered his Saturday for this, and the company’s move to recognise Jimmy as the

best employee for three years him love his job and engage in discretionary behaviours

and continue serve Oasis Uganda.

3.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MOTIVATION AND COMMITMENT

Employee motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort towards

organisational goals, conditioned by the ability to satisfy ones individual need and

those of the organisation. Self motivated employees like jimmy strive hard to

understand the unsatisfied needs of each of the employees and those of the

organisation and get identified and attached to those needs.

In Oasis Uganda, Jimmy’s self and organisational inspirations, encouraged him to feel

part of the Company and necessitated him to offer extra work towards the company

like helping colleagues and identification of networks for the company,

Jimmy’s intrinsic motivation and affective commitment can be seen when He decided

to set time on Saturdays to open the centre for half a day and be there to support and

help students with their revision and IT practical activities. This was not part of his

16
 job description this happened because of the strong attachment jimmy had developed

and necessitated him to feel part of the organisation.

Jimmy’s intrinsic motivation and normative commitment is described in the case

where he fixed time outside his role to help IT students understand the concept of IT

even when his role does not practically necessitate him to be in class to teach but

rather to manage the project. This is because jimmy had absorbed the company’s

goals and objectives and thus had the zeal to see OU flourish.

Jimmy’s extrinsic motivation and continuance commitment can be seen in the case

where he feels stimulated to extend his job roles outside the organisation and open up

organisational networks with other organizations like YALI. This was a move to

ensure the continued existence of OU.

Jimmy’s extrinsic motivation and affective commitment can be traced in the case

where jimmy was recognised time and again as the employee for the year, was

promoted to the position of Project Manager as he had proved competent for more

responsibilities. This therefore necessitated him be more attached and identified w.th

OU.

3.3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JOB SATISFACTION AND

COMMITMENT
Affective Commitment and Job Satisfaction

Meyer (1991) defines affective commitment as the employee’s positive emotional

attachment to the organization. Therefore it is about how much the employee wants to

be a part of the organization, so it has to do with the powerful emotion of desire.

Higgins’s ideas about the employee’s wants of job satisfaction lead directly to

Meyer’s ideas about affective commitment because affective commitment is a

17
measurement of employee desire, and Higgins’s theory of job satisfaction deals with

how to use desire to increase job satisfaction.

In the case of Jimmy at Oasis Uganda, Jimmy shows high levels of affective

commitment because of the recognitions jimmy gets form Oasis Uganda. For example

being recognized as an employee for the year improved his love for the job, and is

enthusiastic about his work.

Continuance Commitment and Job Satisfaction

Becker (1960) defines continuance commitment as the employee’s evaluation of what

he or she gains or losses from working at the organization. In other words, the

continuance commitment is a measure of how much the employee needs the job.

Jimmy’s job satisfaction is complement to Becker’s continuance commitment in

several ways. Before an individual can make side-bets about what they could possible

gain from the decision to stay or leave a company, the person first has to assess what

their current employer is offering them.

Jimmy’s job satisfaction can be seen in the case where he offers his weekends to teach

IT students the IT skills on every Saturdays. This scenario creates a high level of job

satisfaction, which directly increases continuance commitment within Jimmy. In other

words, staying with the company and being committed is highly beneficial to him.

Likewise, it’s not likely that if he left, he would be able to find a company that gives

him a better opportunity. Therefore, there is a wide difference between what he sits to

gain from staying versus what he has to gain from leaving, and leaving may cause him

a great loss. All of these factors and increase in job satisfaction and commitment

increased Jimmy’s willingness to commit OCBs.

18
 Normative Commitment and Job Satisfaction

Weiner (1982) defines normative commitment as a measure of an employee’s feelings

of loyalty or moral obligation to the company. Often times, levels of normative

commitment are created and strengthened early in the employee’s socialization

period.

In the case of Jimmy at Oasis Uganda, the rewards of the company are based on fair

and equity in its treatment of employees. OU hires and recruits based on the specific

needs of the job at hand. This explains the way how Jimmy was recruited based on an

equal chance based on their merit.

For Jimmy, he was an outstanding performer, and he was fairly and transparently

rewarded and promoted right from being a beneficiary of the program, to project

manager. Not only does this satisfy him, but it motivates the other employees as well.

Victoria is an example of an indirect beneficiary of OU’s equitable treatment of

Jimmy. So, the equitable treatment by OU towards its employees creates high levels

of job satisfaction for everyone, which leads to increased levels of loyalty and

normative commitment. In the end, we can see that because of these factors, OU has

above average levels of OCB.

