The Son of The Morning and The Guardian Cherub in The Context of

Andrews University
Digital Commons @ Andrews University

Dissertations Graduate Research
1985
The Son of the Morning and the Guardian Cherub

in the Context of the Controversy Between Good
and Evil
Jose M. Bertoluci
Andrews University
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/dissertations

Part of the Biblical Studies Commons, and the Religious Thought, Theology and Philosophy of
Religion Commons
Recommended Citation
Bertoluci, Jose M., "The Son of the Morning and the Guardian Cherub in the Context of the Controversy Between Good and Evil"
(1985). Dissertations. Paper 17.
This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Research at Digital Commons @ Andrews University. It has been accepted
for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Andrews University. For more information, please contact
repository@andrews.edu.
Thank you for your interest in the
Andrews University Digital Library

of Dissertations and Theses.
Please honor the copyright of this document by

not duplicating or distributing additional copies
in any form without the author’s express written
permission. Thanks for your cooperation.
INFORMATION TO USERS
This reproduction was made from a copy o f a docum ent sent to us fo r m icrofilm ing.
While the most advanced technology has been used to photograph and reproduce
this docu m en t, the quality o f the reproduction is heavily dependent upon the
q uality o f the m aterial subm itted.
The fo llo w ing explanation o f techniques is provided to help clarify markings Oi

notations which m ay appear on this reproduction.
\ . The sign o r “ target” fo r pages apparently lacking fro m the docum ent
photographed is “ Missing Page(s)” . I f it was possible to o btain the missing
page(s) o r section, they are spliced into the film along w ith adjacent pages. This
may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating adjacent pages
to assure com plete co ntin u ity.
2. When an image on the film is obliterated w ith a round black m a rk , it is an

inuication o f eith e r blurred copy because o f m ovem ent during exposure,
duplicate c o p y , o r copyrighted materials th at should n o t have been film ed. F o r
blurred pages, a good image o f the page can be found in the adjacent frame. I f
copyrighted materials were deleted, a target note wQl appear listing the pages in
the adjacent fram e.
3. When a m ap, drawing or chart, etc.. is part o f the m aterial being photographed,
a d efin ite m ethod o f “ sectioning” the material has been fo llo w e d . It is
custom ary to begin filming at the upper le ft hand co m e r o f a large sheet and to
continue from le ft to right in equal sections w ith small overlaps. I f necessary,
sectioning is continued ag ain -b eg in n in g below the first row and continuing on
u ntil com plete.
-t. F o r illustrations that cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by xerographic

means, photographic prints can be purchased at ad dition al cost and inserted
in to y o u r xerographic copy. These prints are available upon request from the
Dissertations Custom er Services D epartm en t.
5. Some pages in any document may have indistinct p rin t. In all cases the best
available copy has been film ed.
University
Microfilms
International
300 N. Zeeb Road
Ann Arbor. Ml 48106
R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8515546
Bertoluci, Jose M a ria
THE SON OF THE MORNING AND THE GUARDIAN CHERUB IN THE

CONTEXT OF THE CONTROVERSY BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL
A nd'ew s University Th.D. 1985
University
Microfilms
International 300 N. Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor. Ml 48106
Copyright 1985
by
Bertoluci, Jose Maria
All Rights Reserved
Andrews U n iv e r s it y
Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary
THE SON OF THE MORNING AND THE GUARDIAN CHERUB

IN THE CONTEXT OF THE CONTROVERSY BETWEEN
GOOD AND EVIL
A D is s e r ta tio n
Presented ir. P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t
o f the Requirements f o r the Degree
Doctor o f Theology
By
Jose M. B e rto lu c i
June 1985
GOOD AND EVIL
A d is s e r ta tio n presented
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f the requirements
f o r the degree
Doctor of Theology
by
Jos§ M. B e rto lu c i
APPROVAL BY THE COMMITTEE
W illia m H. Shea, Chairman Jaerhard F. H a s e l, Oean

Professor of Old Testament / ^ p A Theological Seminary
( $ C V K iU £ s / / 1
LaWrehce
ivWhce T. G e ra ty , Professor
o f Archaeology and H is to r y of
A n tiq tH ty
J«€rhard F. H a s e l, Professor
0 7 Old Testament and B i b l i c a l
eology
/
Jacques B. Douknan, Associate
Professor o f Old Testament
In t^ rp re ta ti
JO M
John'H. SaiThAme'r, Associate Date Approvftf TT~
Professor of Old Testament
anS/Semitic Languages
T r i n i t y Evangelical D i v i n i t y
School
R eproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
C o p y r ig h t ; 1985, Jose M. B e r to lu c i
ABSTRACT

