Folhcomurg issues feature:

Volume l0 Issue 119

Axis Close Support Aircraft
Sub$arinesof WolldWuI
Published by
Orbis Publishing Ltd
@Aerospace Publishing Ltd 1985
lhflsnrru'iqs'iers
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Artists: Jeremy Moore KCB OBE MC, Comman-
:--,',:'<shop
der ol British Land Forces during the
Falklands campaign.

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tl
 tlodern Under-
wciler
Sgstems One of the more novel types of ASW
Thebattle of the Atlantic inWorldWar Illedtoenofinous weapon fielded to date has been the
s u bm arine - Iaunched mis s ile.
advances in undewvater weapon systems and, their
SUBROC, launched from the torpedo
associated sensors; since then both submartnes and swface tubes of attack submarrnes, carries a
vessels have acquired incteasingly complex rocket and one-kiloton nuclear depth bomb as
payload, which has a lethal radius of
missile systems with substantially longer ranges, StoB km(3toSmiles).

lhere are two major types of antr-submarrne projectiles, the proximity
-iC the contact weapon. The former, typifred by the depth charge whtch
r: Royal Navy first used rn combat in 1916 during World War I, must
:arry an explosive charge large enough to damage a submerged target
:. en at a considerable miss drstance. The greatest lethal radius of
..'.'eapons
of thrs type is achieved by the nuclear depth charge, agatnst
,-, lch there rs lrttle defence, and which can destroy or severely damage
,:rgets within several thousand metres of its point of detonation Howev-
=r only the two qrreat superpowers, the USA and USSR, actually have
:-ich u,'eapons in large numbers whiie their allled nattons have them to a
::ruch lesser extent
The second projectrle type generally rehes on much smaller warhead
sizes, but must either be specrfically gmrded onto its target or be used in
:;ch numbers that a hit is virtually gn-raranteed. The classic example of
::ch a weapon is the World War II Hedgehog system, The intermediate
:ase between the two is the hghtwerght ASW (anti-submarine warfare)
homing torpedo, whrch wrth its great homing radius effectrvel_v :' . =:.
the lethal distance ol a nuclear weapon but needs close proxi::- . :
actual contact wrth the target to detonate, To bring such a weap:: -', -
the vicinity of a distant target very often requires a carrrer p-=,:::-
which may be gurded or ungnrided. Examples of these are resp. r--":
the Australian lkara missile and the Soviet FRAS-],
For the future, as sensor ranqtes increase guided weapons ,-;--- .: =
developed with advanced-technology homrng torpedo or n::,::-
payloads and ranges in excess of 50 km (31.I miles). The flrst ci ::,:.=
the ASW-SOW, is already in the flnal design stages for deploymer-: -:- .:.=
late 1980s to replace the elderly UUM-44A SUBROC missrle a..-=:.
American SSNs.
The main developmentinASW techniques inrecentyears has seen lie use c:
aguidedmissile to carry a torpedo or depth bomb towithin stiking distanc.
of a target. The Australian-developed Ikara system, with its lightweight
torpedo payload, is typical ofthe types inuse today.

r
I

===-==:=::=::::'::
14i,r
.sbr*
..=::-::"'' j_-i
=-*Lrifllb +

;i:?
'lllime nof forecson ruhg'
.',iadernminetechnclog:yhasevolvedimmenselyinthelastfewdecades,aproou;:::.":=_-:*__::.
eiectronicrevclutionthathassochangedthefaceofwarfare.Today'smine-bearsliltjeres=.:::-_-: _

:]ornearnon.srerssoIeareaDysailofsmbygonewarsbutJlspurposerematnsffiesarne-:ot=.:,:.-:.-l
hornecl monsfers so /eared by sailors in bygone wars but its purpase remaLns the same - tc ;
ireeuseoltheseas andtasinkhrssiupsr'fpossible"ltalsohastheadvantageof beingrelativeiyc:.e:; =.:; ..- =.-

-l-. .i -,=:-=:---'.- ::.i.rstood Sovie. access to

:rl:i s-=a: -s restricied by the existence cf
:,r,
.'-r-:;: :::<e pcrnts, (or heavily delended :1
:.::r:-.'.' :inr.neis) flanked or controlied bv
1,.:.li--:l:eloly countries The entrance to the
: -s a case in point: controllett by Denrnar<
=-..:
. and S-weden, the Skagerrak coses I
i:r-.','a-,'
:::, crcbiem to Soviet naval comn-ianC::s
j--. . .'e'.'ond rhar, access to Lhe N:r'h i.--.:.-.
. :- roLecl by rhe JK Srniiar Ir( (-:---: -
:,: S:viets exist in the Mediterranean ani :re
I:.: -1:r and in tliese areas mine wariare reali;,-
. . :: -:]tc -'s own
,:respective of warhead, mines come in four
:=-. . .. mcre correc'ly mine detonaL.on sys-
:...: .. lrr .]i 'oul:ypes. thorrgn certarn mjnes
.. .. .-.:'.-^ one two or even lhree detonaLrng
:":.::ns as -we shall see. Acoustic mlnes are
. -.---l by noise 1a combinat:on ol waler
-:: : :s laiiing off a passrng hull or, in the case of
.:-. .:.-.+;. u,raLer passing lhrough ano ovet
'- -. rr :asing7, propeller noise and enqine
.--. : --:e-support machinery noises. This noise is
-:' -*o by the mines hydrophones which head, In this way they can iqnore acccmpany- The BritishVersatile Minesy,sfem djsp/ajls many o!
....V 'cecome covereo with nrud and sea .Lnq lr-qates destroiers e c, ano Lake our an the characteristics of madern mine technology. Its
. : - .'':i ald so are designed to increase their airc'raiL-carr-er Aoa.n rhey have Lo o. rnd' small size means itcan be laid by asubmarine
- :.'.: '..t -ru.rh time, [venrually however a.l vidually located and Cestroyed, aithough a through its torpedo tubes, often n a ]ocation ta de
most darnage f o opposing subm arines.
:..-- -. - 7 goes ancLor the-r ba ter-es run tc-r;ed arra;r can have some success in expiod-
,: .'.:. ,iccuslic mines can be made to responc ing iren
:c:crl-:
shrp or submarrne no-se s.o:.; Press;re lriies are aciua:eC 1.,. cianges in anchored on or close to the bottom, contac.
- :-. -i.s a result, it is noi possrble to sweep al: :nia.:i piess'iJ-. causei ll'r, ;il€ passage cl a mrnes lurk ust be ow the sullr--e.
r, -,.:,,-- ninefleld simply by generatlng nolse rLedi.r:r rc larl:e-s.zei s.:r! ar s:i:Eanne, il Acoustic, magnetic and pressure n:.ines are
.. .:'.','ed array: every mine musi be ind:- thel,' *ere s,-: :: b.'. s::s-.-'.': .a a:';ii]il sr;al 'ar firore eJIec'rve than c tn-lJ- :rrnes lnosr.u Ii.
. .r., -: ;r-d and deslroved. ler :he i;ha'e p,rg;-a:.::- .-.:;-l::<:i ar e,,ren as a blo>t :rose Lo Lhe seo L.d lres only rn or.:
qrea.el'.^:f--'-: -.-.'. : j: .-.r.:-':...- -11 :.lh drr€cl-ofl (upwardsJ ano -h:s do+s more dar:.-
::.ecti.re explosions Vafl(iS S-.'.--t{ -l- =-t'.. ----: --'-- *::l- l+-
. . -
:.- '-*- :n-nes arc acr-r'ateo by a change rn 't^ e 'a
' mlsl oe ni I i-'--'.- -, -- - - : I '::: .'ri
= '..::.r s magnetic field caused by the prox- The partially-compleled USS OIiver Hazard Perry
..-.'. :- alargemetalconductornearby, e,g. an lr..l lc: -. r'-.: .i .-- :. :r- *..r.:
The undergoes the sfructurdl lesrs essential in making
. -. -.:..:, :irrp, They can be programmed to ex- beloved oi V'ulorrc ilial i. :r:'.re na-<ers any new design of warship resistant to damage.
-:= '.'-r:n differeni sized ships pass over- Whereas the r;re",icus :llre. :tipes are especially from mines.

.:.. ;tr::

