H2 Biology: Cell Membrane

Cell membrane can be divided into 2 categories:

● Cell surface membrane​: found on the surface of all living cells
○ Encloses cell, defines its boundaries + maintains essential differences between
the cytosol and the extracellular environment
○ Exhibits selective permeability
● Internal Membrane​ (Eukaryotic Cells): Membranes of the ER, Golgi apparatus...etc
○ Maintain the characteristic differences between the contents of each organelle
and the cytosol (​Compartmentalization​)

Membrane Composition & Structure:

● All biological membrane: composed of mainly lipids + proteins, held together mainly by
non-covalent interactions
○ Cell surface membrane: phospholipid bilayer (sheet-like structure)
● The function + physical organisation of the membrane also depends on their
constituents: lipids, proteins and carbohydrates
● Most abundant lipid in most membranes: Phospholipids (​amphipathic​ = contain both
hydrophilic + hydrophobic regions)
○ Hydrophilic polar head​: phosphate group glycerol + certain head groups
○ Hydrophobic Tails​: 2 non-polar hydrocarbon tails (fatty acid tails, can be either
saturated or unsaturated) = contribute to the hydrophobicity of the phospholipid
molecule

Fluid mosaic model​:

● Membranes contain
phospholipids + proteins
which diffuse freely within
the plane of the bilayer (​fluid​)
○ Membrane is held
together primarily by
the hydrophobic
interactions between
phospholipid tails
which are weaker than covalent bonds
○ Most of the lipids + proteins can move about laterally in the plane of the
membrane (frequent)
○ Phospholipid molecule flip-flop transversely across the membrane (rare)
○ Membranes must be fluid to work properly
■ Fluidity affects both permeability and the ability of membrane proteins to
move to where their function is needed
 H2 Biology: Cell Membrane

○ Fluidity is dependent on:

■ Composition (type of hydrocarbon chains + amount of cholesterol):
● Shorter chain = undergo change from liquid state to rigid
crystalline​ (gel-like) state @ lower temperatures
= do not freeze easily
● Shorter chain = reduces tendency of the hydrocarbon tails to
interact with one another
= more fluid
● Unsaturated = more flexible + fluid the membrane is
(due to the kinks in the fatty acid tails, it prevents the close
packing of the molecules = decreasing the amount of interaction
between adjacent fatty acid chains)
● Cholesterol​: hydrophobic + hydrophilic region
○ Hydrophobic region of the cholesterol molecule interacts
with the phospholipid tails
○ Hydrophilic region interacts with the polar heads
● Cholesterol: restricts the random movement of the phospholipids
+ separates and disperses their hydrocarbon tails (“​fluidity
buffer​”, resisting changes in membrane fluidity that can be caused
by changes in temperature)
○ Makes membrane less fluid @ high temp (via restriction of
movements)
○ @ lower temperatures: maintains membrane in a fluid
state (via. Prevents phospholipids chains from binding =
prevents solidification)
■ Temperature
● Proteins are embedded throughout the lipid bilayer (​mosaic​)
○ Different types of cells contain their unique sets of membrane proteins
○ Two main types of membrane proteins: ​Intrinsic​ (​integral​) proteins + ​Extrinsic
(​peripheral​) proteins
■ Intrinsic Proteins:
● Penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer, many are
transmembrane proteins (span the membrane), others extend
only partially into the hydrophobic core
● Hydrophobic regions: consists of one or more stretches of
non-polar amino acids
● Hydrophilic regions: exposed to the aqueous solutions on either
side of the membrane
 H2 Biology: Cell Membrane

○ Some have a hydrophilic channel through their centre that

allows passage of hydrophilic substances (e.g. ions)
■ Extrinsic Proteins:
● Not embedded in the lipid bilayer, but are bound loosely to the
external surface of the membrane and can be easily dissociated
from the membrane
○ Functions of the proteins:
■ Transport​: provides hydrophilic channel across the membrane, some
hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across
the membrane
■ Enzymatic Activity​: Protein may be an enzyme with its active site
exposed to substances in the adjacent solution, several enzymes in a
membrane are organized as a team that carry out a metabolic pathway
■ Cell-Cell Recognition​: Some glycoproteins (proteins + short chain sugars)
serve as identification tags that are specifically recognized by other cells
■ Signal Transduction​: A membrane protein (receptor) may have a binding
site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger
= allows external signal to trigger/initiate reactions within a cell
■ Attachment to the cytoskeleton + extracellular matrix:
Microfilaments/other elements of the cytoskeleton may be bonded to
membrane proteins
= helps maintain cell shape + stabilizes the location of certain membrane
proteins
■ Intercellular Joining:​ Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may be
hooked together in various kinds of junctions (​gap junctions​: allows the
passage of materials between cells, ​tight junctions​: prevents leakage of
materials between cells)