GOOD AND EVIL
By
Jose M. B e rto lu c i
Chairman: W illia m H. Shea
ABSTRACT OF GRADUATE STUDENT RESEARCH
Di s s e r ta tio n
Andrews U n iv e r s ity
Seventh-day A dventist Theological Seminary
T itle : THE SON OF THE MORNING AND THE GUARDIAN CHERUB IN THE
CONTEXT OF THE CONTROVERSY BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL
Name o f researcher: Jose M. B e rto lu c i
Name and t i t l e o f f a c u l t y a d v is e r: W illiam H. Shea, Ph.D.
Date completed: June 1985
Problem
Isaiah 14:12-15 and E zekiel 28:12-19 have been used, since the
times o f the Church Fa the rs, to e x p la in the o r i g i n o f sin in the u n i
verse, and i n te r p r e t e d as d e p ic tin g the f a l l o f Satan from heaven.
However, through the years— e s p e c i a l l y from the end o f the nineteenth
century and on— theologians have a ffirm ed th a t those passages re o o rt
h i s t o r i c a l events, making use o f mythological m a te ria l in t h e i r nar
r a t i v e s ; and th e r e fo r e have not to do with the o r i g i n o f sin or Satan.
I t is the aim o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n to v e r i f y these claim s.
Method and Results
Chapter 1 reviews the i n t e r p r e t a t io n s o f the passages from
the f i r s t c e n tu rie s o f the C h r is tia n Era t i l l the p re se n t. U n til
2
the end o f the nineteenth c e n tu ry, both passages were in te r p r e te d
in two main ways: (1) r e f e r r i n g to Satan or (2 ) r e f e r r i n g to some
h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e , perhaps some Babylonian r u l e r . From th a t time
the mythological view has added to the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
Chapter 2 examines the a lle g e d o r ig in s and p a r a l l e l m a te ria l
found in Sumerian, Akkadian, H i t t i t e , Greek, l l g a r i t i c , as well as
B ib lic a l lite ra tu re . The research demonstrated th a t although s i m i l a r
m o tifs and imagery are pre se n t in the passages under study as w ell
as in l i t e r a t u r e of I s r a e l ' s neighbors, a myth o f Heiel ben Shahar
and o f the Guardian Cherub, which would r e f l e c t the B i b l i c a l account
in i t s main aspects, could not be found. I t seems the s i m i l a r i t i e s
in the use o f the terms and p ic tu re s are due to c u l t u r a l c o n tin u ity
or common elements in the a ncie nt Near East.
Chapter 3 examines the s tru c tu re o f Isa 14 and Ezek 28 in
r e l a t i o n to the immediate context and the whole books; and exegetes
the passages in the l i g h t o f the whole B ib le .
The exegesis shows t h a t : (1 ) these passages d e p ic t Helel
and the Cherub in a language which transcends the e a r t h l y realm;
(2 ) the immediate context and the whole books ( e s p e c i a l l y Is a ia h )
shows a tension between e a r t h l y and cosmic dimensions, as well as
a s tru g g le between the fo rc e s o f good and e v i l ; (3) Isa 14 uses
the words mashal and Babylon in a p a r t i c u l a r way; and (4 ) a
comparison between these two passages shows they d e p ic t the same
fig u re . These fa c to rs c a r r y us to the conclusion t h a t the two
passages p o r tr a y the f a l l o f the c h ie f angel Satan from heaven
and his ro le in the controversy between good and e v i l .
To Nancy
w ithout whom . . .
. . . ™ ■» m 3 r
Jeremiah 2:2
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS............................................................................ v ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................ x v ii
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 1
A Survey o f the L i t e r a t u r e on the

I n t e r p r e t a t io n o f Is a ia h 14............................................. 4
Apocrypha and PseudeDigrapha ..................................... 4
Jewish I n te r p r e t e r s .......................................................... 5
Church Fathers . ............................................................... 6
Middle A g e s ............................................................................ 9
From the Reformation to the Nineteenth Century . 10
Satan V i e w ................................................................................ 15
H i s t o r i c a l V i e w ................................................................... 17
Mythological V i e w ............................................................... 21
Twentieth Century ............................................................... 22
I n t e r p r e t a t io n o f E zekiel 2 8 ........................................ 36
Jewish I n te r p r e t e r s .......................................................... 36
From the Church Fathers to the Reformation . . . 36
The R e f o r m e r s ........................................................................ 38
In the Nineteenth C e n t u r y ............................................. 39
The Twentieth Century ...................................................... 41
C o n c l u s i o n s ................................................................................ 49
Observations Concerning Isa 14 .................................... 49
Observations Concerning Ezekiel 28 ........................... 53
Aim and Plan o f the S t u d y ................................................. 54
II. ORIGINS AND PARALLEL HYPOTHESES CONCERNING THE