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a:
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age than a contact mine, whose blast is dissi-
pated spherrcally, The disadvantages of the
acoustic, magnetic and pressure mines are that
they have to be lard rn shailow water anci are
subject to nervous breakCowns, Think about it
for a moment, The electrcnics used to actuate
an acoustic, magnetic or pressure mine are
1air1y complicated. In those instances where a
mine can be actuated by a combinatton of all
three, or in the case of a mrne that has been
programmed to 'count' (t.e. ignore the first,
second, third or whatever contact) so that
escort vesselswill again escape unharmed, the
electronics have to be both complex and sensi-
tive. Now the sea itself ls not a neutral, static
medium. Changes in water pressure occur
'with changes rn water temperatwe and salin-
ity, Background noise can be increased by
something as mundane as a passing school of
iclphlns, The Earth's magnetic field is in a state
of flux. ln other words, as time goes on and the
nine qets tired (batteries run down), it is faced
-,vrih making more and more decisions, assrmi-
:atrnq more and more data in order to functton
qrcperly. Either it sulks, and refuses to explode
:: ali, or allows itseif to be trlgqered by the
.na1lest stirnulus,
Highcost
tven though the average mrne cosis only
: :iween t3,000 and t6,000, rninelaying can
-:,,'rously be an expensive business. Moreov-
-: lhere are a few other ships in the sea be-
:-jes Soviet warshrps, and amongst others the
=:r,i cperatorswould not take it kindly if one ol
:.:-i ressels were blown out ol the North Sea.
.-s a result, mines are only sovm at the lasi
-::1ent; and with this, a new type of mine
. -.-.arcn has been developed: remote control,
-rCer the Geneva Conveniion (whlch
':r
.'rne quotes when the other parly con-
:: '.nes il), all minefreids must be charted,
--..:: rather does away with the element of
-:.:e ln fac:, rhere is very htl-e reason to
. -,-::inefields lar in advance because it is a
, :-,r.arative1y easy task ihat can be under-
.,.=:- by aircraft, helicopter, surlbce ship or
A m ag n e t i c ally - ac tiv ate d gr oun d
mine can be programmed to react to
any large mass of metal, and can
discriminate between the magnetic
dis tor tion created by diffe rent- sized
vessejs.
Modern Underwater Weapon
sul)mallne.
Usually aircraft are preferred, particularly
when the mines are to be laid close into one's
own shoreline. However, there is one type of
mine that rs (or rather, wili be) sown by sub-
mariner the type of mine that lurks outside a
harbour belonging to lhe other side'. lt has to
be launched by submarine because obvrously
the other side is not going to be thnlled by the
prospect of enemy aircraft overflying their air-
space and dropprng mines where they can
blow the latest nuclear submarine to thousands
of radloactive bils, It works thts way, A hunter/
krller submanne (probably diesel-electric as it
runs more quietly than a nuclear boat, and rs
thus less 1ike1y to be detected, and also less
expensive if destroyed) sllps past the (say)
Sovtet defences and reaches a poini about
30 km (18 6 miies) tuom Thekola Peninsula. it
then iaunches a torpedo werghrnq 1069 ker
(2,356 1b) and measuring 533 mm (21 in) in dra-
meter by 3,506 m (i 1 ft 6 in) in length, The sub-
marine has in fact just launched lhe US Mk 67
mobiie mrne. which is a variable-influence
mine converted lrom a Mk 37 torpedo, As we
have seen, tha' mine can be ser Lo respond to
acoustic magnetic or plessLlre detecrion of a
possible tarqet, and can also be set to ignore
everythrng except the one ship or submarine
that has been targeted (unless another ship or
submarine leaves port with ideniical acoustic
srgnaiures 'ivhrch is unhkely), When and if the
mrne (and by nc,n' it has sunk to the sea bed)
cietects its target a rocket fires to propel the
rnine upvu.ards to a poinl at which j.t can make
sa:islaciory contact with the target's bottom. At
this pcint 1t explodes and, especially if rt is a
nuclear mine, causes devastating damage.
However, it is more likely to be a CAPTOR
type mine wrth a 43.s-kg (961b) warhead (of
which more later), The only point at guestion
here is, assumrng it does make contact with one
oi the giant Soviet double-hul]ed submarines,
how much damage would it do? Well, unless
there was a qreat deal of luck (or bad luck,
depending on your sympathies) involved, the
submarine would be unlikely to sink, But it
An aircraft carrier may be many
things, butit is mostcertainly an
extremely large piece of metal. The
distortion it produces in the Earth's
field is correspondingly large.
"l.i
:-;y
Si's : e n-. s
would be damaged sufficie:.:-'.' ., :
carrying out rts mrssion whrc:. ':.': .- -:
as lar away fiom Murmansk as c::s-.:
firing its nuclear mrssrles
Standard conversion
It shouid not be thought that ai: :.:,-=.
purpose-burit for the job It rs of:e:. :--'
lriggering device that is specificaiiy a:--;:.=:
to work underwater and to respond :c :.:'
stimuli. Virtualiy any type of stanciard :::.:
can be converted to the mine role '.r":::. --.
hmitations that it can be deployed onl-v i:: s:.=.--
Iow waters and that the casing will in iime s.::
to leak. One of the recent, classic, exampies :,
this has been the US DESTRUCIOF. :----:=
which was deveioped as a dlrect resuli c: ::-:
Vietnam War. It is essentrally a Mk 64 -Qi- -r:
(2 000-]b) bomb, wlth magnelic and ac:rs -:
sensors added to the fuse pockeL Dep--'. =* :
parachute ir is equally elfective by 1;r..- .::
sea, meaning Lhar it can be plastered : . - - '
mqor port, always assuming that ihe 1a-:-:..
arrcralr do not ger shot down rn rhe pro--::: -'
was developed largely because ihe A:.=:-
rcans had so many bombs srrrpius io rel-.:--
ments during the Vietnam War (there rs a --:-.
to how many tlmes you can bLoin- up :he -.,::.:
tree) and DESTRUCTOR fiqured qune h:= -. '
in the minrng ol Haiphong harbour. Ii is =---
very cost effectrve as one nee d employ cni-.-::,=
single assembly line for naval, mihtary --.:
economic largets. However, 1t rs not the r--
sophrsucated mine rn the world and shc u- j ..
fact could) only be used against mrlitar:-. ---
sophisucaled countries
The Earth has a large magnetic field, the force lnes
of which lie parallel to theEarth s surface jn mos:
Iocations. Like all magnetic fields, tfiepassage o,'
metal through the fieldwill produce distortians ::.
the lines of force, and it.rs these distortions tha:
magnetic mines detect.
A destroyer or similar-sized escort
may have one-twentieth of the l7j,ass
of a carrier, and so ias m ucfi ,less
magnetic effect.
'Mine not to reason whY'
Now it is worth taking a look at mine war-
fare's 'state oithe art', The vartous 'choke' points
that restrict Soviet access to the world's oceans
are, in the first instance, guarded by a system of
passi.ve hstening devices called SOSUS
(SOund SUrveillance System). These are hyd-
rophones (anchored to the sea bottom) that can
release their data in short-burst transmissions,
Often they are backed up by cables coiled tn
the same area to monitor the change in the
Earth's magnetic field caused by a passtng
ship. However, these are only passive sensor
devices, and this causes a problem. SOSUS ts
capable of detecting a submarine at a distance
of iome I60 km (99 4 mries) However sound
jn
'water traveis at only ]450m (4,757ft) per
second, so the sound irom a submarine de-
tectecl at a maxtmum range w111 take 110
seconds io reach SOSUS If the submarine is
iraveliinqt at 25 kts (46 3 kn'lh), the vessel will
have moved another 1.42 km (0, 88 miles) by the
irme its sound waves reach the SOSUS hyd-
rcphones, But although ri is always nice to know
.vnere somethurq was a lew minutes ago, tr
dces not heip very much if you are trylng to
lestroy rt, For thar, you have to know where it
'trll be iocaled tn a lew minutes from no''
Enter JEZEBEL, a far-from-passive listenllg
Cevice. ]EZEBEL will, when alerted, send cut
its own sonar signals in an attempt io discover
-hre submarine's course and speed. Assumtngt
rhat it is successful, JEZEBEL wtll ihen reiease
CAPTOR in its gnrise as a homing torpecc,
Civen that the US Mk 46 torpedo has an 1l'km
{5 84-mi1e) range and that CAPTOR need nct
ce situated close to IEZEBEL but conneclei
';ia underwater cab1e, you have a pr€ttv fcr-
midable underwater deteciion and attack sirs-
lem. CAPTOR is essentially a mine, And
although CAPTOR is not adverse to being dell-
vered directly to the target by torpedo, that
rnethod does have one built-in disadvantage: a
submarine can pick up an approaching torpe-
do cn its own detection equipment and either
:ake evasive action or attempt to destroy it by
firing rts own anti-torpedo torpedoes, It ts far
better that the submarine should pass over, or
close to, the spot where CAPTOR has been
siiently v,raitinei for it, so that when a panic-
stricken sonar ooerator realizes somethtng is
risinq rapidly towards his submarine lrom the
Acoustic mines are the Products of
the latest computer technology, and
may be programmed to recognize
specific'signatures', allowing high-
value targets to be attacked with
precision.
2,364
sea bottom at some 40 kts it is too late to do
any=nino aboul
rt.
Ho."t ever, there is again the same obvious
problem'+,-tth the SOSUS4EZHBEUCAPTOR
!;r.e:,- -=.1:.-l deployment Whrie SOSUS or
I-7:bl- .a:--.. r :hemseives harm anyone
th.,,' cut be ccrroCeC by sea water and fouled
'c-i'ii-at'::-e l':e Sc rhrie iniiial deploymeni is
compala:r'.'ei'., aneap, iile naintenance and re
p:ile:-eL- :-:l-j-::: :.: -'"- +:l:.+r: Si-: e::l
becomes ia.li;i e-,:persl'.-e C,{PTOR is anolher
problema,o;+lr+t I.:':.. :S -:1 j-,-:-s-:h:
iaw for Soviei subnarlies ic pass iarcugh
'choke pornrs tnlo the lce;:. i-:-i ' :-: i;rr r
companles are hkely to be ';psei abcul one oi
thetf ferries being blown out ci ihe Ncrih Sea,
one can imagine rn hat the Sovreis 'i'roujci say
Acoustic mines, as the name suggests. are
triggered by the noise created by passing ships or
su'blmarinei. They may have their own listening
geir, or tney maibe iontrolled remotely by
underw ater s onar ar r ays, s uch as ffi e SOSUS fine in
the GIIJK gap.
Every ship creates noise; the
combination of sounds from the
engjnes, the hull in contact with the
water and the rotating screws all
form a unique'signature'.
The reduced size and hence air-portability of
modern mines has given military planners many
options when considering laying techniques. The
B-52s of theUSAF StrategicAir Command allow
worldwide mining operations at very short notice.
about the same happening to one of their sui:-
IT-AIINES
\Arhai this means is that CAPTOR should oni-,
be deployed on the hr.gh seas in those very fe-,'..
days before hostrlitres are openly declarec
CAPTOR is part of the PRAM (Prope11e:
Rapid Ascent Mine) family, although purts-.
would argue that since CAPTOR ls deliverec
torpei
on rnstruclions from JEZTBEL il is more :
than mine, Another difference is that PRANI:
are, by and large, set to operate independenti-'
and conirol only a smal section of sea
Threat to friendly craft
One of the maior problems that mines pose
to their owners is Lhe threat they conslitute t-
lriendly forces, The thtngs to remember ar€
that aiter a time a mine is as likely to attaci:
irrendly ships and submartnes as enemy ves-
sels, and that mines have this annoyinQr habit o'
nol always stayrng rn the place they were oriQ--
nally drdpped. Undoubtedly CAPTOR PRAI,'I
andothers have been fitted with identificatiotl
devices and even seif-destruct devices, but nc
one can guarantee that these will workl man
knows more about the surface of the moon tharr
aboul the sea bed and many strange things
happen down there
Nonetheless, mines still remain an extreme-
}y effective weapon, for one very good reason
ii is drfftcult to locate them, In times of war, any
ship or submarine commander must assume
thal ihere are mines out there waiting for htm,
and this qives him lar less flexibility of opera-
tion than he would hke. Mines may have come
a long way from the time that they could be
kickeh aw-ay (carefully avoiding the horns) by
whichever actor was playing the part of the
hero in all those post-World War 11 movies, bu:
the realtty is that they are just as terrifyrng a
prospect to satlors of whatever naw now as
ihey'were 40-odd years ago. They may have
got smarter, but they are still robots and one
6annot bluff (or even surrender to) a robot,
ffi iioiltr 375-mm ASW rocket-launcher systems
The initial four{ube Bofors 375-mm tili:=a::::i:l\lli!!ri::.:1it:::.-i1i!:.i-]..,.:. 4:sr,|li.,.."
(I4,76-in) ASW rocket-launcher sys-
tem was developed in the early 1950s,
and became operational on Swedish
navy destroyers in 1955-6. The ship's
sonar provrdes target data for calculat-
tng the launcher elevation and bearing
for fuing, Single or multt-round salvoes
can be fired, the ballrstic shape of the
rockets ensuring a predrctable and
accurate underwater trajectory, Once
empty the launcher is automatically re-
Ioaded in three minutes from the Above:Themissiles fired from theBofors 375-mmASW launcher system have threedifferenttypes of motor, giving
magazine located directly beneath it. avarietyof ranges. Missile trajectory isflat to produceashortflighttime, thus reducing theciances of succeisful-
Three types of rocket can be used, evasive action by the target submarine.
these differing in the types of motor
and fuse in order to give different ing the early l980s when hunting sus-
operational characteristics. The four- pected Sovlet submarine intruders in
tube launcher is no lonqer in produc- coastal waters.
tron, but is still used by the navies of
Colombia, Japan, Portugal, Sweden, Specification
Peru, Turkey and West Germany. fourtube launcher
Ftance uses a srx{ube variant built Calibre: 375 mm(14,76 in)
under licence by Creusot-Loire, Weight: 7417 kg (16,352 lb)
During 1969-72 a twin{ube variant, Elevation; + 15'to +90
the SR3?5, was developed. Thrs is still
in production, and is used by Brazil, two-tube launcher
Egypt, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Calibre:375 mm (14,76 rn)
Morocco, Nigeria and Spain. The total Weisht: 3861 ks(8,512 Ib)
number of rounds in the twintube Elevation:0'to +60"
launcher magTazine is 24, while for the
four-tube launcher it varies from 36 on Right: The magazine of the four-
most ships to a maximum of 49 on the tube launcher is located directly
two Peruvian destroyer classes bougtht underneath, and once av ailab le
from the Dutch nalry, The Swedish rounds have been expended the
navy used its sole remaining four-tube launcher is au tom a tically
system on the destroyer Halland dur- replenis he d from be low.
Rockettypes:
weight length }IE range
(time fuse/ charge
proximity fixe)
1W50 250 kg 2/2,05m 100 ks 355-850 m
(551lb) (6,56i6,73 f0 (z20tb) (1,165-2,790 ft)
Erika 250 kq 2/2.05m 107 kg 655-1635 m
(s51]b) (6.s6/6,73 ft) (236Ib) (2,150-5,365 ft)
Nelli 250 ks 42.05m 80 ks 1580-3625 m
(s51]b) (6.56/6 73 ft) (176 rb) (5,18s-r1,895 ft)