3.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMITMENT AND OCB

Employees that identify themselves with their companies, reflects their acceptance to

embrace or the characteristics of that organization. Thus commitment is the power of

an individual to identify with and commit to a specific organization. As a result this

drives such employees to carry out discretionary behaviors because of the binding or

bonding of an individual to an organization (Mathieu-Zajac1990: 171). In the case of

Oasis Uganda, Jimmy identified with this company simply because He was a

19
beneficiary or student, and then an employee appointed because of his great

performance this therefore stimulated his discretionary behaviors.

Affective Commitment and Altruism

In the case study of OU, Jimmy has a strong emotional attachment which has made

him remain at the organisation and this has made him to offer a helping hand to

fellow at Oasis Uganda and this in aggregate led to effectiveness and efficiency of the

company. For example in the case we see jimmy continuously helping colleagues at

different occasions like He sets time on Saturdays to open the centre for half a day

and be there to help students with their revision and IT practical activities. As a result,

IT students’ performance improved and in a period of two years, the number of

students getting jobs improved from 10% in 2012 to 70% in 2014.

Affective Commitment and Courtesy

Jimmy’s continuous affection, and feelings of attachment to the organization, is

associated with his forward-looking behaviors displayed while assisting his

colleagues and safe guarding them from problems through being polite and

considerate. For example consider Jimmy’s affection and help towards Victoria who

had no idea of writing funding proposals and Using IN- design computer program,

helped Victoria to perfect her job requirements and became confirmed as a permanent

staff at Oasis Uganda.

Affective Commitment and Sportsmanship

Employees get identified and attached to the organizations depending on the work

experience they have with their organizations. This however drives them to

willingness to offer discretionary behaviors with no any arguments or request for any

reward. From the case we see jimmy working for long hours that stretch beyond his

20
working time and this is because he loves the work that he does and the strong

attachment that he has right from being a beneficiary as a student, recruited as the

staff member and being promoted to different positions at Oasis Uganda.

Affective Commitment and Civic Virtue

The organisation’s structures that are supportive in nature drive individuals to offer

support to the development of the organization and enhance employees’ identification

with companies. Oasis Uganda’s structure, stimulated jimmy efforts toward

innovations that improved the company in many areas. For example his efforts to

offer his Saturdays to support and help students with their revision and IT practical

activities, improved IT students’ performance and in a period of two years, the

number of students getting jobs had raised from 10% in 2012 to 70% in 2014, also

jimmy’s help to Victoria her Manager in proposal writing, made her knowledgeable

and improved to making high quality proposals and Donor reports and after two

weeks Victoria’s confidence at work had improved because of the efforts by jimmy

who rendered to teach her the basics of her job and As a result, Victoria passed her

probation period and thus became a permanent employee.

Relationship Between Normative Commitment And Altruism

Employees develop a sense of belonging as they continue to work in organizations.

Normative commitment therefore is the need developed by the employee for continue

with employment. (Meyer et al.,1993). Employees with elevated level of normative

commitment believe that they have to remain in the organization or job as they feel it

is right Normative commitment is the level to which a person is psychologically

associated with the organization through internalization of its vision, goals,

objectives, principles, values and missions. From the case therefore, Oasis being one

21
the humanitarian organisation, providing free service, this inspired Jimmy to offer

voluntary assistance through helping.

Normative Commitment and Conscientiousness

Employees, who are dependable, self-disciplined, cautious, forward-thinking, develop

a high response to social (Meyer et.al. 2002). From the case, Jimmy dedicated a high

feeling of obligation as a student at Oasis Uganda through his excellent performance

and as an employee Jimmy maintained his abilities of hard work, and above all

offered discretionary behaviors simply because he was dependable by his colleagues,

compliant with the organization’s mission, vision this made him remain in the

organization (Meyer-Irving-Allen 1998). Therefore employees get attached to

organizations because they believe that they have a reason to as Jimmy did at Oasis

Uganda (Noor-Noor 2006).

Normative Commitment and Sportsmanship

Employees with high organizational commitment like their job and want to continue

working because they are satisfied. Organizations should provide organizational

commitment and Organizational Citizenship Beheviours for employers’ satisfaction,

productivity and continuity. This is very important for both organizations and

employees. This can be seen in the case where Jimmy’s discretionary behaviors in

Oasis Uganda did not neither benefit him alone, nor thus the other employees but the

organization at large.

Continuance Commitment and Altruism

Employees with a high level of continuance commitment stay with the organization as

they are aware of the need, risks, sacrifices, and low options associated with leaving.

From the case we can see that Jimmy had elevated his desire to stay Oasis Uganda.

