Chapter 7

DC Offset, Electric Noise, Voltage Fluctuation,

Flicker and Power Frequency Variation

Abstract This chapter deals with some of the power system disturbances like, DC
offset, voltage fluctuation, electric noise, flicker and power frequency variation. The
probable causes and effects of these disturbances are explained.

7.1 Introduction

Waveform distortion in power system refers to steady-state deviation from a sine

wave of power frequency. Main cause of waveform distortion includes DC offset,
harmonics, inter-harmonics, notching, and electric noise. Voltage fluctuation, flicker
and power frequency variation are other important reason for waveform distortion
[1–4]. However monitoring of these disturbances is not too difficult which mainly
include monitoring of rms value and/or power frequency except for noise.

7.2 DC Offset

DC offset is the presence of a DC current and/or voltage component in an AC system.

Expansion of ac wave by Fourier series is used for analysis of DC offset [5]. Main
causes of DC offset in power systems are:
• Operation of rectifiers and other electronic switching devices, and
• Geomagnetic disturbances causing GICs.
The main detrimental effects of DC offset in alternating networks are:
• half-cycle saturation of transformer core
• generation of even harmonics in addition to odd harmonics
• additional heating in appliances which may lead to a decrease of the lifetime of
transformers, rotating machines, and electromagnetic devices
• electrolytic erosion of grounding electrodes and other connectors.

S. Chattopadhyay et al., Electric Power Quality, Power Systems, 43

DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-0635-4_7, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
44 7 DC Offset, Electric Noise, Voltage Fluctuation, Flicker and Power Frequency Variation

For suppression of DC currents due to rectifiers and geomagnetically induced cur-

rents, three-limb transformers with a relatively large air gap between core and tank
are used.

7.3 Electric Noise

Electric noise is unwanted electrical signals present in power system having broad-
band spectral content lower than 200 kHz superimposed with the power system
voltage or current. They may be observed in phase conductors, or neutral conductors
or signal lines. Main causes of electric noise are:
• faulty connections in transmission or distribution systems
• arc furnaces
• electrical furnaces
• power electronic devices
• control circuits
• welding equipment
• loads with solid-state rectifiers
• improper grounding
• turning off capacitor banks
• adjustable-speed drives
• corona
• interference with communication circuits
Magnitude of noise is normally very small as compared with power signal. How-
ever, electric noise creates problems in operation of electronic devices such as
microcomputers and programmable controllers.
Electric noise is mitigated by using filters, line conditioners, and dedicated lines
or transformers.

7.4 Voltage Fluctuation

Voltage fluctuations are variations of voltage, magnitude of which does not normally
exceed specified voltage ranges. According to ANSI C84.1-1982 the range of fluc-
tuation of voltage magnitude is from 0.9 to 1.1 pu. Based on the nature of voltage
fluctuations, the disturbance is classified as:
• step-voltage changes which may be regular or irregular with respect to time
• cyclic voltage fluctuation with respect to time
• random voltage fluctuation with respect to time
The main causes of voltage fluctuation are:
• pulsed-power output
• resistance welders
7.7 Discussion 45

• start-up of drives
• arc furnaces
• drives with rapidly changing loads or load impedance
• rolling mills
Voltage fluctuations results in:
• degradation of the performance of the equipment
• instability of the internal voltages and currents of electronic equipment
• problem in reactive power compensation
(Note: voltage fluctuations less than 10% do not create severe problem in electronic
equipment.)

7.5 Flicker

Flicker refers to “continuous and rapid variations in the load current magnitude which
causes voltage variations” [4]. Flicker is one type of voltage fluctuation. The term
flicker is useful in illumination technology where the effect of voltage fluctuation on
lamps is perceived as flicker by the human eye. Operation of an arc furnace is one
of the most common causes of the flicker voltage fluctuations in utility transmission
and distribution systems.

7.6 Power Frequency Variations

Power frequency variation refers to the deviation of the power system fundamen-
tal frequency from its specified nominal value (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz). Main cause of
power frequency variation is the difference between active power demand and power
generation. It depends on the generator load characteristics and control circuit for
automatic load frequency control (ALFC) which includes governor control as well
as turbine control. The frequency variation is controlled by proper balance between
generation and demand (load), i.e., active power demand and mechanical energy
supplied to the prime mover.

7.7