Notes:
I The lW50 and Enka can use the Stidar time and impact fuse,
2 All three can use the Zambo proxrmity and impact fl.rse with an influence radius
of 15 m (49 ft),

Below:Thetwinlaunchervariant, Below:Thetwinlaunchercanfireits
desrgnaledSR3Ti, was developed mrssiJes eiffier separately or
between 1969 and 1972 andis stilIin simultaneously, and theballistic
production today.ltis fitted to the characteristics of the missile ensure
warships of eight navies including the maintenance of an accurate
thoseof Spainandlndia. trajectoryonceunderwater.
ro ifl# anti-submarine missile Ikarais aguided missile bearing a homing torpedo, theformer flying to the
.--*.r&i
-:-e initral design of the all-weather
ikara mrssile was undertaken by the apprcximate target areabeforereleasing the homing torpedo to beginits
Australian government, but when the search patten. Initially developed by Australia, Royal Navy interest led to a
Royal NarnT expressed an interest in version produced in a j oint Australian/ British programma :n
ihe system the programme became a
joint one with Britrsh Aerospace to pro-
duce the variant known as GWS Mk 40, :i:::..r1:j.=t
A further version, the Branik, was de-
veloped to meet the needs ofthe Brazi-
iian nauy, This last drffers from both the
Australian and Royal Narry systems in
employing a special-purpose missile
tracking and gnldance umt (fully inte-
girated into one of the launch platform's
two fire-control computers) and a new
Iightweight semi-automated missile-
randling system,
The Ikara is powered by a solid-fuel
ccmbined booster and sustainer rock-
et and in all forms is launched on a
cearing to brrng it to a torpedo
payload-droppinq position near to the
:.igiet. Data for the latter's position is
srpplied either by the launch plat-
s own sonar or by a remote data-
=nn source such as another ship or Left: Once Ikara is launched, its flight
-:ked path is controlled from the ship's
:elicopter The informatron received
'rsed for a continuous update of the computer, w hich calcu late s the
=
:piimum drop zone position on the optimum position for therelease of
s:rp s fire-control computer, which the torpedo. Once it is dropped the
-:en passes it (in the form of control torpedo discards its parachute on
::mmands by the ship's radio/radar reaching the sea, and dives to seek
g:;rdance system) to the missrle in out its target while the missile flies on
:lght Once the lkara arrives at the out of the target area.
:arget area the torpedo (a lightweiqht
I'k 44 or Mk 46, semr-enclosed in the Below: Ikarais launchedfrom the
::-ssi1e body) is command-ejected via Brazilian navy's Mk I 0 frigate BNS
::e communications link, The lkara Defensora. Bra zilian lkaras differ
.3dy then continues on, clearing the Irom the original system in
-ea and crashing, while the torpedo emp loying a spe cial- pur pose
descends by parachute to achieve the missile-tracking and guiding unit,
best orientation and entry into the wa- fully integrated into one of the two
:er and then to start its search pattem, fire control computers.
The ship classes fitted with the lkara
'.-ariants are the 'Niteroi' ASW frigate In contrast the Australians have now
'.-ersion of the Brazilian nalry (four units teamed up with the ltalians to produce
'.'.-rth a Modified Ikakra missile with folding
one launcher and IO mrssiles); the
Ferth' class destroyers (three units flns, a box launcher and the gnridance
each with two launchers and 24 mis- system of the Otomat SSM. The Mod-
sles) and'River' class frigates (sxumts ifled lkara can carry either of the two
each with one Iauncher and 24 mis- original torpedoes as its payload or
sles) of the Royai Australian Nalry; the the Swedish Type 42 senes, the Italian
s:ie T\7pe 82' destroyer HMS Brslol A244/S and AS29O, and the British
.','..rth one launcher and 20 missiles) Stingrray dependingr upon customer re-
the sx remaining 'l,eander Batch quirements,.
=d
- class frrgate conversions (each with
::e launcher and L4 missiles) oi the Specification
P.:yal Narry; and the sinqle 'l,eander Ikara
3atch 1' class conversion HMNZS Dimensions: lengrth 3 42 m (11,22 ft);
Southland (ex-Djdo) of the Royal New wrngspan 1,52 m(4,99 ft); height
Zealand Navy, The Royal Nalry has 1,57 m (5,15 ft)
-iready put up for disposal another Weight: varies according to payload
- Payload: hghrweighr ASW homrng
eander Batch L' unit, HMS,A,'ax, and
'. beheved to be about to remove the
Ikara system from its inventory for Performande: maximum speed Mach
3Derattonal reasons. 0,8; range 24 km (15 miies)

lX ffi"fon anti-submarine missile

The Socr6te Industrielle d'Aviation
Lat6codre Malafon surface-to-
subsurface winged missile started de-
velopment in 1956, and by 1959 a total
of 2l test launches had been com-
pleted, The flrst sea launch and gnl-
dance test took place in 1962, with full
systems evaluation ofover 20 launches
taking place in 1964, The final oper-
ational trials took place in the following
year, Malafon is ramp-launched, propulsion flight control is effected via a command Malafon is a shipborne homing
The Malafon rs primarily an ASW for the initial seconds of its flight being radio link the missile being tracked acoustic torpedo delivered to the
weapon, but can also be used to attack provrded by two jettisonable so[d-fuel with the aid of flares attached to the target area by acommand-guided
swface targets if required. Detection boosters, Once these have been dis- wingtips. On reaching the drop-zone missile. Although primarily intended
and designation for subsurface targets carded the flight is unpowered, the area, at a distance of some 800 m (875 as an ASW weapon, it can be used to
rs provided by the ship's sonars, whiie gliding missile being stabilized by an yards) from the estimated target posi- eng age surface tar gets.
for surface targets it is by radar. The automatic pilot and radio altimeter, In- tion, a parachute rs deployed to slow

2366
Malafon anti-submarine missile (continued) Modern Underwater Weapon Systems

ie Malafon. This causes the 533-mm
121-1n) L4 acoustic-homing torpedo
payload to be ejected rnto the water to
:omplete the attack,
Fittings of the Malafon system on
: rench nalry ships have been made to
re 'Tourville' class (three units), 'Suf-
:en' class (hvo units), 'D'Estree' class
(four units), the,Aconit and the La Galts- wingspan3,3 m(10,8 ft); diameter Malafon is carried by I I French
sonnjere. In each case the fit compris- 0,65 m (2,13 ft) vessels, in each case the fit consisting
es one launcher and 13 missiles in a Weight: 1500 kq (3,307 lb) of a single launcher and 13 missiles.
magazine Warhead: L4 acoustic-homing torpedo ?fi e DDG Duquesne carrjes fi er
Performance: maximum speed low Malafon launcher forward of the four
Specification subsonic; range 13 km (B I miles) MM.40 Exocet launchers and
Malafon immediately abaft the funnel fmast.
Dimensions: length 6, 15 m (20 2 ft);

>K inff. fO Limbo anti-submarine mortar

l:r'eloped by the Admiralty Under- disadvantage. The ship's own sonar uniselectors. The maxrmum enqtaqe- solid-state control systems ::l
;';arer Weapons Establishment durtnqt provides the target position data to a ment depth is 375 m (1 230 ft). Far East- qutres o'.'y hreo ct-w ns -: ,

re 1950s, the Mk I0 Limbo mortar en-
.:red service with the Royal Navy in
-,: early 1960s. Still used by that ser-
. :e the Limbo is also in service with
-:: navies of Australia, Canada, In-
::lesia, Indra, Iran, Malaysia and
l:arland. Although considered obso-
-::3 the Limbo is in fact a very Potent
:;:apon in shallow water where acous-
-: noming torpedoes are at a distinct
predictor unit which computes the ern sources rndicate that there is also a seven normally used
mortar barrel elevation inlormatton proximity influence fused bomb,
and lateral tilt, The three-barrel mortar whrch has vrrtually an unlimited max- Specification
patten of imum depth. The mortar rs reloaded in Mk i0Limbo
is then set and fued to give a
three bombs fused to give a three- lhe horrzonlal plane (by pneumatic Calibre:305 mm (12 1n)
dimensional explosive burst around rammers) ffom a ready-use magaztne Number of barrels: three
the tarqet The bombs use etther a pre- located alongtside the weapon. The Bomb weight: 175 kg (385 lb)
programmed pressure fuse or a delay- Royal Australian Nalry's verston is of an Warhead: 92 kg \ 202.4 lo ' H t
actlon time fuse with the settinqs made improved local type which is quieter tn Performance: maxin um d-p-:
by remote control through relays and operation uses modern electrtcal rl 230 It) range0 9 km t0 5Lr
Stabilized in pitch
androll by a
metadyne system
rcferenced to the
slip'sstab/e
platform, Limbo
fires atriple patterr,
of mortar bombs
programmedto
produce an
explosive pattern:1j.
the predicted patA
of the target
submarine.
Maximum range is
900 m(980yards).