22
This is because after being a beneficiary as a student, this did not stop him from

continuing with the organization. Jimmy had already adapted to the organization’s

culture, needs and also had a reason to continuing serve Oasis Uganda. Therefore it’s

a result of such adaptation that jimmy was able to display the extra-role outside his

formal job description that’s helping fellow staff even when he has not been asked to

help, fixing time outside his role to help IT students understand the concept of IT even

when his role does not practically necessitate him to be in class to teach but rather to

manage the project. Therefore Jimmy’s familiarity led him offer a helping hand.

Continuance Commitment and Sportsmanship

From the case, jimmy’s attachment, identification and continued interest in Oasis

Uganda can be seen right from his recruitment as a staff to train the vulnerable youth

in IT skills, his award as a passionate and committed employee and after two years as

IT trainer. Jimmy’s promotion to the level of Project Manager after he had proved

competent for more responsibilities. Thus made jimmy exhibit discretionary

behaviours that’s helping his Manager Victoria on IN-design computer skills, also

training IT students out of his imitative and opening up new networks for Oasis

Uganda. Jimmy did all these with a lot of tolerance and without any complaining.

23
 SECTION FOUR
4.0 INTRODUCTION
This section focuses on the conclusion of the study and the story within the context of

the topic in Ugandan setting.

4.1 CONCLUSION
For an organization to prosper there is need for employee’s creativity and innovativeness

that drive them to engage in discretionary behaviours. It also calls for a condusive

organisational environment that will enhance employee identification and attachment to

the organisation through different avenues like promotions, recognitions and rewards.

This will eventually lead to organisational effectiveness and efficiency.

4.3 CASE STUDY: OASIS UGANDA

Oasis Uganda is a Christian non- profit Organization that was founded in October

2000. The vision of Oasis Uganda states “Our vision is for community, a place where

everyone is included, making a contribution and reaching their God given potential.”

Oasis Uganda is well situated on the outskirts of Kyebando - Kawempe division

which location provides a conducive environment. It is noise free, easily accessible by

staff, beneficiaries and visitors.

Oasis Uganda is situated in three districts namely Kampala, Pader and Mbale with the

headquarters in Kampala. All the three districts run the same projects which include;-

1. IT training

2. Education sponsorship

3. Family empowerment and resettlement.

Oasis Uganda has been appreciated for its humanitarian work towards community

development more achievements in the IT skills training project. It has also been

24
appreciated for recruiting and employing young talented youth and helping them to

realise their potential. Oasis Uganda is that one Organisation that does not recruit staff

basing on their academic excellence but rather their chemistry with the vulnerable,

character of dealing with people and the confidence in handling tasks. The Organization

also plans small but meaningful events which bring people together and appreciate their

contribution and work more. Events include in-house skills trainings to develop staff,

staff parties and retreats which enable staff to socialise, celebrate success and share their

challenges. OU also fully equips staff with equipment such computers to smoothen and

ease their work.

In the IT skills training Project is a young man by the name of Jimmy. He was recruited

as an IT trainer who had earlier been a beneficiary of the same project. For exhibiting

high performance when a beneficiary, he was recruited as a staff to train the vulnerable

youth in IT skills. Jimmy is a passionate and committed employee and after two years as

IT trainer, he was promoted to the level of Project Manager as he had proved competent

for more responsibilities.

Jimmy is vibrant and full of energy, friendly to every staff, volunteer and beneficiary. He

has been found to crack funny jokes that make everyone happy and this creates a jolly

mood at the work place. He has been seen to work long hours that stretch beyond his

working time and this is because he loves the work that he does and the fact that he was

promoted to the level of project manager in the field that he is passionate about. He has

been able to do this without demanding time off in lieu or pay for extra working hours.

Jimmy is one person that renders a helping hand to fellow staff even when he has not

been asked to help.

25
As a project manager, he has fixed time outside his role to help IT students understand the

concept of IT even when his role does not practically necessitate him to be in class to

teach but rather to manage the project. He sets time on Saturdays to open the centre for

half a day and be there to support and help students with their revision and IT practical

activities. Having been in the same position as those vulnerable students, he imagined

them in a better tomorrow and finding hope just as he did when he was a beneficiary of

the IT project of Oasis Uganda. As a result, IT students’ performance improved and in a

period of two years, the number of students getting jobs improved from 10% in 2012 to

70% in 2014. Jimmy’s informal contribution made this happen.

Jimmy is an easily approachable person, most employees find it easy to ask him for

anything even when they don’t directly work with him. If one’s computer is faulty or

broken, they will run to Jimmy and he is always available to help. If one is stuck with

writing a report or is stranded doing their work, Jimmy will help sort that out. Jimmy’s

character won him a reward from Oasis Uganda staff. He was voted for by 95% of staff as

‘employee of the year’ for two years in a row (2012-2013 and 2013-2014). This

motivated him to work even harder and even learn many new things on his own. He did

this by taking online courses which enabled him advance his knowledge in IT related

ideas.

