TITLE PAGE

KWARA STATE POLYTECHNIC, ILORIN

INSTITUTE OF TECHOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

A PROJECT PROPOSAL ON
GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

BY
GROUP A

PROJECT SUPERVISOR
ENGR. YUSUF
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ........................................................................................................................................ 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER ONE.................................................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................... 3
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM........................................................................................................ 3
SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY ............................................................................................... 4
METHOD ............................................................................................................................................... 4
EXPECTED OUTPUT ............................................................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER TWO................................................................................................................................... 5
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................................ 5
SOIL ....................................................................................................................................................... 5
SOIL FORMATION AND GENESIS...................................................................................................... 5
TYPES OF SOIL..................................................................................................................................... 7
SOIL CLASSIFICATION ....................................................................................................................... 8
Apparatus for Hydrometer Analysis......................................................................................................... 9
SOIL MECHANICS................................................................................................................................ 9
GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL ......................................................................................... 10
ROLE OF SOIL IN CIVIL ENGINEERING ......................................................................................... 15
ROLE OF GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL ON CIVIL....................................................... 15
CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................... 16
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................... 17

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Soil is the material found on the surface of the earth that is composed of organic and
inorganic material. Soil varies due to its structure and composition. This soil is useful in
construction purpose which is known as engineering soil, it is use in construction of shallow and
deep foundation in which load of structures are transmitted to without failing in shear, it is also
useful for construction of embankment of sub-grade and sub-base in road construction.
Examples are Clay and Laterites. This soil have different meanings, depending upon the field in
which it is considered. To a geologist, it is the material in the relative thin zone of the Earth's
surface within which roots occur, and which are formed as the products of past surface
processes. The rest of the crust is grouped under the term "rock".

To a pedologist, it is the substance existing on the surface, which supports plant life.

To an engineer, it is a material that can be: built on: foundations of buildings, bridges, built in:
basements, culverts, tunnels, built with: embankments, roads, dams supported: retaining walls,
construction materials used in construction

Thus, geotechnical is a branch in engineering; civil engineering to be precise which deals

with soil and rock behaviour in engineering perspective. Geotechnical engineering is important
in civil engineering, but also has applications in military, mining, petroleum and other
engineering disciplines that are concerned with construction occurring on the surface or within
the ground. Geotechnical engineering uses principles of soil mechanics to investigate the
properties of soil so as to determine the relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of
soil; all these properties will be taken into consideration during the construction.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Defining properties and conditions that influence the sitting, design and performance of a
project, geotechnical properties of the soil of the concern location of the project must be
determine to assure the stability of the project. \

SAMPLING

Three soil samples will be taken from three different locations to carry out this study.

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SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

Geotechnical properties of soil such as its grain size distribution, plasticity,

compressibility and shear strength will be assessed by proper laboratory test.

A soil is composed primarily of minerals which are produced from parent material that is
weathered or broken into small pieces. Soils are characterised by their physical, chemical and
biological properties. In addition, soils are good materials used in engineering projects. Soil
foundation, use of soil in constructions and industrial applications is another dimension of soils.
The ultimate aim of this study is to know about the engineering properties of soils and their
significances.

Also this project will assess enough information on the soils so as to select the most
appropriate foundation solution and also to outline problems that could arise during construction
and on a more general scale, to highlight potential geological hazards in the examined area as
well as to:

 Evaluate the load bearing capacity of the soil.

 Determine location of bedrock.

 Determine and design the type and depth of foundation for a given structure.

 Prepare a geotechnical investigation report for the proposed building which will
include; a summary of field investigation results and observations, laboratory test
results, boreholes location plan and geotechnical engineering recommendations for
the design and construction of the project.

METHOD

The geotechnical properties of the soils will be determined using laboratory testing. The
laboratory soil testing will be used to estimate all the possible properties that the soils may
contain.

EXPECTED OUTPUT

The geotechnical investigation that will be carried out on the soil samples is expected to
give all the necessary details and properties considering the soil.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

SOIL

Soil make up the top layer of the earths’ crust from orders of meters to tens of meters and
exceptionally even to hundreds of meters in some place. The remaining part of the earths’ crust
is made up of rocks with thickness of about 25-50km.The earths’ surface is not constant, huge
changes are going on with time.

Soil can be defined as the solid material on the Earth’s surface that results from the interaction of
weathering and biological activity on the parent material or underlying hard rock.