lr,::===
.€
A.bove: Limbo has beeninservice with the RoyalNavy for over 20 years, andis
strlj rn use despi te being classified as obsolete. However, it remains.a useful
'neapon in shallowwaters that present difficulties for acoustichoming
torp-edoes. T he R oy al Aus tr alian N avy has at leas t u pd ated its Lim bo sy s tems'
E trurvr-++A stlgRoc submarine rocket
Development of the two-stage IIUM-
44A SIEROC submarine rocket besan
rn 1958, the complete technical evalua-
tion being fimshed by 1964, The first
production rounds were dehvered to
the US Navy in the following year, and
the averagTe SSN basic load s four to
sx rounds. The SUBROC formed part
of an advanced ASW system for its
time.
Tarqet headinq and range data are
determined by the submanne's
onboard sonar suite. The co-ordinate
data are then fed into the analogme Mk
ll3 fire-control system, which proqt-
rarnmes an optimum flight proflle into
the missile's intertial gnridance unit in
terms of its course, speed and war-
head separation point, The missile is
then launched horizontaliy from the
standard 533-mm (2l-rn) torpedo tube
by normal means, At a safe distance
from the submadne (and with the rock-
et not necessarily in the direction ofthe
target) the solid-fuel rocket motor
rgmites and the weapon follows a short
level path before pitchingi up and out of
E irun-sn ASRoc anti-submarine rocket
The all-weather day or night RUR-54
ASROC anti-submarrne rocket was the
result of combining the RAT-C rocket-
thrown torpedo weapon with the con-
cept of the rocket-thrown nuclear
depth charge. The combinatron sys-
tem called ASROC was to be a 9. l-km
(5.65-mile) rangre ballistic rocket fired
from a l2-round pepperbox launcher
that was to be paired with the similar-
range SQS-23 sonar, With the failure of
the predecessor RAT-A the rocket had
to be redesigmed with a grreater fin
area and with launcher round capacity
reduced to eight. The system entered
operatronal service in 1962, the Mk 44
torpedo payload soon being upgrraded
to the more effective Mk 46 weapon,
The nuclear option is the l,S-kiloton
yield W44 warhead on a Mk 17 nuclear
depth charge, This option was tested
as a complete system on 11 May 1962
from the destroyer USS Agerholm
(DDB26) during Operation'Swordfish',
All target data are derived from the
2368
Developed in the early 1960s, SUBROC is carriedby the'Permit'and'Sturgeon'classesofatfacksubmarine.
Launched through a torpedo tube, its rocket motor blasts it out of the water and powers it on a flight of up to 56 km
(35 miles) beloreit drops a 1-kilotonyieldnuclear depthcharge.
the water. ln both submerged and air-
borne flight the SUBROC is steered by
four jet deflectors. At the optimum
payload-release point the S-kiloton
yield W55 warhead is released by a
combination of explosive bolts and a
thrust reversal deceleration system,
and continues on a ballistic traiectory
to the target area, Any minor course
coffectron needed at thls staqe is per-
formed by vanes on the depth bomb
casing, which rs cushioned to protect
the arming and fusing mechamsms on
impact with the water, The bomb then
sinks to a preset depth, where a press-
ure fuse detonates it, The warhead has
a lethal radrus against submarines of
ship's own sonars, and are then used to
predict the elevation and bearing of
the launcher to ensure an optimum
taunch position, The rocket follows a
balhstrc trajectory, the solid-fuel rock-
et motor being.jettisoned at a prede-
termined point, The payload then con-
tinues towards the target position. If
the payload is a homing torPedo the
weapon ls lowered into the water bY
parachute, whrie the nuclear dePth
charge is allowed to hit the water and
sink to a preset depth for detonation.
The nuclear variant can also be used
agrainst surface shtps and land targets
if required, The US NavY uses both
some 4,8-6,4 krn (3-4 miles) from its de-
tonatlon point.
Under current planninq the 'SSN594'
and 'SSN637' classes will carry SUB-
ROC until they retire, while other clas-
ses will give it up because of its incom-
patlbility with their digital fue-control
systems. The latter classes wrll instead
ship the ASW-SOW missile, The SUB-
ROC fusing system allows for the
weapon to be used aqainst surface
ships with a shallow water burst, and
also aqainst ships and land targets with
an airburst,
Specification
WM-44ASIJBROC
variants, and the conventional weapon
is used also by Brazrl, Canada, Greece,
italy, Japan, Pakistan, South Korea,
Spain, Taiwan, Turkey and West Ger-
many,
For the i990s a longrer-range vertic-
al-launch variant known
ASROC(VL) is being developed with
new payloads,
Specification
RUR-SAASROC
Dimensions: lenqth Mk44 payload
4 57 m ( 15 ft) or Mk 46 payload 4,5 I m
(14.79 ft); winsspan 0,845 m (2,77 ft);
diameter0.325 m (i 07 ft)
Dimensions: lenqth 6,71 m (22 ft);
diameter 0.533 m (21 in)
Weisht: 1814 ks (4,000 Ib)
Warhead: 294. B-kg (650-lb) 5-kiloton
yield W55 fission weapon
Performance: maximum speed Mach
l.5; range 56 km (35 miles)
SUBROC exits the water at the start of
its flight, its rocket motor having
ignited as soon as the missile was at a
safe distance from the launch
submarine. Target data has been fed
into its inertial guidance system, the
nuclear w ar head allowing
considerable leeway vvith its 6 .4-km
(4-mile) leth al r adius.
ASRQC can carry either a H oneryell
Mk46 acoustichoming torpedoor a
1.5 kiloton yield W44 warhead on a
Mk 17 nuclear depth charge.Itis the
primary ASW system carried by US
Navy destroyers, cruisers and frigates.
as
Weight: Mk 44 payload 434 kq (957 1b);
Mk 46 payload 487 kg (1,073 lb)
Warhead: 192.8 kg(425 lb)Mk44or
230.4 kq (508 lb) Mk46 Mod I
lightweight hominq torpedo, or
I i7,9 kq (260 ]b) Mk i7 ],S-kiloton
yield W44 fission weapon
Performance: maximum speed Mach
0.8; range L85-1 1, I km (1, 15-6.9 miles)
ASROC: Fleet Defender
For a quarter of a century, the primary
shipborneASW systemof theUS Fleet
has been theweapon-carrying rocket
knownasASROC. The initial thinking
that led to the system dates back even
further, to thelastyear of WorldWarll.

As early as 1945 the US Navy began thinking in

terms oi a weapon carrying a homing torpedo
and designed to engage submerged targets-al
stand-off-ranges in the order of 13 7 km (&5
miles), Although the sonar systems then avaii-
able could not possibly meet the target-
detection requirements, effort was put towards
developing the weapon, The lnitial version was
designated Kingrfisher E, and was a subsonic
mrssiie meant to carry a Mk 35 active/passive
homing torpedo. The name soon changed-to
the SUM-N-2 Grebe, and the weapon was de-
veloped in two distinct versions, one a rocket-
boosted short-range variant and the other a
longer-range version wlth an additional sus-
tainer motor. Both were to carry the Mk 41
ASW torpedo, However, the sonar problems
stiil remained and the Grebe was subsequently
canceiled in i950
The rdea soon re-emerged when in 1951 a
need was expressed for a weapon with a range
in the ordei of 2,7km (I.7 miles) that could
SQS-4 sonar system. By 1956 the RAT-B system /na sense, ASROCjs a successot to the wartime
supplement existlng mortar type _weapons. Hedgehog system. Naturally it has much increased
The result was the Rocket-Assisted Torpedo *ith rts Mk 110 launcher and I0 reload rounds capability, but the most common launching
(RAT) programme, whlch was initiated in 1951 was being promoted as the repiacement for apparatus is a simple eight-round box launcher.
intiriir-e RAT-A usrng the World War Ii Mk 24 the World War II Hedgehog asleen lrere on the'Knox' class frigate USS
torpedo, Successful tests in 1952-3 ied to the In the meantime a RAT-C version had begun Davidson (FF J045).
proposal that the follow-on RAT-B use the new development to carry the 30-kt Mk 44 homing
iWk-43 torpedo as the payload. The launcher torpedo to a range ofbetween 0 92 and f, i4 km
cou.ld be either mounted atop a standard twin (0 57 and 5.68 mlles) By 1955 this version had
While helicopters have become the ptimary
I27-mm (S-in) turret or as a simple twin-rail been combtned wrth a projected rocket- shipboard offensive anti'submarine weapon e',- e r.
system in place of a twin 76-mm (3-in) mount thrown nuclear depth charge and the new 9 14- Iarqe ASW vesseis such as the 'Spruance' class
The design range of the RAT-B was between km (5,68-mile) range SQS-23 sonar' The com- reiain ASROC to provide an integral ASW capa=::
1,4 and 4 6 km (0 85 and 2,84 mrles) to binaiion weapon was to be fired from a 12- within a radius of several kilometres around i.e
accommodate the search capabilitres of the round pepperbox launcher simrlar in size to a ship.
ASROC:Fleet Defender
ilrI.lii
It the ASROC missile is carrying a
homing torpedo, its entry into the
water is slowed by parachute
(although nuclear charges do not g'
require this).
standard 127-mm twln turret,
In 1957 the RAT-B began operational evalua-
tion aboard the destroyer USS Sarsfeld, and
although it passed some of the design require-
ments it was found that the rocket accuracy at
long range was insu-fficient to place the torpedo
within lethal homing drstance of the target,
Thus MT-B was abandoned in favour of the
RAT-C whrch had by then been gtven the
designation RUR-SA Anti-Submarine Rocket
(ASROC). This had to undergo some redesign,
the fin area being considerably increased and
the launcher changed to carry only eight
rounds, At a later date the rocket weapon was
also upgraded ln capabilities by the adoption
of the Mk 46 torpedo as an alternative to the Mk
44.
2370
The ASROC system with its launcher was
then fitted to US Navy ships from the early 1960s
onwards, These were a mix of new-burld shlps,
cruiser conversions and the modifled FRAM-l
destroyers, The types fitted to date are the
'Albany' class (one launcher with no reloads),
the 'lrong Beach' class (one launcher with 20
rounds), the'Mitscher' class (one launcher with
16 rounds), the'Farragut'c1ass (one launcher
wrth no reloads), the 'l,eahy' and 'Bainbridge'
classes (one launcher with no reloads), the
'Belknap' and'Truxtun' classes (one combined
SAIWASROC launcher wrth 20 rounds), the
'Cahforma' class (one launcher with 24 rounds),
the 'Virginia' class (one combrned SAM/
ASROC launcher wrth 16 rounds), the con-
verted 'Forrest Sherman' classes (DDGs one
launcher with 16 rounds, and ASW ships one
launcher with 20 rounds), the 'Charles F,
Adams' class (one launcher wlth no reloads,
althouqh several units were later fitted wrth a
small four-round reload magazine), the
'Sprtance' class (one launcher with 24 rounds),
the 'Kidd' class (one combined SAIWASROC
launcher wlth 20 rounds), the 'Ticonderoga'
class (one combrned SAIWASROC launcher
with 20 rounds), FRAM-I destroyer conver-
sions (one launcher with 17 rounds), the 'Bron-
stein' class (one launcher wrth no reloads),
some of the 'Garcia' and 'Brooke' classes (one
launcher with 16 rounds), and the 'Knox' class
(one launcher with 16 rounds) The numbers
(especially aboard the frigate classes) are now
suspect as the ASROC launchers have lost
severai of their tubes to fire other missrles such
as the Harpoon SSM. The combination SA\4/
ASROC launchers were introduced in two
series, the Mk I0 Mod 7/8 aboard the'Belknap'
and 'Truxiun' classes with 20 ASROC rounds
rnterspersed wrth Terrrer/Standard SAMs in
the reloading nngs, and the modular Mk 26
vertical missile stowage system for the newer
ships, In both cases the fitting of the launchers
saved considerable space and top weight. The
Mk 16 pepperbox launcher has a crew of two
and ls capable of firing up to three rounds per
minute, The launcher elevation limits are from
- 3' to * 85', Even the ships without any reloads
rn the magazine carry a small box structure
close to the launcher with a disassembled load-
er inside for underway replenishment pur-
US Navy operational doctrine appears to be
to fire two torpedo-carrying ASROCs or one
nuclear-armed ASROC at a submerged target,
Under special circumstances the latter can also
be fired against surface ships and shore
targets.
Because of the raprd development of Soviet
submarine designs and the stand-off weapons
they carry, the ASROC has become outdated
as a result of its insufficient range capabilities,
Thus by the early I9B0s the Americans had
initiated a new vertical-launch version to be
fired from the vertical missrle launchers being
produced for the new generation of surface
ships and for retrofitting to the most capable of
the older ship classes, The payload remains a
homing torpedo of either the Mk 46 Mod 5
 Modern Underrruater Weapon Systems