ORACLES AGAINST THE KING OF BABYLON AND THE
PRINCE AND KING OF T Y R E .......................................................... 57
M e t h o d o l o g y ................................................................................ 58
Is a ia h 1 4 ..................................................................................... 60
E x tra -B ib lic a l L ite ra tu re ............................................. 60
S u m e r ia n ................................................................................ 61
A k k a d i a n ................................................................................ 64
The Descent o f I s h t a r to the Netherworld . . 64
The Myth o f Z u ............................................................... 68
The Etana M y t h ............................................................... 72
iv
C h a p te r
II. ( C o n t in u e d )
H i t t i t e .................................................................................... 75
G r e e k ......................................................................................... 77
l l g a r i t i c .................................................................................... 82
Ashtar Texts .................................................................. 84
Some In d iv id u a l L lg a ritic Mythical
Expressions and the Alleged
P a r a l l e l s in Is a ia h 1 4 ....................................... 90
B ib lic a l L ite ra tu re .............................................................. 98
Gen 6 : 1 - 4 ................................................................................ 99
Psalm 8 2 .................................................................................... 101
In d iv id u a l Elements ......................................................... 105
C o n c l u s i o n s ................................................................................ 109
Ezekiel 2 8 .................................................................................... 110
.................................................................................... Ill
I S i t on the Throne o f a God in the
Heart o f the Seas ( D ' , D ', a ' ? a ) .......................... 114
i s n .................................................................................... 116
M e s o p o t a m i a ........................................................................... 124
G r e e c e ......................................................................................... 1 29
U g a r i t ......................................................................................... 130
B i b l i c a l O r ig in and P a r a l l e l Hypotheses .................. 134
The Genesis Paradise S tory and Ezekiel 28 . . . 134
Gen 6 : 1 - 4 ................................................................................ 139
Psalm 8 2 ..................................................................................... 140
C o n c l u s i o n s ................................................................................ 143
III. THE TAUNT AGAINST THE KING OF BABYLON AND

THE PRINCE AND KING OF T Y R E ................................................ 146
Is a ia h 1 4 : 4 b - 21 146
Lim its o f the P o e m .............................................................. 146
Poetic S tru c tu re and F o r m ................................................ 148
Strophe I — Vss. 4 b - 8 ......................................................... 151
Strophe I I — Vss. 9-11 152
Strophe I I I — Vss. 12-15 153
Strophes IV and V— Vss. 1 6 - 2 1 ( 2 2 ) .......................... 154
Mockery L a m e n t ....................................................................... 150
T e xt— Isa 1 4 : 4 b - 2 1 .............................................................. 166
H i s t o r i c a l Context ................................................................... 178
Authorship and Date o f C o m p o s itio n .......................... 178
H i s t o r i c a l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the Tyrant .................. 182
In d iv id u a l A p p lic a tio n ..................................................... 183
C o l l e c t i v e A p p lic a tio n ..................................................... 188
P r e lim in a r y Conclusions ................................................ 190
Exegesis— Vss. 12-15 ......................................................... 192
H e l d ben Shahar ( ns? - ' 2 7 7 ”»r r ) ....................... 193
Other Alleged Mythic Expressions
in Vss. 1 3 - 1 5 ................................................................... 199
C h a p te r
III. ( C o n t in u e d )
Stars o f El .................................................................. 200

Mount o f A s s e m b l y ..................................................... 201
Recesses o f the N o r t h ............................................. 201
Some S tr u c tu ra l Observations ............................................. 207
The Pride M o t i f ................................................................... 209
Past Events as the Root o f Motives
o f Present Condemnation ............................................. 214
Is a ia h 14 and the Whole Book of I s a i a h ...................... 217
Ezekiel 28:1-19 220
Lim its o f the P a s s a g e ..................................................... 220
L i t e r a r y F o r m ...................... 221
Vss. 1 - 1 0 ................................................................................ 221
Vss. 1 2 - 1 9 ................................................................................ 224
Te xt— Ezekiel 2 8 :1 -1 9 232
H is to r ic a l Context ................................................................... 245
Date o f C o m p o s i t i o n .......................................................... 245
H is t o r ic a l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the Prince
and the King o f T y r e ..................................................... 247
E x e g e s i s ......................................................................................... 248
Vss. 1 - 1 0 ................................................................................ 248
Vss. 1 1 - 1 9 ................................................................................ 253
P re lim in a ry Conclusions ...................................................... 258
Is a ia h 1 4:12-15 and Ezekiel 28:12-19—
A C om pa rison............................................................................ 271
S i m i l a r i t i e s ............................................................................ 271
D i f f e r e n c e s ............................................................................ 273
The Story of H elel and the Story o f the
Cherub in Isa 14 and Ezek 28 ........................................ 274
Is a ia h 14:12-15 ....................................................................... 276
The N o rm a l-H is to ric a l V i e w ............................................. 276
The Mythological V i e w ...................................................... 279
E z e k i e l ' 28:12-19 ....................................................................... 280
The Immediate H i s t o r i c a l and R e lig io u s
Context V i e w ....................................................................... 280
The Mythological V i e w ..................................................... 281
The Paradise S tory V i e w ..................................................... 281
itie Satan V i e w ....................................................................... 282
The Typological V i e w .............................................................. 288
Is a ia h I4 :4 b -2 1 ......................................................................... 289
Ezekiel 28:1-19 ................................................................... 292
C o n c l u s i o n s ............................................................................ 293
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................... 297
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 304
vi
L IS T OF ABBREVIATIONS
AB - - Anchor Bible
AcO — Acta o r i e n t a l i a
ABR — A u s tra lia n B i b l i c a l Review
AfO - - Archiv f u r Orientforschunq
AHCL - - Davidson, Benjamin. The A n a ly t ic a l Hebrew and Chaldee