Engineering soil are those which are useful for construction purposes, such as shallow
and deep foundation construction in which loads of structures are transmitted to without failing
in shear. Embankment sub-grade and sub-base in road construction are also areas in which
engineering soil are usually used. Examples of such soils are clay and laterites.

Other types of soils can be described as the upper layer of mantle which can support
plants. The earth material which is called soil by the agronomist or the geologist is known as top
soil in geotechnical engineering. The top soil contains a large quantity of organic matter and is
not suitable as construction material or as a foundation of structures hence top soil is always
removed before commencement of construction.

SOIL FORMATION AND GENESIS

Soil forms layers or horizons, roughly parallel to the earth’s surface, in response to five
soil forming factors. The whole soil, from the surface to its lowest depths, develops naturally as a
result of these five factors. The five factors are: 1) parent material, 2) relief or topography, 3)
organisms (including humans), 4) climate, and 5) time. If a single parent material is exposed to
different climates then a different soil individual will form. If any one of the five factors is
changed but the remaining four factors remain the same, a new soil will form. This process is
called “soil genesis”.

5 Soil Formation Factors

1. Climate

2. Organisms

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3. Topography

4. Parent Material

5. Time

Climate

Temperature and moisture influence the speed of chemical reactions, which in turn help
control how fast rocks weather and dead organisms decompose. Soils develop faster in warm,
moist climates and slowest in cold or arid ones.

Organisms

Plants root, animals burrow, and bacteria eat – these and other organisms speed up the
breakdown of large soil particles into smaller ones. For instance, roots produce carbon dioxide
that mixes with water and forms an acid that wears away rock.

Topography

The shape of the land and the direction it faces make a difference in how much sunlight
the soils gets and how much water it keeps. Deeper soils form at the bottom of a hill because
gravity and water move soil particles down the slope.

Parent material

Every soil “inherits” traits from the parent material from which it formed. For example,
soils that form from limestone are rich in calcium and soils that form from materials at the
bottom of lakes are high in clay. Every soil formed from parent material deposited at the Earth’s
surface. The material could have been bedrock that weathered in place or smaller materials
carried by flooding rivers, moving glaciers, or blowing winds. Parent material is changed
through biological, chemical and environmental processes, such as weathering and erosion.

Time

All of these factors work together over time. Older soils differ from younger soils
because they have had longer to develop. As soil ages, it starts to look different from its parent
material. That is because soil is dynamic. Its components—minerals, water, air, organic matter,
and organisms—constantly change. Components are added and lost. Some move from place to
place within the soil. And some components are totally changed, or transformed

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TYPES OF SOIL

The different types of soil include:

1. Made ground
2. Top soil
3. Fines
4. Clay
5. Silt
6. Sand and Gravel
7. Cobbles and Boulders
8. Peat and Organic Soil
Made Ground

This is a man-made layer of material deposited or dumped over the natural ground.

Top Soil

Humus if formed from the microbial breakdown of plant and animal tissues in the soil.
Top soil comprises an accumulation of humus rich soil covering the natural inorganic soils or
rocks and provides support to plant live. It is usually not more than 100-300mm thick although in
the tropics; where intense vegetation occurs and erosion is limited, top soil thickness over 1m
can exist.

Fines:

These are particles small than 0.6mm and comprise silt and clay particles. They must not
be confused with the term fine soil used in the BSCS which may contain up to 65% of sand or
coarse particles.

Clay

This is type of soil comprising 35-100% fines where clay particles predominate to
produce cohesion, plasticity and low permeability (BCSC).

Clay, Silty Clay, Sandy Clay (Sand 35-65%)

Very Silty Clay, Very Sandy Clay (Sand 65% or more)

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Silt

This is a soil comprising 35-100% fines where the silt particles predominate producing
marked dilatancy and fairly low permeability but little cohesion or plasticity. It is of two types;
plastic and non plastic silt.

Sand and Gravel

Soil containing up to 35% fines; however, if these fines are clayey or silty then they will
probably dictate the behavior of the soil so that it may still be better describe as a clay or silt

Cobbles and Boulders

These are particles greater than 200 and 600mm respectively and are classed as very
coarse soil.