Once the targef's course, speed axd

range are known, ASROC is
launched at the angle and direction
rnost likely ta effecl a successfuJ
intercept.

]. modern ASW vessel might detect a

submarine using passive soaar, and
i+il!thenbrinsfitshuLl-mounted'
sinar to bear to give target range
s.rdspeed.'r :: .

::iRTIP or the new Mk 50 Barracuda type.

:-: option of a nuclear depth charge will also
: -here if current or future American light-
=-;ht torpedo technology cannot match that
:e Soviet fourth- and hfth-generation deep-
,:,'-:E nuclear submarines. Even allowing for
- : :he older ASROC will remain around for a
', -1 many years yet in the arsenals of NATO
r r .Iher lriendly navies which have conven-
. -,.-- submarines as their primary opponents,
Above: In concept, ASROC is simply a ballistic
rocket designed to get a homing torpedo or a
nuclear depth charge into teasonable proximity of
anunderwater target, fromwhere the torpedo's
homing mechanism or the sheer power of a
nuclear blast can ensure a kill.
Below: The power of an underwater nuclear blas:
is stunning. It should be realized that the mounia::.
of water dwarfing the 3,500-ton destroyer USS
Agerholm rs actually several kilomelres beyond :-::
vesse/. Iftrs lestinMay 1962 was the first live hr::.;
ofnuclearASROC.

.J
 Anti-submarine warfare stand-off weapon (ASW-SOW)

Above: ASW-SOW is intended as thereplacementfor theobsoleteSUBROC carried byUSNavy attack submarines.

Planned to enter sewice sometime in the late 1980s, tfte ttrst vesse/s scheduled to receive it aie the'Los Angeles'
c/assSSJVs.

diameter 0,533 m (21 in)
Weight: 1224.7 ks (2,7 00 Ib)
Warhead: 362,9-kq (800'lb) Mk 5O
homing torpedo or nuclear depth
charge
Specification Performance: maximum speed Mach
A5W-SOW 1.5+; ranse 101-166,5 km (62.8-103.5
Dimensions: lengrth 6,4 m (21 ft); miles)
Above: An engineering model of
ASW-SOW is successfully launched
by B oeing in W ashington's Puget
Sound. The production missile will
carry either a Mk 50 Banacuda
Advanced LightweightTorpedo or a
nuclear depth charge. ASW - SOW
will have a speed of Mach I .5 plus.
Below: How Boeing envisage the
ASW - S OW beginnrhg its mr'ssion.
Atter the missile exits thewater, four
small wrap-around fins at the rcat of
the rocket motor casing deploy
automatically to stabilize it. A
separate version is being developed
for use by surface yesse,ls.

2372
€ tffr. oo CApToR mine
The aluminium-case Mk 60 CAPTOR
encapsulated torpedo mine is the US
Navy's principal offensive anti-
submanne warfare barrier weapon for
:se in the vicinity of deep-water routes
-rat enemy submannes are likely to
lavel without escort.
CAPTOR is fitted with a detection
ard control unit (DCU) that is capable
:f detecting and classifying submarine
:argets over an estrmated range of
- hn (0,62 miles) but gated to ignore
s:rface traffic. There is, however, no
-jentfication friend or foe system, so
units must be
=iendlyofsubmarine
;arned any laying or spots where
IAPTORs have already been de-
:lcyed. The current operational life of
-:e mrne rs believed to be sx months
-:-derwater before self-neutralization
:=vrces are activated, The initial
:arget detection is carried out by a
;assive sonar, while the optimum re-
-:ase time for the Mk 4 Mod 4 homing
torpedo payload (which is built with
the latest Mod 5 NEARTIP improve-
ments already implemented) rs deter-
mined by a second (active) rangnng
set,
CAPTORS may be lard by surface
ship, submarine or aircraft, the first
platform requiring only an over{he-
side boom or crane with a capacrty of
).247k9 (2,750 lb) to ensure corect
odentation of the mrne when it hits the
water. Any submarine with standard
533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes can lay a
CAPTOR, while aircraft deploy a para-
chute-equipped version, Likely war-
time airborne delivery platforms in-
clude SAC Boeing B-52Hs, US Narry
Lockheed P-3C Orions and PossiblY
Lockheed C-130 Hercules transports,
After several years of problems the
CAPTOR became fully oPerational in
1979, an improvement programme
being imtiated in the followrnq year. A
mrnimum of 2,500 CAPTORs are due to
Modern Underwater Weapon Systems
enter the US Nalry's inventory by the
time production ends.
Specification
CAPTOR
Dimensions: length airlswface-
launched 3,68 m ( 12,08 ft) or
submarinelaunched 3.5 I m ( I 1, 5 ft);
diameter0,533 m (21 in)
Weight: arrlsurface{aunched i IB4 kg
(2, 6 10 lb) or submannelaunched
1069 ks (2,356 ]b)
Payload:Mk 46 Mod4 hominqtorpedo
Maximumdepth:915 m (3,000 ft)
Right: CAPTOR mrnes can be
deployed by an over-the-side boom
or crane to ensure the correct
orientation of the mine when it lands
in thewater. Submarines can launch
CAPTOR through their torpedo
tubes. Aircraft deploying these
mines will include Boeing B-52Hs and
Lockheed P-3C Orions.

The active componen t of CAPTOR

consists of a Mk 46 Mod 4 lightweight
'torpedo, armed with a 43.5 - kg (9 6'
Ib) shaped charge warhead
designed to punch holes in pressure
hul&' The ALWT (Advanced
Lightw eigh t Tor pedo) curr enUY
vnder development may well be
::sed in modlle d form in the future.

E Mk 67 submarine-launched mobile mine (SLMM)

-:-e Mk 67 SLMM dual anti-ship anti-
.-imarine weapon is intended to pro-
;1e the US narry submarine force with
= :apabilrty for covert laying of grround
:lnence mines in heavily defended
--i,br relatively inaccessible shallow
ra:ers, The platform used to perform
-:-: operation is a modifled Mk 37 tor-
;+Co v,rth its warhead and homing sys-
=:s replaced by all the components
:-:eded to turn the weapon into a
;::cund mine, Single and multi-
*ence fusing systems have been
:=-,.eloped for this weapon and the
::,v mines of the Quickstrike Prog-
:-=:rne, At least 1,500 Mk 67s are re-
;-::ed to meet cunent US Navy re-
T-:rements, It is believed that a sub-
::-a:me will carry tvvo Mk 67s in place
:: each standard 533-mm (21-in) sized
ri.apon offloaded. At present al1 sub-
::-arme classes up to the 'lros Angeles'
:-ass are fitted for minelaying, but it
::-cu-ld be remembered that each sub-
:::arirre so loaded cannot carry many
:--:rer weapons, thLrs effectively limit-
:-g its operational flexibtlity,
Specification
MK6TSLMM
Dimensions: lenqth 4.09 m ( 13,4 ft);
:-ameter 0.485 m (19 in)
Weisht 753 ks (1,660 lb)
Warhead: estimated I59-227 kg (350-
:i0 lb) HE
Performance:speed 18 kts; maximum
:epth 100 m (330 ft); range 16.5 lan
-0.3 miles)

'Los Angeles' class aflack

submaiines can carry two Mk 67
mines in place of one standard 533'
mm Q I -in) torPedo. The M k 67 mine
g:ives tJS submarines the ability to lay
ground-influence mines in heavilY
defendedwaters.
& ffi ffi iffiih charses and bombs

Cardoen's AS-228 depth charge is

one of the last of the general purpose
Depth charges of the classicWorld War II sort have largely gone out of depth charges in the old style to be
fashion, with the notable exception of those arming the ASW helicopters manufactured, and is Launchable
which are in the front line of modern ASW effort. Aircraft such as tie SH-3Sea from surface ships and from the air.
King of the US Navy are even capable of carrying nuclear weapons. Most navies now reserve the depth
charge as a helicopter weapon
Specification Warhead: 80 kg (176 lb) HE (except the very special case of the
US Mk 16 Mod 0 (hydrostatic) and Mk Maximumdepth:90 m (295 ft) nuclear charge).
16 Mod I (acoustic) depth charges
Weiqht: 197.3 kq (435 ]b) US B57 Mod I air-dropped nuclear The sectioned model of Britis h
Maximum depth: 762 m (2,500 ft); the depthbomb Aerospace's air-launched Mk I l
Mod t hasno limit Dimensions: length 3 0 m (9.8 ft); depth charge displays many of the
diameter 0.374 m (1 23 ft) features common to suchweapons.
British Mk 11 Mod 3 air-dropped depth Weight: 347 kq (765 lb) The tail fins break off on impactwith
charge Warhead: 5/10-kiloton yield W57 the water, allowing hydropneumatic
Dimensions: length 1.40 m (4 6 ft); flssron weapon arming. The Mk I I is designed
drameter 0,28 m (0.92 ft) Maximumdepth: about 1000 m specifically for deployment from
Weisht: 144.7 kq (3 l9 lb) (3 280 ft) helicopters and MR aircraft.