Lexicon. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 19 .
AHW - - Assyrisches Handworterbuch
AIPH - - Annuaire de 1 ' i n s t i t u t de p h i l o l o g ie e t d 'h i s t o i r e

o r ie n ta le s
AJA — American Journal o f Archaeology
AJSL - - American Journal o f Sem itic Languages and L i t e r a t u r e
AKM — Abhandlunqen f u r die Kund des Morqelandes
ALBO — Analecta lo v an ie n sia b i b l i c a e t o r i e n t a l i a
AnBib - - Analecta B ib lic a
ANET - - P r it c h a r d , James B ., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts

R e latin g to the Old Testament. 3d ed. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton U n iv e r s ity Press, 1969.
ANF — The Ante-Nicene Fathers
AnOr - - Analecta O r i e n t a l i a
AOS — American O rie n ta l Series
AOT - - A 1 to r ie n ta lis c h e Texte zum A!ten Testament
AOAT — A l t e r O rien t und A lte s Testament
APOT — C harles, R. H . , ed. The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha

of the Old Testament in E n g lis h . 2 v o ls. Oxford:
Clarendon, 1913, rep. 1963.
ARQ — Les Anciennes R e lig ions O rie n ta le s
vi i
ArOr ■- Archiv O r ie n t a ln i
ARW - Archiv fiir Rel iqionswi ssenschaft
AS - A ssyn'ological Studies
ASTI - Annual of the Swedish Theological In s titu te
ASV - American Standard Version
ATA - A ltte s ta m e n tlic h e Abhandlunqen
ATANT - Abhandlunqen zu r Theoloqie des Alten und Neuen Testaments
ATD - Das A lte Testament Deutsch
AUSDDS - Andrews U n i v e r s i t y Seminary Doctoral D is s e r ta tio n Series
AUSS - Andrews U n i v e r s i t y Seminary Studies
BaL -■ Bampton Lectures
BJ - La Bible de Jerusalem, 1956
BASOR - B u l l e t i n o f the American Schools o f O rie n ta l Research
BAT - Die Botschaft Des Alten Testaments
SCOT - Keil & D e lit z s c h , B ible Commentary on the Old Testament
BOB - Brown, Fra ncis ; D r i v e r , Samuel R . ; Briggs, Charles A.

A Hebrew and English Lexicon o f the Old Testament.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.
BeO - Bibbia e O rie n t
BHK - • K i t t e l , Rudolf. B ib lic a H e b ra ic a . 7th ed. S tu ttg a rt:

Wiirttembergi sche B i b e l a n s t a l t , 1951.
8HS - • E l l i g e r , K. and Rudolph, W., eds. B ib lia Hebraica

S tu ttq a rte n s ia . S tu ttg art: Wiirttembergi sche
8 ib e la n s ta lt, 1 9 6 8 ff.
Bib - ■ B ib lic a
BJRL - ■ B u lle t in o f the John Rylands L ib r a ry
BKAT - ■ B ib lis c h e r Kommentar Altes Testament
BleA - ■ Bauer, Hans, and Leander, Pontus. Grammatik des B i b l i s c h -

Aramaischen. R e p rin t o f 1927 e d . ; Hildesheim: Georq 01ms,
1962.
BO - • B ib lic a e t O r i e n t a l i a
vi i i
BR - - B i b l i c a l Research
BSac B ib lio th e c a Sacra
BTB — B i b l i c a l Theology B u lle t in
BUS — Brown U n i v e r s i t y Studies
BWANT — B eitrage zu r Wissenschaft vom A lte n und Neuen Testament
BZ — B ib lisc h e Z e i t s c h r i f t
BZAW — B e ih e fte z u r Z e i t s c h r i f t fu r d ie A 1 tte s ta m e n tlic h e