Peat and organic soil

Peat are easily distinguished by their dark brown to black colour, high organic content,
high moisture content and light weight nature, especially when dried.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

According to the texture or the “feel,” two different soil types can be identified. The
coarse-grained soils include gravel and sand and fine-grained soils silt and clay. While the
engineering properties primarily strength and compressibility of coarse-grained soils depend on
the size of individual soil particles, the properties of fine-grained soils are mostly governed by
the moisture content. Hence, it is important to identify the type of soil at a given construction site
since effective construction procedures depend on the soil type. Geotechnical engineers use a
universal format called the unified soil classification system (USCS) to identify and label
different types of soils.

The system is based on the results of common laboratory tests of mechanical analysis
which is conducted in two stages:

 Sieve analysis for the coarse fraction (gravel and sand)

 Hydrometer analysis for the fine fraction (silt and clay).

Sieve Analysis

Conducted according to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D421 and
D422 procedures, using a set of U.S. standard sieves. During the test, the percentage by weight
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of the soil sample retained on each sieve is recorded, from which the percentage of soil passing
through a given sieve size is determined. On the other hand, if a substantial portion of the soil
sample consists of fine-grained soils (D<0.075mm), then sieve analysis has to be followed by
hydrometer analysis.

ASTM Sieve Stack and Mechanical Shaker

The Hydrometer Analysis

Test is performed by first treating the “fine fraction” with a deflocculating agent such as
sodium hexametaphosphate or sodium silicate in a water glass for about half a day and then
allowing the suspension to settle in a hydrometer jar kept at a constant temperature. As the
heavier particles settle, followed by the lighter ones, a calibrated ASTM 152H hydrometer is
used to estimate the fraction that is still settling above the hydrometer bottom at any given stage.

Apparatus for Hydrometer Analysis

SOIL MECHANICS

Soil Mechanics is a discipline of Civil Engineering involving the study of soil, its
behaviour and application as an engineering material.

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 Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering
problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles,
which are produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks, regardless of
whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituents.

Soil consists of a multiphase aggregation of solid particles, water, and air. This
fundamental composition gives rise to unique engineering properties, and the description of its
mechanical behavior requires some of the most classic principles of engineering mechanics.

Engineers are concerned with soil's mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness, and
strength. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the water
content and unit weight.

GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

The geotechnical properties of soil include:

Cohesion

It is the internal molecular attraction which resists the rupture or shear of a material.
Cohesion is derived in the fine grained soils from the water films which bind together the
individual particles in the soil mass.

Cohesion is the property of the fine grained soil with particle size below 0.002 mm. cohesion of
a soil decreases as the moisture content increases. Cohesion is greater in well compacted clays
and it is independent of the external load applied.

For cohesionless soils (or soils without any fines), the standard compaction tests are difficult to
perform. For compaction, application of vibrations is the most effective method. Watering is
another method. The seepage force of water percolating through a cohesionless soil makes the
soil grains occupy a more stable position. However a large quantity of water is required in this
method. To achieve maximum dry density, they can be compacted either in a dry state or in a
saturated state.

Capillarity

It is the ability of soil to transmit moisture in all directions regardless of any gravitational
force. Water rises up through soil pores due to capillary attraction.

The maximum theoretical height of capillary rise depends upon the pressure which tends
to force the water into the soil, and this force increases as the size of the soil particles decreases.
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 The capillary rise in a soil when wet may equal as much as 4 to 5 times the height of
capillary rise in the same soil when dry. Coarse gravel has no capillary rise; coarse sand has up
to 30 cm; fine sand and soils have capillary rise up to 1.2 m but dry sand have very little
capillarity. Clays may have capillary rise up to 0.9 to 1.2 m but pure clays have very low value.

Permeability

Permeability of a soil is the rate at which water flows through it under action of hydraulic
gradient. The passage of moisture through the inter-spaces or pores of the soil is called
‘percolation’.

Soils having porous enough for percolation to occur are termed ‘pervious’ or
‘permeable’, while those which do not permit the passage of water are termed ‘impervious’ or
‘impermeable’. The rate of flow is directly proportional to the head of water.

Permeability is a property of soil mass and not of individual particles. The permeability
of cohesive soil is, in general, very small. Knowledge of permeability is required not only for
seepage, drainage and ground water problems but also for the rate of settlement of structures on
saturated soils.

Soil Plasticity

Soil plasticity is a property that enables the moist soil to change shape when some force
is applied over it and to retain this shape even after the removal of the force from it. The
plasticity of soil depends on the cohesion and adhesion of soil materials.

Elasticity

A soil is said to be elastic when it suffers a reduction in volume (or is changed shape &
bulk) while the load is applied, but recovers its initial volume immediately when the load is
removed.