One particular year (February 2014), the Organisation recruited a new Fundraising and

Communications’ officer by the name of Victoria because the former one had resigned.

As a Communications’ and Fundraising Officer, Victoria’s role is to solicit funding for all

the three projects in the three Oasis Uganda Projects namely, IT skills training, Child

Sponsorship and Family Empowerment and resettlement. Her other role is to also build

networks with other Organizations .she is faced with a challenge of coming up to speed

with her role. She joined the Organization at a time when the Organization was

26
concluding its financial year and many deadlines had to met before the financial year

closed. The OU country Director had oriented her and prepared her for her new job but

she somehow still lagged behind because job clarity still lacked.

One evening, Jimmy finds Victoria on her own in one of the offices working on a funding

proposal but all signs showed she had no idea of what she was working on. She was

expected to use a new computer program called In-Design which she had never used

before for such high professional work. Jimmy shows Victoria how to write the report

using the program. He also offers to always help her with learning the required new

programs as long as she created time after work. For a period of two weeks, Jimmy helps

Victoria understand her job and some of the best ways of writing funding proposals and

donor reports.

After two weeks, Victoria becomes a confident staff, who writes high quality funding

proposal and Donor reports and after three months, she passed her probation and became

a permanent staff.

As a result of Jimmy’s discretionary behaviour, many staff’s IT skills improved from

30% to 80% as they were able to produce good quality reports using Ms Word and In –

Design programs.

The other striking behaviour is about Jimmy always trying to build networks and looking

out for new opportunities for OU. In conferences or workshops, he aims at creating

networks and through this he was able to build a network with a Kenyan Organization

Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI). As a result five senior staff of OU were offered

a sponsorship on a Lead On Course in South Africa. It was not part of his job to build

networks but as a result, he was able to secure a funding proposal to sponsor senior staff

for a Leadership course which in the long run enhanced their performance and

productivity and made them efficient leaders.

27
References
Becker, H.S. (1960). “Notes on the concept of Commitment”. American Journal of
Sociology. 66:32.

Higgins, E.T. (1999b). “When do self-discrepencies have specific relations to emotions? The
second-generation questions of Tangney, Niedenthal, Covert, and Barlow (1998)”.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 77(6):1313-1317.

Hulin, C.L., & Judge, T.A. (2003). Job attitudes. In W.C. Borman, D.R. Ligen, & R.J.
Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of psychoology: Industrial and organizatinal psychology
(pp. 255-276). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Huseman, R.; Hatfield, J.; Miles, E. (1987). “A New Perspective on Equity Theory: The
Equity Sensitivity Construct”. Academy of Management Review. 12(2):232-234.

Locke, E.A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M.D. Dunnette (Ed.),
Handbood of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1297-1394) Chicago: Rand
McNally.

Meyer, J.P.; Allen, N.J. (1991). “A three component conceptualization of organizational

commitment”. Human Resource Management Review. 1:61.

Spector, P.E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment,causes and consequences.

Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE

Staw, B.M.; Bell, N.E.; Clausen, J.A. (1986). “The dispositional approach to job attitudes: A
lifetime longitudinal test”. Administrative Science Quarterly. 31(1):56-77.

Wiener, Y. (1982). “Commitment in Organizations: A Normative View”. Academy of

Management Review. 7(3):418.

Hartmann L C and Bambacas M (2000), “Organizational Commitment: A MultiMethod Scale

Analysis and Test of Effects”, Journal of Organizational Analysis, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 89-
108.

Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1989). NEO-PI Professional Manual. Odessa,

FL:Psychological Assessment Resources.

Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). NEO PI-RProfessional Manual. Odessa,

FL:Psychological Assessment Resources.

28
Meyer J P, Allen N J and Smith C A (1993), “Commitment to Organizations and
Occupations: Extension and Test of a Three-Component Conceptualization”, Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 78, No. 4, pp. 538-551.

Meyer, John P. – Irving, Gregory P. – Allen, Natalie J. (1998) Examination of the Combined
Effects of Work Values and Early Work Experiences on Organizational Commitment,
Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 19, no. 1, January, pp.29–52.

Mathieu, Joron E. - Zajac, Dennis. M. (1990). A Review and Meta-Analysis of the

Antecedents, Correlates, and Consequences of Organizational Commitment,
Psychological Bulletin, vol. 108, no. 2, pp. 171–194.

Noor, Harun A. K. – Noor, Hasrul N. M. (2006). Evaluating The Psychometric Properties Of

Allen And Meyer’s Organizational Commitment Scale: A Cross Cultural Application
Among Malaysian Academic Librarians”, Malaysian Journal of Library & Information
Science, vol. 11, no. 1, July, pp. 89–101.

29