Wissenschaft
CAD - - Chicago Assyrian D ic tio n a ry
CBC — The Cambridge B ib le Commentary
CBNT — Coniectanea B ib lic a --N e w Testament Series
CBOT - - Coniectanea B i b l i c a — Old Testament Series
CBq — C a th o lic B i b l i c a l Q u a rte rly
CBSC — The Cambridge B ib le f o r Schools and Colleges
CCL — Corpus C h ris tian o ru m . Series L a tin a . T u r n n o lti:

Typographii Brepols Editores P o n t i f i c i i , 1 9 5 4 ff.
CHSL - - A Commentary on the Holy S c r i p t u r e s . Edited by John

Peter Lang. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1915.
ChW — Christentum und Wissenschaft
CQR — Church Q u a r t e r ly Review
CSCO — Corpus scriptorum christianorum o r ie n ta liu m
CTA - - Corpus des t a b l e t t e s en cuneiformes alphabetiques
CTBT — Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian T a b lets in The B r i t i s h

Museum
CTM — Concordia Theological Monthly
DB — D ic tio n a r y o f the B i b l e . Edited by James H astings. 4 vols.

New York: Charles S c r ib n e r 's , 1905-1912.
DBS - - D ic t io n n a ir e de la B ible Supplement. Edited by Henri

C a z e lle s . P a ris : L i b r a i r i e Letouzey e t Ane, 1957.
DCB — D ic tio n a r y o f C h r is tia n Biography. Edited by W illia m

Smith and Henry W a ll. Boston: L i t t l e , Brown & Company,
1877-1887.
ix
DGRBM — D ic tio n a r y o f G re e k and Roman B io g r a p h y and M y t h o lo g y .
Edited by W illia m Smith. Boston: L i t t l e Brown Company,
1949.
DMOA — Documenta e t Monumenta O r ie n tis A n t i q u i .
EB - - Encyclopaedia B i b l i c a . Edited by T. K. Cheyne and

J. Black. London: A. & C. Black, 1899-1903.
EHST — Europaische Hochschulschriften
EstBib — Estudios Bfblicos
ETL - - Ephemerides theoloqicae lovanienses
EvQ — Evangelical Q u a rte rly
EvTh — Evangeliche Theologie
Exp — Exposi t o r
Exp8 - - The E x p o s ito r's Bible
ExpTim - - Expository Times
FC — Fathers o f the Church. Washington, D .C ., 194 7 ff.
FRLANT — Forschunqen zur R e lig ion und L i t e r a t u r des Alten and

Neuen Testaments
FZB — Forschunq zur Bibel
GHK - - G o ttin q e r Handkommentar zum Alten Testament
GKC — Gesenius1 Hebrew Grammar. Edited by E.Kautzsch and

T ranslated by A. E. Cowley. 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1910.
HABS — H arper's Annotated B ib le Series
HAT - - Handbuch zum Alten Testament
HAWAT — Gesenius, W. and Buhl, Hebraisches und Aramaisches

Handworterbuch zum A lte n Testament. Gottingen:
S p r in g e r -V e r la g , 1949.
HDR — Harvard D is s e r ta tio n s in Relig ion
Herm - - Hermeneia
HKAT — Handkommentar zum A lten Testament
HNT - - Handbuch zum Neuen Testament
HSM - - Harvard Semitic Monographs
HSSt — Harvard Semitic Studies
HTB — Harper Torchbook
HTR - - Harvard Theological Review
HTS — Harvard Theological Studies
HUCA — Hebrew Union College Annual
HZ — H is torisc he Z e i t s c h r i f t
ICC - - In te r n a t io n a l C r i t i c a l Commentary
IDB — I n t e r p r e t e r 's D ic tio n a r y o f the B i b l e . Edited

by George A. B u t t r i c k . 4 v o ls . N a s h v ille :
Abingdon Press, 1962.
IDBSup — I n t e r p r e t e r 's D ic tio n a r y o f the B ib le . Supplementary

Volume. Edited by Keith Crim. N a s h v ille : Abingdon
Press, 1976.
IEJ — Is ra e l E xp lo ra tio n Journal
I n t — In t e r p r e t a t io n
IRAQ - - B r i t i s h School o f Archaeology
1st Schr — Is ta n b u le r S c h r ift e n
JAOS - - Journal o f the American O r ie n ta l Society
JBL — Journal of B ib lic a l L ite ra tu re
JBL.MS — Journal of B ib lic a l L i t e r a t u r e Monograph Series
JBR — The Journal o f B ib le and R e lig io n
JCS — Journal o f Cuneiform Studies
JETS — Journal o f the E vangelical Theological S ociety
JewEnc - - The Jewish Encyclopedia. Edited by I . Singer. New

