Applied Geomechanics (CIVL4401) 2.

Basic Soil Mechanics

2 Basic Soil Mechanics

2.1 What is soil?

2.1.1 Measures of composition

Void ratio (e) = Vv/Vs
Porosity (n) = Vv/V = e/(1+e)
Specific volume (v) = V/Vs = 1+e
Water content (w) = Mw/Ms
Degree of saturation (Sr) = Vw/Vv = wGs/e
Air content (A) = Va/V = n(1- Sr)
Relative density (Dr) = (emax-e)/(emax-emin)

2.1.2 Basic description of soil

Soil particles are decomposed and weathered rock fragments of various sizes:

Clay fraction < 0.002mm; Silt fraction [0.002mm and 0.063mm]

Sand fraction [0.075mm and 2mm] Gravel fraction [2mm and 60mm]

Fines content <0.075mm Coarse fraction > 0.075mm

Gravel: more than 50% of the coarse fraction >2mm

Sand: more than 50% of coarse fraction between 0.075mm and 2mm
Silt/Clay: more than 50% smaller than 0.075mm

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Applied Geomechanics (CIVL4401) 2. Basic Soil Mechanics

Example of PSDs

Chemical weathering (e.g. acid rain) leads to the formation of clay minerals. For example, for
weathering of igneous rock: Quartz (SiO2) will not change, orthoclase and plagioclase
feldspars convert to kaolinite and smectite respectively and black minerals (micas) convert to
illite. The clay minerals form in plate-like groups, where each group comprises various sheet
combinations of SiO4 tetrahedra and Al2(OH)6 octahedra; these are tied together by H+, K+ or
H2O. The plates are surrounded by a layer of adsorbed water. In natural soils, clay minerals
occur in groups which link together larger sized particles. They represent at most 40% of the
soil particles present but serve to give the soil a sticky/cohesive/plastic characteristic and
reduce its permeability greatly. The clay fraction (i.e. particles <0.002mm) may also
comprise ‘ground-down’ rock and there is therefore a need to distinguish between clay
content (CC) and clay fraction (CF).

Soil is generally described using the following format:

Consistency-Colour-Structure-secondary soil type -Soil type + additional data

e.g. Stiff grey fissured silty CLAY with occasional shells

Medium dense-light brown sandy GRAVEL

Consistency: Sands and gravels (loose, medium dense, dense)

Clays (soft, firm, stiff, hard)
Silts (soft/loose, stiff/dense)

Structure in clays: laminated, fissured, cemented

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2.1.3 Coarse grained soils

The mechanical characteristics (i.e. stiffness and strength) of sands and gravels are governed by
void ratio/relative density, mineralogy, structure, angularity, uniformity, cementation, age and
overconsolidation ratio. After sieve analyses, the soil grading is represented on a particle size
distribution (PSD) chart. For a sand or gravel, this distribution is usually summarised by the
material’s D50 and UC= D60/D10. Typical further indices used are:
• Dry unit weight = wGs/(1+e)
• Saturated unit weight = w [Gs +e]/(1+e); Gs 2.65
• Dr = relative density, Dr = (emax – e)/(emax – emin)
• F(e) = void ratio function such as F(e)=(2.17 – e)2/(1+e)

Typical maximum and minimum void ratios

emax emin
UC (=D60/D10) Rounded Angular Rounded Angular
_____________________________________________________________________
1 (very uniform) 0.80 1.30 0.50 0.80
2 0.60 1.20 0.40 0.65
5 0.50 0.90 0.30 0.50
10 (well graded) 0.40 0.70 0.25 0.40

For coarse grained soils with a fines content <20%, the permeability (k) may be estimated from
Hazen’s formula: k= 0.01 (D10)2 m/s, where D10 is the maximum size in mm of the smallest
10% fraction of the material. Because of the loss of fines when retrieving conventional bulk
samples, D10 for use in Hazen’s expression is often taken as the minimum D10 value obtained in
PSD’s on a range of samples.

2.1.4 Fine grained soils

The clay and silt fraction (determined from a sedimentation or hydrometer analysis) often
used to summarise the particle size distribution of a silt or clay. However, grading alone is
often insufficient to describe the basic nature of a clay or silt. This led to the development of
Atterberg limits (LL and PL); only material passing a 0.425mm sieve is used to measure the
LL and PL. The undrained shear strengths of the soil at the LL and PL are 2 kPa and 200
kPa respectively. Indices used for classification purposes include:
• PI = LL-PL
• LI = (w –PL)/PI
• Activity = PI/CF =f (mineralogy)
X-ray diffraction and chemical analyses, in addition to electron microscopy, are now also
frequently used to assist in classification.