:
ToKillclSub
Since the early years of this century the submarinehas been one of the fewweapon
systems that could truly be called 'strategic'. Its ability to choke the seaborne
commerce of a nation, and more recently inflict nuclear destruction uponwhole
populations in a fashion undreamed-of qnly 30 years ago, has made the techniques
to seek it out and destroy it absolutelyvital.
lhe destruction of a submarine is the flnai act tn
a series of actions, Taken in logical sequence
iese are the detection, classificatlon and loca-
-zation of the target, and then its destruction,
-he first is usually achieved by some type of
::oustic sensor (such as a sonar or sonobuoy),
:r by ESM or by radar depending on what
s_,.siems the hunter is carrying, Once a target is
:etected it must first be confirmed as a genuine
simarine contact (the classification phase)
position accurately fixed by the
=d then its
:-atform's sensors (the localization phase) tn
::der for the attack to be carried out with a
',';eapon approprrate for the environment.
Nuclearcharge
By far the easiest way to ensure the destruc-
::n of the target is to use a nuclear depth
r:arge or bomb, However, although such a
-,'.eapon has a wide lethal radrus, its use pre-
-,-:nts further acoustic sensor operations over a
,';Ce area, This condition lasts lor a significant
;=riod as a result of the undei'water sound
:=-:erberations caused by the explosion, At the
: -irer extreme is the use of patterns of ship- or
=:-launched conventional depth charges or
::rilar weapons, These require precise plac-
:-g on and around the target in order for their
:'riact or proxrmlty fusing systems to be suc-
,:ssirlly trrggered,
Nowadays such weapons also require sur-
-=:e ships fitted wrth such systems to come to
;. -:rin an unacceptably close distance of the
=:qet's own defensive weapons. In order to
:'.-=rcome these difficulties and to match the
performance of later sonars, the hghtwerqht
homing torpedo was developed, This has
generally replaced the mortar and depth
charge thrower in most navies, and in theory
matches the area nuclear weapon in terms oiits
engagement envelope, but still needing either
direct contact or very close proximity to the
target for detonation purposes, The Soviet use
oi double-hull submarine desrgns has resulted
in the original blast type warheads of older
torpedoes (such as the Mk 44 and the Mk 46)
being replaced on new weapons (such as the
Stingray and Mk 50 Barracuda) by a shaped-
charge type which essentially punches a small
hole in the metal, At the depths at whtch most
nuclear submarines are found, water pressure
does the rest, To extend the engagement
range of such torpedoes farther, it has proved
possible to add either a rocket motor or wing-
ed missile casings. The US Navy led the way
with its ASROC and SUBROC systems for its
torpedoes and nuclear depth charges, while
the Sovlets followed later with what were in-
itially its own 'Sovietized' variants of the two
(the FRAS-1 and the SS-N-15 probably based
on stolen plans) and then with the SS-N-14 For the future, undoubtedly themosl adrance.'
winged missile and the SS-N-16 iorpedo- anti-submarine system will be the American .F5\- '
carrying submarine-launched missile. SOW system, with signifi cant improvements ::
guidance and double the range of ASROC.
In all cases the vehicles used to transport the
torpedo or depth charge to the vicrnity of the
The best hunter of submarines is oflen ancCie:
target uses a guidance system and some type subm arine, armed with a high- speed,
of weapon-release unit, Once in the water the heavy,weight torpedo. Here a M k 2 4'Tiger1s:
torpedo carries out a preprogrammed search wire-guided torpedois being loaded into a
pattern, while the depth charge simply slnks to 'Churchill' class nuclear fleet submartne of :e
a predetermined depth before exploding. RoyalNavy.
To Kill a Sub

Only the nuclear depth charge is relatively

immune to target countermeasures, such as the
use of decoys or anechoic hul1 coatings to de-
grade sonar transmissrons, However, whatever
the weapon employed against it, the sub-
marlne has a period of grace called the 'blind
time', This is the period duringwhrch the ASW
projectrle is approaching the calculated posi-
tion of the target. How much safety this gives to
the submarine depends upon the nature of the
attack, how good the submarine detection sys-
tems are, how fast the submarine can run sub-
merged, its manoeuvrabllity, and the maximum
depth to which rt can dive, For instance a Soviet
navy 'Alpha' class nuclear attack submarine
can easily defeat all but a nuclear depth charge
attack, diving extremely deep below the oper-
atronal depth of most lighhveight torpedoes
and by performing evasive manoeuvres at
speeds above those possible by most Western
surface ships and submarines, This is not even
taking rnto consideration the use of mobile de-
coys or the submarine's anecholc coating. In posrtlon data for the torpedo controller, The combination of the lightweight, high-speed
the case of the Mk 46, the sonar acqursition For the future the possibility of putting a torpedo allied to the ASW-dedicated helicopter
range rs reduced by some 30 per cent against towed sonar array on a torpedo is being ex- (often with its own detection equipment) has
such a coating, although the latest Mod 5 plored. This will provide a more accurate loca- widened the area of actionof themodernwarship
to a tremendous extent. The ocean has not been
NEARTIP version is designed to overcome this lizatron system than currently provided aboard
conquered,however, andnature can often play
problem and restore the q-ridance system's most platforms, as well as making the weapon havocwith the most advanced of man's inventions.
original parameters, Obviously this is an ex- even more lndependent than before, The frnal
treme scenario as most submarines in the version could very well be an intelligent torpe-
Soviet navy are less capable than the 'Aiphas'. do fltted wlth lFF logic circuits, dormant actron tion of a target brings rt to life again, A hnear
For use against Soviet submarines, the prim- circuits and a linear array, The Americans sonar array could then be deployed as the
ary weapon of Western submarines ls the would appear to be some way along this road torpedo gets underway to home the weapon
healyweight torpedo, This uses wire-guided with their Mk 60 CAPTOR mine, which sits in into a position where an active ranging sonar
homing units to drrect the torpedo into the deep water waiting {br a target to come within can direct the terminal attack phase at high
viclnlty of the target, where its own active/ range of its sensors so that it can fire the
passive sonars take over for the terminal attack onboard Mk 64 Mod 4 torpedo, It may be possi-
phase, Once in contact or very close proximity ble even at some stage to modrfy the new Mk
to the targel a heavy blast-type warhead ex- 67 SLMM wlth new technology so that it can be The tinal line of defence against the submarine on
plodes to damage or destroy the hull, The rnr- fired at slow speed into the vicimty of a Soviet almost 250 major vessels of western navies is
tral wire gnridance relies on the use of the sub- submarine base, where it slnks to the boltom provided by ASROC, seen here launched from a
marine's own sonar systems to provide target and lies dormant until a passive sonar rndica- 'Brooke' class frigate of the US Navy.
 il iUU anti-sulcmarine rocket-launchers
Over the years the USSR has de-
veloped a number of multi-barrel
rocket-launchers under the desig-
ration Raketnaya Bombometnaya
Jstaovka (RBU), and these use the
ehead-firing'hedgehog' principle. The
:trckets are rmmune to torpedo coun-
::rmeasure's, and under cenain cir-
rxrlstances can actually be used as
l:rti-torpedo weapons if there is
::rough warning. All the rockets are
=..ed with either contact or magmetic
'luence fuses. The most lr,'rdely used
;=rsion is the fully automatic 250-mm
:34-rn) R8U6000, whtch entered ser-
r:e in 1962. The l2-barrel launcher is
::alged in a horseshoe shape with
=-::omatic fuse setting systems, and the
:::kets are fired rn a paired sequence,
-:: HR projectrle weighs 70kg
-:{ lb) overall, and }oading is accom-
;'-.hed barrel by barrel with the laun-
:::: :.n the veflical posltion.
lre RBU6o0 is usually fitted ln con-
-:lion with the fu11y automatic sx-
:a:ei 300-mm (11,81-in) RBUI000 of
-:-= same date, but which uses a larger
:::<et wlth a 55-kg (12]-lb) warhead.
:arlier
systems of the RBU series
-:-:de the 1957-vintage automatic
-r--mm 16-barrel RBU2500 with manu-
=- ::loadrnq; the 1958-vintaqe five-
1illi\::,-::{i+ai:ii**E:l===:=:
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The 250-mm calibre rocket used in the various Soviet multiple launcher systems has a warhead weighing up to
34 kg (75 lb). These are not wided systems, the rockets being fired in patterns to bracket a target.
barrel 250-mm RBUI200 with manual
reloding, automatic elevation but
manual training; and the 1960-vintage
sx-barrel manually reloaded RBU600,
Most systems have three to five com-
plete sets of reload rounds in the ship's
magazines, while the rocket types are
common to each cahbre except that
the RBU1200 fires an earlier type of
rocket with a 34-kg (751b) HE war-
head,
Practically all the Warsaw Pact
navies use one or more RBU systems,
and Soviet client states also use them
widely, The People's Republic of Chi-
na has taken some of the earlier de-
signs and produced its own variants,

Specification
PBU series

reapon calibre range barrel weights

lenqth rocket warhead
:: _5000 250 mm 6kn 1,6 m 70 kg 2I ks
(9,84 in) (3,73 mrles) (5 25 ft) (r54 lb) (46.3 ]b)
a:12500 250 mm 2.5 km L6 m 70 kq 21, kg Above: A Soviet 'Petya' class patrol Below : Soviet' Krivak' class frigates
(9 84 in) (1.55 miles) (5 25 ft) (i54 Ib) (46,3 lb) vessel, on station in one of the Soviet have a considerable anti-submarine
250 mm 1,2 km 1.4 m 70 kq 34 kq navy's now regular forays into the potential. Among the w eapon
(9,84 in) (0.75 mrles) (4 6 ft) (r54 lb) (75 Ib) waters around the Philippines, systems carried are two of the
ra - 300 300 mm lkn 1,5 m 120 ks 55 kg displays her twin I 2-barrelled RBU ubiquitous 1 2-barrel RBU 600A A.Svll
(11,81 in) (0,62 miles) (5 ft) (265 ib) (i21 rb) 6000 rocket launchers, aswell as the rocket I auncher s, mou nted aheaa ot
300 mm 0.6 km 1.5 m 120 kq 55 ks desire ofSouiet sailors to getin as the main bridge structure.
(11,81 in) (0,37 miles) (s ft) (265 lb) (121 lb) muc h sunbathing as possr'b,le.