York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1901-1906.
JLCR — Jordan Lectures in Comparative R elig ion
JNES — Journal of Near Eastern Studies
JPQS — The Journal o f the P a le s tin e O rie n ta l Society
xi
JQR — Jewish Q u a rte r ly Review
JSJ — Journal f o r the Study of Judaism in the P ersian,

H e l l e n i s t i c and Roman Period
JSS — Journal o f S em itic Studies
JTS — Journal o f Theological Studies
KAR — K e i l s c h r i f t t e x t e aus Assur r e lig io s e n In h a lts
KAT — Kommehtar zum A lte n Testament
KB — Ke l 1i n s c h r i f t ! i c h e B ib lio th e k
KBANT - - Kommentare und B e itra g e zum A lten und Neuen Testaments
KBL — Koehler, Ludwig and Baumgartner, W a lte r. Lexicon in

V e te ris Testamenti l i b r o s . Leiden: E. J. B r i l l , 1958.
KHC — Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament
KJV - - King James Version
KUB — K e ils c h riftu rk u n d e n aus Boghazkoi. B e r lin 1, 1921f f .
LBS - - L ib ra ry o f B i b l i c a l Studies
LCL — The Loeb C la s s ic a l L ib ra ry
LXX — Septuagint
MAOG — M itte ilu n q e n d e r a l t o r i e n t a l i s c h e n G e s e lls c h a ft
MGWJ — M o n a ts s ch rift f u r Geschichte und Wissenschaft des

Judentums.
MRS — Mission de Ras Shamra
MT — Masoretic Text
MUSJ — Melanges de I ' u n i v e r s i t e Saint-Joseph
MVAG — M itte ilu n g e n d e r v o rd e r-a s ia tis c h -a g y p tis c h e n

G e s e lls c h a ft
NASV — New American Standard Version
NCB - - New Century B ib le
NDB — The New B ib le D i c t i o n a r y . Edited by J. D. Douglas.

Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1962.
xi i
NIDNTT — Brown, C o lin . The New I n t e r n a t io n a l D ic tio n a ry o f
the New Testament Theology. E x e te r: Pasternoster
Press, 1975.
NIV - - New I n te r n a t io n a l Version
NJPS — The New Jewish P u b lic a tio n S o c ie ty o f America

Tran sla tio n o f the Holy S c r ip tu re s .
NKJV — The New King James Version
NKZ — Neue K irc h !ic h e Z e i t s c h r i f t
NovT — Novum Testamentum
NPNF — Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers
NTS — New Testament Studies
QDCC— Cross, F. L . , and Livin g s to n e , E. A. The Oxford

D ic tio n a ry o f the C h ris tia n Church. 2d ed. London:
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1974.
OLZ — O r i e n t a l i s t is c h e L i t t e r a t u r z e i t u n q
Or — O r ie n t a lia
OrAnt — Oriens antiquus
OSCU — Columbia U n i v e r s i t y O rien tal Studies
OTL - - Old Testament L ib r a ry
OTS - - Qudtestamentiscne Studien
OTST — Old Testament Studies
PCB — Black, Matthew, and Rowley, Harold H ., eds. Peake' s

Commentary on the B ib le . London: Nelson, 1962.
PEQ — P alestine E x p lo ra tio n Q u a r t e r ly
PGM — P atro lo q ia q ra e c a , Migne, ed.
PIASH — Proceedings o f the Is ra e l Academy o f Sciences and

Humanities
PL - - Paradise Lost
PLM - - P atrolo qia l a t i n a , Migne, ed.
PLS — P atrolo qia L a t i n a , Supplement
xi i i
PQ - - P a tro lo q ia o r i e n t a l i s , G r a f f i n , od.
PRU — Le P ala is royal d 'U q a r i t
PTMS — P ittsburgh Theological Monograph Series
RA — Revue d 'a s s y r i o lo q ie e t d 1archeoloqie O rientale
RB — Revue b ib liq u e
REJ - - Revue des Etudes Juives
RHPR — Revue d ' h i s t o i r e e t de philosop hie re liqie use s
RHR - - Revue d ' h i s t o i r e des r e lig io n s
RM — The Religionen der Menschheit
RSR — Recherches de Science r e li q i e u s e
RSV — Revised Standard Version
RTR — Reformed Theological Review
SBM — S t u t t g a r t e r b ib lis c h e Monographien
SBOT — Sacred Books o f the Old Testament
SBS — S t u t t g a r t e r B ib e lstu d ie n
SBT — Studies in B i b l i c a l Theology
SDABC — Seventh-day A d v e n tis t B ib le Commentary
Sem — Semi t i ca
SGV — Sammlunq G em einverstandlicher Vortraqe und S c h r ifte n

aus Gebiet der Theologie und Reliqonsqeschichte
SJT — S co ttish Journal o f Theology
SMSR — Studi e M a t e r i a l i di S to r ia d e l l e Reliqioni
SSEA — S c h r ifte n der Studienqemeinschaft der Evangelischen