The relatively low permeability of clays (& to a lesser extent silts) distinguishes them from
more free-draining coarse grained soils because of the tendency for excess pore pressure
development under typical loading rates. Clays generally respond in an ‘undrained’ manner
(i.e. no excess pore pressure dissipation) under immediate application of loads from a
foundation. Apart from this characteristic, the mechanical behaviour of clays and silts is
essentially dependent on the same factors as those of coarse grained soils.

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Applied Geomechanics (CIVL4401) 2. Basic Soil Mechanics

2.2 Shearing Resistance of Soil

Analogy: block on level surface

Ft = Rsinα
Fn = Rcosα

Ft = Fntanα

max value of α = ϕ’
i.e. sliding of block when Ft = Fntanϕ’ (1)
Coefficient of friction

Interparticle force = N’
Fn = ΣN’ + uA

Water pressure
𝐅 ∑ 𝐍′
∴ 𝛔𝐧 = 𝐧 = +𝐮
𝐀 𝐀
′
𝛔𝐧 = 𝛔𝐧 + 𝐮
Normal effective
stress

Water/air have no resistance to shear

From (1) Ftmax = ΣN' tanϕ'

Divide by A τf = σ'n tanϕ'

Angle of friction of soil

If soil particles have a degree of cementation/bonding of strength = c' (sometimes termed effective
cohesion)

General Eqn. τf = c'+ σ'n tanϕ'

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Applied Geomechanics (CIVL4401) 2. Basic Soil Mechanics

Implications of the Mohr-Coulomb equation

τf = c' + σ'n tan '

1. Soil failure occurs in shear

2. Shear strength depends largely on the effective stress

σ' = σ – u

 Increase in u => reduction in strength

 Increase in σ => increase in strength

3. As it is the normal effective stress that controls τf on a given plane, the

value of τf within a soil mass varies with direction

4. c' is generally zero or very close to zero for a soil - but is in excess of
1000 kPa for many rocks. It represents the component of strength that
is independent of effective stress level and arises due to
cementation/bonding at the inter-granular contacts

5. The value of ' varies with mineralogy, density, angularity etc.

For a soil rich in active clay minerals, ' ~ 20o

For a dense angular gravel ' is in excess of 50o

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Applied Geomechanics (CIVL4401) 2. Basic Soil Mechanics

EXAMPLE 2.1: Determine the lateral force, Fh, that would cause sliding of the
following frame in a clay with material properties: γs = 20 kN/m3, c'=0 and
'=35o

Fh 3m
2m

Failure surface
10m
If the force is applied rapidly, the clay will not have time to change volume and to drain.
Shear induced excess pore pressures = ∆u will be generated on the failure surface and the
shear strength of this surface, τf

= c' + σ'n tan ' = (σn – u) tan'

where σn = 20×3 = 60 kPa

u = uo + ∆u = 2×10 + ∆u

The value of ∆u is difficult to determine accurately and it is usual to conduct an undrained

shear test (with the same mode of shearing) at the same level of initial vertical effective stress
to determine τf = su i.e. the “undrained shear strength”.

For this case:

τf = su

and Fh (per metre width) = area × su = 10 su

If the force is applied slowly, the shear induced pore pressure (∆u) = 0 and

τf = (60-20) tan 35o = 28 kPa

Fh (per metre width) = area × τf = 10 x 28 = 280 kN per metre width

EXAMPLE 2.2: Lecture to demonstrate how shear strength controls the

stability of a slope comprising dry sand.

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Applied Geomechanics (CIVL4401) 2. Basic Soil Mechanics

2.3 Stiffness of soil

The stiffness of soil is typically more than 1000 times less than that of concrete. Soil stiffness
controls the movement of structures founded on soil and must be estimated for serviceability
limit state (SLS) design.