ffi

tr
fii
I nbw rising mines and CAPTOR type mines
L Fins-l anti-submarine warfare rocket
-:,e FRAS-I (Free Rocket Anti-
S^;:rarine) is an ungutded single-
s:age solid-fuel ballistic weapon which
;;.< Ceveloped from the Soviet army's
::.3G arlillery rocket senes, and en-
::ei service in 1967, Tarqet ranqe
::,d bearing data are obtained by the
-l'::-ch platform's own long-range low-
l:qJency sonar sets, These data are
:---: used to calculate the tarQlet's pre-
i::ed course so that the launcher can
:: armed to give the optimum rocket
-:_3ctory. The uncertainty of placinqr
::-: rocket within a conventional
fields with risinq mines, some of the
hominq torpedo payloads could be
specificially tuned to attack the NATO
deep-water mine-countermeasures
vessels tasked with sweeping them,
Primary delivery platforms for all three
types are submarines, while barners
can be sown by surface shrps and air-
craft the iatter beinqr ideally surted for
renewrnq a fleld and as a last reaction
force,
weapon kill zone is considerably re-
duced by the use of a l5-kiloton yteld
pressure-fused nuclear depth charge
as the payload. Recent inlormation -n-
dicates that there is now a vartant ofthe
rocket fltted with a 450-mm (17,7-1n)
acoustic-hominq torpedo as the
payload for use in conventional con-
flrcts. The launcher is designated the
SUW-N-I by NATO, and is similar in
design to the surface{o-air launchers
of the SA-N-1/3 series with twin rarls.
Only two classes are fitted with the
system: the hvo 'Moskva' class heltcop-
Specification
risingmine
Type: moored acoustic influence
Layingdepth: 600 m (1,970 ft)
Warhead:225 kq (496 lb) HE
Weight: 1200 ks (2,646 Ib)
CAPTORtlpemine
Type: moored acoustic torpedo
caffleI
Layingdepth: 750 m (2,460 ft)
ter cruisers and the four 'Kiev' class
aircraft-carriers. In each case the sys-
tem comprises one SUW-N-I launcher
on the forward end of the ship with a
below-decks magazine of 20 rounds,
Specifi cation (provisional)
FRAS-I
Dimensions: Iength 6,2 m (20,3 ft); wing
span 1.3 m (4,3 ft); diameter 0.7 m
(2 29 ft)
Weisht: 800 kq ( 1,764 lb)
Warhead: 5-kiloton yield fission
1 position (calculated from the target's
weapon or 450-mm (17.7-in) acoustic-
Unlike the US Navy, the SovietUnion
has a large force of conventionally
powered submarines. These boats,
such as this 'Tango' seen off the
British Isles, would undoubtedly use
their inherent quietness in laying
mines at strategic points.
Payload: 450-mm (17 7-in) acoustic-
homingrtorpedo
Weisht: 1500 kg (3 307 ]b)
homingtorpedo
Performance: maximum speed Mach
1 f ; range 30 km ( 18,6 miles)
The bowview of the'Kiev'class
carrierMinsk operating in theEast
ChinaSea displays both theRBU 6004
launchers and the twin launcher for
the much larger FRAS- I rockets. T he
missiles are launched on ballistic
trajectories towards the target
course and speed).
 FRAS- I anti-submarine warfare rocket (continued)

T he FRAS - 1 (Free Rocket Anti-

Submarine) is reputedly based upon
:he Soviet army's unguided FROG
::rjssrJe. The 30-kn (18.6-mile) range
and lack of guidance implies na
gireat accuracy, butwith a 15-kiloton
:.uclearwarhead accuracy is not
stictly essential.

E Hil-N-I4 anti-submarine missile

= SS-N-14 'Silex' conceptually re-
,-:-::les the Austraiian lkara and
::=:-:l Malaion in that a subsonic
---;:3 vehicle carryinq a homing tor-
-:: r cJurded to the promxrmity ol a
::*::ged target, whereupon the pa
.

. : -.: retarded payload is released

.'' :,:-.r,ater to make the final attack,
. :r-lliant piece of deceptron the
: ='- nanaged to make NATO be-
. - = ::: this missile was in fact a tac-
.- jSl',I As part of this plan the first
."---;: equipped with 'Silex' laun-
: -r.'.1':ri to sea rn 1968 althouqh the
' ..-= -.:eliwas not carried until 1974.
- - i j-l,-14 also has a secondary anti-
,: :- : Carned in quaciruple laun-
'
=:. -, .';o drstinct types, the 'Silex'
-,: ,--: :raLn ASW armament of the
:i: !-:=sta il' and 'Udaloy' ciass
:- -:-i ,-,- ships, and of the 'Krivak I'
., l-:,.:< II series missile patrol
-, :=:udedmissile crtiserKirov
,
. " .-.- ::, ,ts forecastle a twin laun-
: -,,::- is reloadable from a 16-
.. : :=;:azine below decks. The
: -: -:-j ,', '.-essels carry eigtht rounds and 'Kresta II' classes s effected by the Specification The quadruple SS-.N- j 4 --::-s:- :
; launchers on eilher sicie :: :.=
- -. :" :-:=i:
= larro1 boats only have four SA-N-3'Headllght flre-control radars ss-N-14
:arrred is beiieved to be while on the other platforms it is a dedi- Dimensions: length 7,6 m (24 9 ft); wing bridge of a'Kara' class c:::-sc: -: :i.
. ::. nF'l (l 1.1-rn) acousttc- cated 'Eye Bowi'radar drrector Up to span L l m (3 6 ft); diameter 0.55 m indication of the size olSc;:s :
'- - I -l: ,.;ith a 100 kq (220 lb) HE two missiles at a time can be giuided, (rBft) shipborne systems.
:. -::r -:- variant with a nucleat The minimum enqtagement rangte for Weisht: lO00 kq(2,20S lb)
:-: :-:-: s also likely, withayteld any target type is sard to be 7 4 km (4,6 Payload: 450-mm ( I 7. 7-rn) acoustic- Performance: ,-! :: I '.' . - :

- : .,:-- ::: Guidance on the 'Kara' miles) homing torpedo 55 km (34 2 m,les

Left: The plethora ofweapon and
sensors/stem.s comman to all Soviet
warships is dominatedon this
'Krivak' class frigate (seen in the
EnglishChannel) by the massive
quadruple bow Launcher for four SS-
N- l4 missiles.Theweapon is
believed to be similar to the Malafon
and lkara systems.
Below: A close-up o{ the s-=;= z:=
s tar bo ar d q u a drupre .:-:-.-.- :
Iauncher of the,iarge a::-s'::.= =---:
dedicate d d estro-ver UCi: r' :-. :
shows one o{the EJe Ec;t. -:e
control radars assoc:a:e: ;l::: t::
SS-N-J4system kisibie a:cp :.'=
bridge immediate 17 aba',' e :. =
massjye missile c ontat e: s. .

e
f Ht-fv-I5 and SS-N-I6 anti-submarine missiles
-:-e SS-N- I5 submarine{aunched antr-
s:bmarine missrle entered operational
ser vrce in 1972, and rs believed to have
been developed from technology
fained by the GRU military intelli-
jence service during operations
agairct the American SUBROC sys-
:em. Fired from standard 533-mm (21-
r) torpedo tubes, the inertially gnrided
soiid-fuel rocket-powered SS-N- 15 fol-
,rc;vs a short underwater path before
-rcachinq the surface to fly an air-
b:rre tra.;ectory to the predicted
::r;e: zcre. On reaching this a nuclear
::r-: ccmb of l5-kilotorr yield is re-
.=..: i :: conttnue on a bal.listic course
r:-' -- enters the water, The bomb
-,-3:- s-iks to a preset depth, where its
!:=3J-le fuse detonates the warhead.
-:':;=: sribmarine types known to have
:e=:: lited v,rth the missile system are
-:: ::'.iclear-powered 'Victor I', 'Victor
-,-rcior
IlI', 'Sierra', 'Alpha', 'Akula',
-l,'<e. Char[e I, 'Charlie II', 'Papa'and
ls::: clasqes, plus the conventionally
;,:-,.;ered'Tangto' class,
-:: :he mid-1970s a development of
:= SS N-15 appeared in the form of the
--;er-calrbre and longer-ranged in-
::--aiiy gurded solid-fuel rocket-
;:rered SS-N-16. which carries an
:::.:stic homlng ASW torpedo as its
!a-,-ioad rn lieu of a nuclear depth
:':ri. Fred like the SS-N-15, it differs
-:- -:at over the target area a parachute 'Mike' and'Akula' classes. Both mrssile Performance: maximum speed Mach Believed to havebeen builtfrom
--sed to lower the weapon to the types have secondary antr-ship roles 1.5; range 37 km (23 miles) plans stolenfrcm theUS Navy, the
=
'.';::er. where ils protective nose cap is SS-/V- J 5 r lirfed to Soviet nuclear
:e-:ased. Once it has sunk to a preset ss-N-r6 boats as well as diesel-powered
i:c:n the torpedo starts a proqram- Specification Dimensions: length 6,5 m (21,3 ft); 'Tango' class vesse,ls, seen ftere.
:-:i senes of search manoelrvres, a ss,N-15 diameter 0.618 m (24.3 in)
,:=:inal attack manoeuwe being used Dimensions: Iength 6.5 m (21.3 ft): Weisht: 2150 ks (4 740 ]b)
:: any target encountered.
=rgage fitted with thrs
diameter 0.533 m (21 in) Warhead: 450-mm ( 17,7-in) acoustic- The'Alpha' clast fftefa^stesf (and
Sinarures missile are Weight: 1900 kg (4, iB9 lb) homingtorpedo probably the most expensive) boats
:e reved to include the'Victor II', 'Vic- Warhead: l5-kiloton yield fission Performance: maximum speed Mach intheworld, are known to havebeen
::r IIL 'Sierra', 'Charlie II', 'Oscar', weapon 1,5; ranse 55 km (34,2 miles) fitted with ffi e SS-IV-JSSUAROC copy.