Membrane Carbohydrates:
● Membrane carbohydrates: branched oligosaccharides attached to proteins/lipids
= Glycoproteins/Glycolipids
● The diversity of the glycoprotein molecules enable membrane carbohydrates to function
as markers that distinguish one cell from another (cell-cell recognition) (e.g. 4 human
blood types that reflect the variation in the carbohydrates on the surface of red blood
cells)
● Roles of carbohydrates in cell membrane:
○ Allow cell-cell recognition: Ability of a cell to determine if other cells it
encounters are alike/different
 H2 Biology: Cell Membrane

○ Cell-cell adhesion: The carbohydrate components of two adjacent cells may bind
with each other
= adhesion between cells
Functions Of Membranes​:
Functions Of Cell Surface Membrane​:
1. Acts as a boundary between the intracellular and extracellular environment​:
a. Allows for the maintenance of a constant internal environment = essential for a
cell to function efficiently
2. Cell-Cell Recognition​:
a. Allows cells of the same type to identify + adhere to one another during tissue
formation + interactions
b. Provides basis of the rejection of foreign cells in the immune cells, have also
given rise to problems: organ rejection + blood incompatibility
3. Site For Multi-Enzyme Complexes​:
a. Allows common biochemical pathways to proceed more efficiently
4. Selective Transport Of Material​:
a. Allows for the regulation of substances
5. Signal Reception​:
a. Interaction between glycoprotein receptors + specific molecules which
correspond to external stimuli
= generation signal cascade which stimulates/inhibits internal activities of a cell
(​Signal Transduction​)

Function Of Membranes Within The Cell:

1. Allows compartmentalization within the cell​:
a. Provides localized environmental conditions within the organelles
i. Maintain high concentration of certain reactants/reaction conditions: pH
ii. Isolation of harmful substances from the rest of the cell

Evolution Of Differences In Membrane Lipid Composition​:

● Variations in the cell membrane lipid compositions of many species appear to be
evolutionary adaptations that maintain the appropriate membrane fluidity under
specific environmental conditions.
○ Extreme cold: high proportion of unsaturated hydrocarbon tails
○ Extreme heat (e.g.bacteria): membrane contains unusual lipids
● The ability to change the lipid composition of cell membranes in response to changing
temperatures has evolved in organisms that live where temperatures vary
● Natural selection has favoured organisms whose mix of membrane lipids ensures and
appropriate level of membrane fluidity for their environment
 H2 Biology: Cell Membrane

Transport Of Materials Across Membrane​:

1. Functions:
a. Allows the entry of Glucose for cellular respiration
b. Allows the excretion of waste products
c. Allows the secretion of extracellular enzymes
d. Maintains suitable pH and ionic concentration within a cell for enzyme activity
e. Generates an ionic gradient, essential for nerve/membrane impulses
2. Non-polar molecules (CO2, O2, Hydrocarbons) = hydrophobic = dissolve in the lipid
bilayer of the membrane + cross easily
3. Polar + Hydrophilic molecules are unable to move through the hydrophobic lipid bilayer
4. 3 Main Transport Mechanisms:
a. Passive Transport​: does not require cell to expend energy, energy is stored in
concentration gradients translating into kinetic movement of the particles
i. Simple Diffusion​:
● Particles diffuse down a concentration gradient across the lipid
bilayer until they are uniformly distributed throughout the system
= ​Dynamic Equilibrium​, the molecules continue to move across
the membrane in both directions but there is no net directional
movement
● Moving in (​influx​) + Going out (​efflux​)
ii. Osmosis:
● The net movement of water molecules across a selectively
permeable membrane from a region of higher water potential to
a region of lower water potential
○ Water potential​: The measure of the tendency for water
to move from one place to another
● Partially Permeable​: Only permeable to water
● Selectively Permeable​: Only permeable to substances other than
water
● Tonicity​: The ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to
gain/lose water:
○ Isotonic​: Same solute concentration as another solution =
no net movement of water across plasma membrane =
normal (animal cell), ​Flaccid​ (plant cell)
○ Hypertonic​: Solution with greater solute concentration =
cell will lose water to the environment = ​shriveled​ (animal
+ plant cell) *Plant cell’s plasma membrane will pull away
from the wall (​Plasmolysis​)
 H2 Biology: Cell Membrane