Akademien
SPIB — S c rip ta p o n t i f i c i i in s titu ti b ib lic i
ST — Studia theoloqica
StudBT — Studia b i b l i c a e t theoloqica
Syr — Syri a
xi v
TBC — Torch Bible Commentary
IB 1 — Theo1oqische 3 1 a t t e r
TDNT — Theological D ic tio n a r y o f the New Testament. E dite d by

F. G. K i t t e l . Translated by G. W. Bromiley. Grand
Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1 9 6 4 ff.
TDOT — Theological D ic tio n a r y o f the Old Testament. E d ite d by

G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren. T ra n s la te d
by John T. W i l l i s . Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1 9 7 4 ff.
Textus — Textus. Annual o f the Hebrew U n iv e rs ity
THAT — T'neoiogisches Hanaworterbuch zum Alien Testament.

Edited by Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann. Munich:
Kaiser, 1971.
ThZ — Theologische Z e i t s c h r i f t
TLZ — Theologische L i t e r a r z e i t u n g
TOTC — Tyndale Old Testament Commentary
TRu — Theologische Rundschau
JS — Theological Studies
TSK — Theologische Studien und K r i t l k e n
TTL — Theological T ra n s la tio n L ib r a r y
TTS — T r i e r e r Theologische Studien
TWAT — Theologisches Worterbuch zum A lten Testament. Edited

by G. J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren. S t u t t g a r t :
Kohl hammer, 1 9 7 0 ff.
TynB — Tyndale B u l l e t i n
UF — Ugari t-Forschungen
UH — U g a r itic Handbook, C. H. Gordon.
UL — U g a r itic L i t e r a t u r e , C. H. Gordon.
UUA — Uppsala U n i v e r s i t e t s a r s s k r i f t
YD — Verbum domini
xv
VT — Vetus Testamentum
VTSup — Vetus Testamentum Supplements
WBC — W y c lif fe B ible Commentary. Edited by Charles F. F e i f f e r ,

and E v e r e tt F. Harrison. Chicago: Moody Press, 1962.
WBTh — Wiener B eitraqe zur Theoloqie
WC — Westminster Commentaries
WM — Worterbuch der Mytholoqie
WMANT - - W is senschaftliche Monographien zumA lte n and Neuen

Testament
WTJ — Westminster Theological Journal
WVDOG — W is se ns c haftlic he Veroffentlichungen der deutschen

Ori e n t-G e s e l1schaft
YOS.R — Yale O r ie n t a l Series-Researches
ZA - - Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r A s s y rio lo q ie
ZAW — Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r d ie a lt te s t a m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft
ZBK — Ziircher Bibelkomentar
ZDMG — Z e i t s c h r i f t der Deutschen Morgenlandischen G es e lls c h aft
ZDPV — Z e i t s c h r i f t des Deutschen P a la s tin a -V e r e in s
ZNW — Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r die neutestam entliche Wissenschaft
ZTK — Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r Theoloqie und Kirche
ZWT — Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r w iss e n s c h a ftlic h e Theoloqie
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
No l i s t , o f course, can exhaust a w r i t e r ' s indebtedness,
but some in d iv id u a ls must be remembered.
I wish to thank the South American D iv is io n and B ra z il
College f o r f i n a n c i a l support during my study.
I am p a r t i c u l a r l y g ra te fu l to Dr. W illia m H. Shea, chairman
o f my committee, whose d ir e c tio n and copious comments were a must
in my research. My thanks are also given to Drs. Gerhard F. Hasel
and Lawrence T. G eraty whose suggestions have enriched th is
di s s e r t a t i o n .
I am v ery much indebted to f o u r la d ie s : Dr. Leona G. Running,
who read and c o rre c te d the manuscript; Joyce Jones who e d ite d the
m a t e r ia l; Joyce Campbell who went through the pa in fu l experience
of typing the d i s s e r t a t i o n ; and over and above a l l , the most special
lad y, my w ife Nancy, who can never be thanked enough.
xv i i
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The way we fa c e , i n t e r p r e t , and understand the m atter of the
o r ig in o f e v i l — and i t s im p lic a tio n s — in the S crip tu re s a ffe c ts and
determines in great measure the outcome o f our exegesis of many
b ib lic a l passages.
Depending on the view we take in the m a tte r , our theological
understanding o f the main basic doctrines o f the Bible varie s from
one extreme to the other in the spectrum o f b i b l i c a l theology.
I t is im porta nt, th e r e f o r e , th a t we should c a r e f u l l y study
those passages in the S c r ip tu re s , the understanding of which should
enable us to a r r iv e a t a sound comprehension o f th a t aspect of Bible
tru th .
I t is well e s ta b lis h e d in Scripture^ t h a t there is a struggle
between the forces o f good ano forces of e v i l going on in the uni
verse which transcends the p a r t i c u l a r a f f a i r s among the in h a b itan ts
of th is world.
2
In the s c h o la rly w orld, tiiis s tr u g g le is known as "the
c o n f l i c t between cosmos and chaos" and can be perceived from the
] C f. Gen 3 :6 ; Job 1, 2; 2 6 :1 2 -1 3 ; Ps 82; Zech 3 :1 -3 ;