? 380
Armed Forces of the World

The Army
',:wamemberof NATO,Soa- s - -^:'-' --':es
' ronstitutional change afte: jl , =.-. a' ::-::^ai
. .'rrorship by General tra'-: --- --:-l:: -:.e
. roed a major shake-up o' .^: .--=: '.'.=;.
- -nistoculminate na"eo-gr- -:'-' ,'.-:- l'
.-. -egions and bythe end oi.l 33: - -: -'l'-zn
=
'- r -ction in the army manpov.'e-
-: =.: :- ' :5 lOO.-
3rmy is divided into two sec:.-s. .-: --ed
. rtervention Force (Fuerza Ce
- '::',:-a ln m-
' : r rtd, or Fll, organized fo'r tb - : ::'i. -' : a' r-
=': n Spa noritsoverseasooj:::: -- : j-i lne
-=--.crlal Defence Force (Fuerza ce l:'eis: Oper
., oel Terr.torio, or FDOT, 'o' :- -, :='='-= c'I'e
- .:ry regions rn which they are siei credi; and
---= is an aviation element.
--: compositlon of these format ons s as fol
MBT in recent years, and which has also designed Despite the pace of social change followtng :.e
-:rcrps headquarters, and built the current BLR and BMR series of death of General Franco, the S p anis h anr'ea,'. : lti
, - - :rmoured division (with two armoured brigades armoured vehicles. For the f uture there ls the Lince have remained loyal to KingJuan Carlos. ]i!cs:
MBT programme, which will be a locally-built ver- heavyweapons like this 105-mm howltzer a:?
.^C a further brigade in cadre), imported from the USA but soft vehicles i:ke :-:
: - = -nechanized dlvislon (with one mechanized and sion of a modern MBT for the late 'l 980s. Pegaso truck are locally produced.
, - e motorized briqade and a f urther motorlzed The basic weapon types used by the Spanrsh
-
- gade in cadre), army are listed below. launchers, 106-mm (4.11-in) M40 r::: =-= '-.
'= Totorized division (with two motorized and Milan, Cobra, TOW, Drago" :' : - -
-
a rmou r : AMX-30, M47 E, M 47 E1, M47 E2 and
: - gades and a further brigade in cadre. to be ATGWs;
,:graded to a mechanized division),
M4BA5E MBTs, M41 llqhttank, AML 60 and 90 smallarms:7.62-mm (0.3-in) CETI'i :- --- j - '- :
armoured cars, VEC armoured scout car, BMR- andT .62-mm42158 rrach ne{J-: = i' :
.- -:rmoured cavalry brigade (of three regiments),
600 lFV, BLRAPCand M113APC;
- :arachute brigade (ofthree battalions), aviation: Bell UH-'1 B/UH-1 H, 46ros:::= = -, --'- -
--
=
- : rportable brigade (of two infantry battalrons
artillery: (self propelled) 105-mm M108, 1 55-mm
(6 1-in) M'1 09rM109A1/1v110942, 155-mm M44,
lll,MBBBO105,Agusta-Bel Ai ":- -:- -.
BellAB.212, Bell OH-5BA and Bc = :' - . -
., .r a third in cadre), '175-mm (6 89- n) M 107 and 203-mm (B-ln) M1 10; =
:

^iantry brigade (reserve) CH-47D helicopters.

(towed) '1 05-mm Model 56 pack howitzer, 105-
^ eavy artillery brigade,
mm m'26 howitzer, 155-mm M1 14 howitzerand ln addition to the FDOT, tlere ;'= : : - ... : -'
- ultiple rocket-launcher regiment, 203-mm M1 15 howitzer; seascommandsfortheBalearicarc Cz-.-. . =- -.
, rdefence regiment, (M RLs) 1 40-mm (5.5-in) Teruel. 21 6-mm (8.5-in) plus the garrisons at Ceuta and l": -. -
, t Llery-locating regiment, L21 I E2lE3 and 300-mm ('l 1 .8-in) L-1 0/D3 ; Africa. The last has two regne-.= -':-::- "--- "
-,. - - - :_. '
=rgineer regiment, "s tr-ee -'
(coastal) BB-mm (3.46-in), 152-mm (6-in), 203-mm (North African) troops p
. gnals regiment, and (8-in), 305-mm (12-in)and 381-mm (15-in) guns; ments, while the fourth Tercio '.q - =-' : :: : - . -
',3C defence regiment.
:ll can also call upon the independent Royal (mortars) various Esperanza 60-, 81-and 1 20-mm in the Canaries wth lhree add t - - . -'-'-.- ::
(2.36-, 3.1 B- and 4.72-in) models, 81-mm ments and support troops. The 3z -,. - : --
':s Regiment.) =.' =
M 1 2541lM 1 2542 and 1 20-mm M 1 2541 self- threeinfantryregimentsw,t-s,:a -:.'- -t: :: -
:DOT propelled mortars; are nearer to Spain.
-ountain divisions (each with a mountain nti-ai r : 1 2.7 -mm (0.5-in) M 55, 20-m m Rh202, 20-
The arrival of many G erman gun des: ;:.=: : -': : :
- a
mm GAI-BO1, 35-mm (1 .37-in) GDF-002, 40-mm World War II gave a great boost to Spa-ls-: s::: : -
-
- Jade of three mountain infantry battalions and
* ountain engineer battalion and a second (1 57-ln) Bofors L/70and90-mm (3.54-in) M1 17 arms production. These CETME assa:,; r:'les ;"g"-:
=
-- , Jntain brigade in cadre; one motorized infantry guns, and Nike Hercules, lmproved HAWKand developed by the Mauser team anc',+'e:e ::: ::
, .::a ron; one artlllery rdgiment; one parachute AMX-30 Roland SAMs; the first rifles to be able to fire a fuli sc',+'=: ::'::.=
,- - cany; one engineer battalion and one aviation a nti-a rm ou r : BB.9-mm (3.5-in) M65 rocket- from an unlocked breech.
:-:llon),
=
.

-
-
--
3n mountain (orAlpine) brigade;
- - - -'antry brigades (each with three infantry
:. -.a'ons, an artillerybattalion, a reconnalssance
: - cany, an engineer company and a signals
, - - oany; these brigades are being reorganized),
' ,' ::reign Legion {Tercio) regiments (each of two
: t --a OnS),
' : .'t;liery brigade (including SAM elements),
: -eavy anillery regirnents,
- :oastal artillery brigade (of two regiments),
=
- rdependent coastal artillery regiments,
-
-- .rti-tank infantry regirnent,
. - :rg neer regiment,
':
- way engineer regiments, and
-r : laals regiment.
--: nfantry equipment is on the whole designed
, : -:duced indigenously, while most of the heavy
. and armour are imported f rom the USA or
: ,-::. '::rsHowever, there is a growing heavy arms
elrl*-;;' ,.l!t:+ i'' :'r
- -..-. which has licence-built the French AMX-30
Armed Forces of the World
McDonnell Douglas F-4C Phantoms make up two
of the six interceptor squadrons assigned to Air
Combat Command (MACOM). A modernization
prograrnme k now under wayandSpain ft as
recently ordered 72 M$onnell Douglas F/A-[8A
Hornets from the USA.
The Navy
These foreign outposts are supported by a strong
navy of 57,000 men divided into nine commands
including a marine force and naval air arm. The
marines comprise 12,000 men divided into a marine
landing regiment (for intervention purposes) and
five garrison regiments located mainly in the islands.
The naval air arm provides all the aircraft for use
on the carrier and surface warshlps, plus some of
the airlift capability for the marines. ln a major up-
grading '1 2 McDonnell Douglas AV-88 Bravo V/
STOL fighters have been ordered, together with six
Sikorsky SH-60B Sea Hawk ASW helicopters for
delivery later in the decade.
A continuing programme of licence-built surface
ship and submarine production is turning the Span-
ish navy into a well-balanced force able to defend
the Spanish coast, Spain's dependencies and va-
rious NATO sea routes.
The navy currently comprises the following units:
one ASW carrier lDedalo to be replaced in 1986 by
Principe de Asturiasl, 11 destroyers (one 'de Lauria',
five ex-'Gearing' and five ex-'Fletcher'), 14 frigates
(five 'Baleares', six'Descubierta' plus three 'FFG-7'
building), 8 submarines (four 'Agosta' and four
'Daphne'), four corvettes. 30 large patrol craft, 64
coastal and inshore patrol craft, '12 coastal and
ocean minesweepers, two attack transports, one
LSD, three LSTs, seven LCTs. two LCUs and 20
LCMs.
The naval air arm consists of one attack, one
communications and five helicopter squadrons with
BAe AV-BA Matador V/STOL fighters, and Agusta-
Bell 48.212, Hughes 369, Sikorsky SH-3D Sea King
and Bell 47G helicopters, plus Piper Comanche and
Cessna Citation fixed-wing transports.
The Air Force
To provide air defence for the country and support
for the army and navy, the Spanish air force has a seat and F-5 B two-seater f ig hters, 1 4 tralning sq uad-
number of commands. The main one is the Air Com-
bat Command (MACOM) which is tied in with the
air-defence radar network and has three wings of
two squadrons each. The wings each fly a single
type of aircraft, namelythe McDonnell Douglas F-4C
and RF-4C Phantom, Dassault-Breguet Mirage lllEE
and Dassault-Breguet Mirage F.1CE fighters. For
the army and maritime strike support the Tactical
Command (N/ATAC) has two wings: these com-
prise two ground-attack/tactical reconnaissance
squadrons with locally-built Northrop F-SA and RF-
5A fighter-bombers, a reconnaissance squadron of
the indigenous Hispano NA-220 Saetta light strike
aircraft, a maritime patrol/ASW squadron of Lock-
heed P-3B Orions and a light observation/liaison
flight with Cessna O-1 E Bird Dogs and Dornier Do
27s and Do 2Bs.
The Canary lslands are covered by a separate air
command which has a single air-defence/ground-
attack squadron of Mirage F.1 CEs, a SAR squadron
with Fokker F.27 maritime MR aircraft and helicop-
ters, and a fixed-wing transport squadron.
To support the operational commands and the
army in the field. there is the Transport Command
(MATRA) which has three wings of five squadrons
flying the Lockheed C-130H Hercules. CASA C-2'1 2
Aviocar, de Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribou, Dor-
nier Do 27 and CASA 207 Azor fixed-wing trans-
ports, together with six Lockheed KC-130H Her-
cules tanker aircraft for inf light+ef uelling.
All aircrew tralning is undertaken by the Training
Command (MAPER) which has two fast-jet oper-
ational conversion units with Northrop F-5A single-
rons with single- and multi-engine primary and basic
piston-engined trainers, plus a jet component of
Lockheed T-33A and CASA C-l01 basic and adv-
anced trainers. The helicopter training syllabus is
undertaken by two squadrons flying Agusta-Bell
AB.47, Agusta-Bell A8.205, Hughes 300C and Bell
UH-1 H models.
For the specialist transport, SAR and VIP roles
the
air force HO(ACGA) has two SAR, two transport,
three support, one utility and one training squadrons
that between them fly over 15 different types of
aircraft and helicopters.
There is a modernization programme to replace
the older combat aircraft types with an order recent-
ly placed for 72 McDonnell Douglas F/A-1 8 A Hornet
multi-role fighters. The maritime patrol force is also
to be upgraded by the acquisitron of two modern
Lockheed P-3C Orions plus additional quantities of
the CASA C-212 SAR variant.
The para-military and internal see urity role in Spain
is undertaken by the 63,500 strong Civil Guard
(Guardia Civil), which is divided into infantry regi-
ments and specialist units. lt is equipped with BLR
lFVs and light helicopters of the BO 105 and MBB/
Kawasaki BK '1 17 types. The Civil Guard is backed by
the 47.000-man Armed Police (Policia Armada)
which is divided into infantry battalions, cavalry
squadrons and troops, civil security groups and a
special operations commando group. These act as
the government's riot police in urban disturbances.
Coastal monitoring and customs work is performed
by the Maritime Surveillance Force with over 50
armed patrol boats.
CASAis one of Europe's oldest aviation
companr'es. Recently involved in collaborative
ventures like the A300 Airbus, it also produced
Northrop F-is under licence for fie,Spanisfi arr
force. The C-101 Aviojets seen here in training
colours were produced with assistance from
NorthropandMBB.