○ Hypotonic​: Solution with lower solute concentration = cell

will gain water faster than it leaves =​ lyse/lysing​ (animal
cell) + ​Turgid​(plant cell), due to ​turgor pressure
(inelasticity of the cell wall that results in back pressure,
opposing further water uptake)
iii. Facilitated DIffusion
● Polar and large molecules are unable to pass through the plasma
membrane = require the aid of transport proteins
● 2 Types of proteins: Channel proteins + Carrier proteins
○ Channel Proteins: form hydrophilic tunnels = provides
conduit for polar/charged particles, may be selective +
allow quick passage
■ Aquaporins (water channel proteins): facilitate
massive amounts of water diffusing into cells
■ Gated Channels: open/close in response to
appropriate signals (chemical,electrical,
disturbance)
○ Carrier Proteins:
■ 1 exposes binding site to one face of the
membrane the other exposes the same binding site
to the other side of the membrane
■ The binding of the solute to the carrier protein on
one side of the membrane, triggers conformational
change in the protein exposing the solute to the
other side of the membrane = allows diffusion
■ Once the solute is released = resume original
conformation, so another solute can bind to it
● Factors affecting the rate of diffusion:
○ The concentration gradient: greater gradient = faster rate
○ Size of diffusion molecule: smaller size = faster diffusion
○ Nature of diffusion molecule:hydrophobic = faster
diffusion
○ Surface Area: smaller = faster rate
b. Active Transport​: Movement of ions/molecules across the membrane regardless
of concentration gradient with the expenditure of energy
● Transport proteins​ (​carrier proteins​): Highly selective = different
protein pump for each type of molecule to be transported
● ATP​: energy currency for the cell, hydrolysis of ATP = supplies the
energy for active transport via. transferring its terminal phosphate
 H2 Biology: Cell Membrane

group to transport protein = induce change in protein = transports

solute bound to protein across membrane

Facilitated Diffusion: Active Transport:

Expenditure of energy​ from the hydrolysis of ATP is ​not Expenditure of energy​ from the hydrolysis of ATP is
required​ for the carrier protein to operate required​ for the carrier protein to operate

Carrier proteins can bind with the substances​ that they Carrier proteins can bind with the substances​ that they
transport on ​both sides of the membrane transport on only ​one side of the membrane

Transports substances in ​both directions Transports substances in ​one direction

c. Bulk (Vesicular) Transport​: Transport of material (in bulk) into/out of the cell by
enclosure within a vesicle
i. Endocytosis​: Cell takes in biological molecules + particulate matter by
forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane
● Phagocytosis​: Ingestion of selective large solid particles (cellular
eating)
1. Particles to be engulfed come into contact with the cell surface, the cell membrane
invaginates to form a flask-like depression around the particles/the cell membrane
extends outwards, forming extensions (​Pseudopodia​) around the particles
 H2 Biology: Cell Membrane

2. The neck of the flask closes + seals off the invagination = forms separate ​phagocytic
vesicle​ that now envelopes the particle that had been previously outside the cell
3. A ​lysosome​ will then fuse with the phagocytic vesicle + discharge its hydrolytic enzymes
to hydrolyze the particles
4. Useful products of digestion are absorbed into the cytoplasm
5. Vesicles containing the undigested remains move to the plasma membrane and the
content of these vesicles is voided by exocytosis

● Pinocytosis​: Ingestion of liquid (cellular drinking)

○ Similar to Phagocytosis, however it is non-selective
● Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis​: Cell selectively takes in
substances that bind to receptors on the cell surface
○ Enables the cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific
substances, even though those substances may not be
very concentrated in the extracellular fluid
■ Is rapid + efficient method for taking up minor
constituents of the
cell’s environment
1. Specific macromolecules (​ligands​) bind to membrane
receptor glycoproteins clustered in regions (​pits​). These
pits form sight depressions in the plasma membrane, and
the cytoplasmic surface of these pits are coated with
specialized proteins (​Clathrin​)
 H2 Biology: Cell Membrane

2. When binding occurs: clathrin-coated pits invaginate + form coated vesicles around the
bound ligands. Strengthened + stabilized by the clathrin molecules this vesicle carries
the macromolecules into the cell
3. Once inside, the vesicle loses its clathrin coat + may fuse with a lysosome, where the
engulfed material is processed + released into the cytoplasm
4. After the ingested material is liberated from the vesicle, the glycoprotein receptors are
recycled back to the plasma membrane by the same vesicle
ii. Exocytosis​: The process which the cell releases certain biological
molecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane
1. A ​transport vesicle​ that has budded
from the Golgi apparatus moves along
microtubules of the cytoskeleton to the
plasma membrane.
2. When the vesicle membrane and the
plasma membrane come into contact,
the lipid molecules of the 2 bilayers
rearrange themselves so that the two
membranes fuse
= the contents of the vesicle then spill
to the outside of the cell + vesicle
membrane becomes part of the plasma
membrane