Application of isotropic stress to a soil

K’=bulk modulus of the soil – and at low stress levels is a measure of the ability of the soil
particles to re-adjust their configuration on application of an all round stress = p. Volume
changes due to particle crushing become important at higher stress levels (≈10 MPa for
siliceous sand)

K’ is controlled by effective stress:

∆ p’ = K’ ∆vol where ∆vol = ∆V/V

where ∆p' = ∆p - ∆u

For the voids:

∆u = Kv ∆Vv/Vv

where Kv is the bulk modulus of the void material and Vv is the volume of voids

Under free draining conditions /slow application of p:

∆u =0 and ∆vol = ∆p/K'

If soil particles are incompressible and no drainage takes place, the reduction in volume of
the soil skeleton = reduction in volume of pore space

∆Vv = ∆V

∆Vv = n V ∆u/Kv where n = porosity (Vv/V)

∆V = (∆p- ∆u) V/K'

=> ∆u = [ ∆p/ (1 + n K'/Kv) ]

For saturated material, Kv = Kwater >> K' => ∆u = ∆p => ∆p'=0 and Δεvol=0

Pore pressure parameter B = ∆u/∆p = 1/ (1 +n K'/Kv) = 1 for saturated material

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Applied Geomechanics (CIVL4401) 2. Basic Soil Mechanics

Application of shear stress to a soil

G =shear modulus of the soil – and is the same for drained and undrained loading (as water
has no shearing resistance)


τ=Gγ


Shear loading induces shear and volumetric strains

For fully drained conditions:

• If the particle packing is dense, shearing causes an increase in volume (i.e. a dilatant
response)
• If the particle packing is loose, shearing causes a reduction in volume (i.e. a
contractant response)

For constant volume conditions (≡ undrained):

• Dense particle packing leads to negative excess pore pressures (∆u <0)
• Loose particle packing leads to positive excess pore pressures (∆u >0)

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Applied Geomechanics (CIVL4401) 2. Basic Soil Mechanics

2.4 Parameters controlling the soil strength

Typical response shown by sand in direct shear

Peak friction angle ('p) and constant volume friction angle ('cv)

D: dense, M: medium dense,

Critical state 'cv

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Applied Geomechanics (CIVL4401) 2. Basic Soil Mechanics

2.5 Critical state concept

Effective stress strength

 Peak friction angle is not unique; it depends on density & stress level.
 Critical state friction angle is a function only of the soil mineralogy and angularity.
 The mobilised friction angles can vary for different elements of soil beneath a foundation.
 The minimum (i.e. safest) angle is the critical state friction angle.

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Applied Geomechanics (CIVL4401) 2. Basic Soil Mechanics

Drained Loading

Undrained Loading

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Applied Geomechanics (CIVL4401) 2. Basic Soil Mechanics

Drained vs Undrained Loading

Constant volume shearing

 The initial stress state and density control the tendency to soil to contract or dilate
under shear. At constant volume, soil will not be free to dilate/contract under shear
and hence negative excess pore pressures (Δu) are induced if the soil wants to dilate
whereas Δu is positive if the soil wants to contract.

 For a fixed total stress:

if Δu is –ve, effective stresses increase (and hence strength increases)
if Δu is +ve, effective stresses reduce (and hence strength reduces)

 Consequently, ‘dilatant’ materials are stronger when sheared at constant volume and
‘contractant’ soils are weaker.

 If the loading rate is very fast (relative to the permeability of the soil), the material
undergoes constant volume shearing; this is referred to as ‘undrained loading’.

 Clays respond initially in a constant volume manner when, for example, a building or
embankment load is applied directly to a foundation. Excess pore pressures
subsequently ‘drain’ and volume changes take place. Sands, however, have a
permeability typically 100,000 times that of clay and therefore, in these situations, they

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Applied Geomechanics (CIVL4401) 2. Basic Soil Mechanics

respond in a ‘drained manner’ with Δu=0.

 Sands respond in a constant volume (or undrained) mode when loading rates are
high e.g. under earthquake or wave loading.

Undrained shear strength, su

 su is defined as the maximum shear stress that the soil can sustain when sheared at
constant volume:

τf = c' + σ'n tan ' = su

where σ'n = initial effective stress minus Δu

 su is measured in a constant volume element test (e.g. triaxial or direct shear test) or
is assessed from an in-situ test (e.g. CPT) using theory developed for that test
assuming undrained conditions and that the material can be characterised by a single
strength parameter = su

 Common applications of the use of su include the assessment of the short-term stability of
foundations and slopes in clay.

 All calculations of this nature are approximate and their validity needs to be
assessed in the context of effective stress.

Final Comment
 Strength depends on effective stress, intergranular friction and bonding.

 Stress level and density dependence of strength requires consideration of critical state
principles.

 Insights obtained through a comparison of critical state soil vs actual soil behaviour.

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