Compressibility

Gravels, sands & silts are incompressible, i.e. if a moist mass of those materials is
subjected to compression; they suffer no significant volume change.

Clays are compressible, i.e. if a moist mass of clay is subjected to compression, moisture & air
may be expelled, resulting in a reduction in volume which is not immediately recovered when
the compression load is withdrawn.

Moisture Content & Available water capacity

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 The moisture content (w) is defined as the ratio of the weight of water in a sample to the
weight of solids.

Available water capacity refers to the quantity of water that the soil is capable of storing
for use by plants. The capacity varies, depending on soil properties that affect the retention of
water and the depth of the root zone. The most important properties are the content of organic
matter, soil texture, bulk density, and soil structure.

Atterberg Limits

Atterberg defined the boundaries of four states of consistency in terms of limits. When a
clayey soil is mixed with an excessive amount of water, it may flow like a semiliquid. If the soil
is gradually dried, it will behave like a plastic, semisolid, or solid material depending on its
moisture content. The moisture content, in percent, at which the soil changes from a liquid to a
plastic state, is defined as the liquid limit (LL).

Similarly, the moisture contents, in percent, at which the soil change from a plastic to a semisolid
state and from a semisolid to a solid state are define as the plastic limit (PL) and the shrinkage
limit (SL), respectively. These limit a referred to as Atterberg limits.

Plastic Limit(PL):

The plastic limit (PL) is the moisture content at which a soil transitions from being in a
semisolid state to a plastic state.

Liquid Limit (LL) :

The liquid limit (LL) is defined as the moisture content at which a soil transitions from a
plastic state to a liquid state.

Plasticity Index

The plasticity index (PI) is defined as the difference between the liquid limit and the
plastic limit of a soil PI = LL − PL. The PI represents the range of moisture contents within
which the soil behaves as a plastic solid.

PI Range Description

0 Nonplastic

1–5 Slightly Plastic

5 – 10 Low Plasticity

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10 – 20 Medium Plasticity

20 – 40 High Plasticity

> 40 Very High Plasticity

The liquid limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage limit are extremely useful in correlating anticipated
soil behavior with previous experience on soils in similar consistency states. Each limit
represents a water content at which the soil changes from one state to another.

Specific Gravity of Soils

The specific gravity of soil, Gs, is defined as the ratio of the unit weight of a given
material to the unit weight of water.

Weight-Volume Relationships: In nature, soils are three-phase systems consisting of solid

soil particles, water, an air (or gas). To develop the weight-volume relationships for a soil, the
three phases can be separated.

Soil Strength

Soils consist of individual particles that can slide and roll relative to one another. Shear
strength of a soil is equal to the maximum value of shear stress that can be mobilized within a
soil mass without failure taking place.

The shear strength of a soil is a function of the stresses applied to it as well as the manner
in which these stresses are applied. A knowledge of shear strength of soils is necessary to
determine the bearing capacity of foundations, the lateral pressure exerted on retaining walls, and
the stability of slopes.

The shear strength is the internal resistance per unit area that the soil can handle before failure
and is expressed as a stress. There are two components of shear strength; the cohesive element
(expressed as the cohesion, c, in units of force/unit area) and the frictional element (expressed as
the angle of internal friction, φ).

Soil strength tests are performed on high quality, relatively undisturbed in-situ specimens.
However, it is difficult and frequently impossible to sample, transport, extrude and set-up testing
for granular, cohesionless soils (Sand or Gravel) without excessively disturbing or completely
obliterating the soil specimen.

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It is difficult to obtain good strength values through lab testing of disturbed (remolded)
specimens since the soil matrix (i.e., cohesion/ bonding of soil particles) is destroyed and the in-
situ density and moisture content are very difficult to recreate.

Consolidation

When a soil layer is subjected to compressive stress due to construction activities, it

undergoes compression. The compression is caused by rearrangement of particles, seepage of
water, crushing of particles, and elastic distortions. Settlement of a structure is analyzed for three
reasons: appearance of structure, utility of the structure, and damage to the structure.

Bulk density

Bulk density data are used to compute shrink-swell potential, available water capacity,
total pore space, and other soil properties.

The moist bulk density of a soil indicates the pore space available for water and roots. A
bulk density of more than 1.6 can restrict water storage and root penetration.

Moist bulk density is influenced by texture, kind of clay, content of organic matter, and
soil structure.

Erodibility:

It refers to the ease with which soil materials can be removed by wind or water.

Easily eroded materials include unprotected silt, sand and other loosely consolidated
materials, Cohesive soils (with more than 20% clay) and naturally cemented soils are not easily
removed from its place by wind or water and, therefore, have a low erosion factor.

Total Stress

When a load is applied to soil, it is carried by the solid grains and the water in the pores.
The total vertical stress acting at a point below the ground surface is due to the weight of
everything that lies above, including soil, water, and surface loading. Total stress thus increases
with depth and with unit weight.

Pore Water Pressure

The pressure of water in the pores of the soil is called pore water pressure (u).

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Compaction

Compaction is the application of mechanical energy to a soil so as to rearrange its

particles and reduce the void ratio. It is applied to improve the properties of an existing soil or in
the process of placing fill such as in the construction of embankments, road bases, runways, earth
dams, and reinforced earth walls. Compaction is also used to prepare a level surface during construction
of buildings. There is usually no change in the water content and in the size of the individual soil
particles.

The purposes of compaction are:

 To increase soil shear strength and therefore its bearing capacity.

 To reduce subsequent settlement under working loads.

 To reduce soil permeability making it more difficult for water to flow through.

Shear Strength

This is the resistance of soil to shearing stress when loaded with an external for force.

ROLE OF SOIL IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

A soil in Civil Engineering plays a significant role in construction generally. Foundations

in every civil engineering structures, whether it is a building, a bridge or dam, is founded on or
below the surface of the earth. These foundations are required to transmit the load of structure to
soil and the soil is expected to resist all downward forces from the structures.

In road construction, pavement is placed on soil (sub-grade) for the purpose of providing
strong foundation for it. All high way construction requires embankment slope and excavation
slope, through the cutting and compaction of soils.

Sharp sands which are used as part of concrete constituents is another form of soil which
has been washed and deposited in river bed through reduction in velocity of flow of river.

Laterites are another form of soil which have been very useful in most fills or sub-base of
pavement construction as well as hardcore for oversite concrete of buildings.

ROLE OF GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL ON CIVIL

The civil engineering structures like building, bridge, highway, tunnel, dam, tower, etc.
are founded below or on the surface of the earth. For their stability, suitable foundation soil is
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required. To check the suitability of soil to be used as foundation or as construction materials, its
properties are required to be assessed. As per different researchers, assessment of geotechnical
properties of subsoil at project site is necessary for generating relevant input data for design and
construction of foundations for the proposed structures. Researchers have stated that proper
design and construction of civil engineering structures prevent an adverse environmental impact
or structural failure or post construction problems.

CONCLUSION

Soil mechanics deals with the application of the laws and principles of mechanics and
hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with soil as an engineering material. Soil has many
different meanings, depending on the field of study. To a geotechnical engineer, soil has a much
broader meaning and can include not only agronomic material, but also broken-up fragments of
rock, volcanic ash, alluvium, Aeolian sand, glacial material, and any other residual or transported
product of rock weathering.

The engineering properties of soils are much concerned with the deformation and
strength of bodies of soil. It deals with the mechanical properties of the soil materials and with
the application of the knowledge of these properties to engineering problems. In particular it is
concerned with the interaction of structures with their foundation material. These properties

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REFERENCES

A. Balasubramanian, 2017. Engineering Properties of Soil. Retrieved 13:53, May 13, 2018,
from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314500875

Laskar, A. and Pal, S.K., 2012, Geotechnical characteristics of two different soils and their
mixture and relationships between parameters., EJGE, 17, 2821-2832.

Oke, S.A. and Amadi, A.N., 2008, An assessment of the geotechnical properties of the sub-soil
of parts of Federal University of Technology, Minna, Gidan Kwano Campus, for
foundation design and construction., J Sci Educ Technol., 1 (2), 87 – 102.

Nwankwoala, H.O. and Warmate, T., 2014, Geotechnical assessment of foundation conditions
of a site in Ubima, Ikwerre Local Government Area, Rivers State, Nigeria., IJERD, 9(8),
50 – 63.

Oghenero, A.E., Akpokodje, E.G. and Tse, A.C., 2014, Geotechnical properties of subsurface
soils in Warri, Western Niger Delta, Nigeria., Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical
Engineering., 4(1), 89 – 102.

Wikipedia contributors. (2018, April 14). Geotechnical engineering. In Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:53, May 13, 2018, fromhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.
php?title=Geotechnical_engineering&oldid=836385975

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