Matt 4 (and p a r a l l e l s ) .
?
H. Gunkel, Scnopfunq und Chaos in U r z e i t und Endzeit
(G ottin g en : '/andenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1 8 9 5 ); J. Gray, "The Hebrew
Conception ^ f the Kingship o f God: I t s O r ig in and Development," VT
5 (1 9 5 6 ):2 6 8 - 8 5 .
2
beginning to the end o f the S c rip tu re s , from Genesis to R evelation.
The B ib le r e f le c t s the presence o f a kind of disorder which is
r e s i s t e d by God and those who are on His s id e. And i t seems that
the plan of s a lv a tio n i t s e l f is God's answer to overcome such d is
a r r a y o f the u n iv e rs e 's ord e r, the r e s u l t o f which would be the
r e s t o r a t i o n of p e r f e c t harmony planned by the r u l e r of the universe.
When, according to the Genesis record, God created th is world
and set Adam and Eve in the Garden o f Eden, He did i t p e r f e c t ly . ^
God had created the world as a harmonious whole; but when the f i r s t
couple disobeyed God, something extraneous or outside o f God's
c r e a tio n of th is world came in . Childs a ffir m s th a t Gen 2 can be
understood as an a n t i t h e s i s of chap. 3, "wholeness versus fr a g T

2
m enta tio n ; tr u s t versus suspicion; f a i t h versus u n b e l ie f . "
I t seems t h a t the seed o f d is o r d e r or disharmony was already
p re se n t even before the f a l l of Adam and Eve; i t transcended the
a f f a i r s o f our own world. The S c rip tu re s o f f e r i m p l i c i t and e x p l i c i t
in fo rm a tio n about t h i s struggle which develops i t s e l f in t h i s world,
but whose seed came before the world and transcends the a f f a i r s of
t h i s w o r ld .-' This cosmic war appears as a theme in such books of
the B ible as Job, Habakkuk, e tc .
Despite the inform ation we can obtain about the s truggle
between these opposing powers and the presence of e v i l in our world
which came through the disobedience o f our f i r s t p a ren ts, nothing
] Gen 1 :1 0 , 12, 18, 21, 25, 31 .
^B. S. C h ild s , Myth and R e a li t y in the Old Testament

( N a p e r v i l l e , IL: Alec R. Allenson, 1 9 6 0 ), p. 47.
^Gen 3; Job I , 2; Zech 3; e t c .
3
is e x p l i c i t l y said in the OT about the o r i g i n of e v il in God's
u n iv ers e .
However, we have in the Bible two very in t e r e s t in g passages—
Isa 1 4 :4b-23 and Ezek 2 8 :1 -1 9 — which have provoked several i n t e r
p r e t a t io n s . Among these is one which holds th a t the passages speak
about the o rig in o f sin in heaven.'
Since the OT does not e x p l i c i t l y e xplain why and how e v i l
o r ig in a t e d before the events occurred in the Garden o f Eden, and
since the two poems concerning Babylon and Tyre are among the few
t e x ts which a number o f theologians have used to explain the o rig in
of e v il in the u n iv e rs e , i t is w orthwhile to pursue a d e t a il e d
e x e g e tic a l and th e o lo g ic a l examination o f the passages. Such an
examination should take in to account the immediate and the la r g e r
b i b l i c a l context o f the m a te ria l th a t bears upon th is i n t e r p r e
t a t i o n and of other r e la t e d passages.
I t is proposed he re, t h e r e fo r e , th a t we in v e s tig a te the
h i s t o r i c a l and th e o lo g ic a l contents o f Isa 1 4 :4b-23 ( e s p e c i a l l y
vss. 12-15) and Ezek 2 8 :1 -1 9 . This study also includes a com
p a r a t iv e study of the two passages. The reason fo r choosing to
examine these two passages together seems obvious, fo r through
out the centuries they have been i d e n t i f i e d as being r e la te d to each
oth e r in t h e i r language, nature, and c ontent. This study also
intends to demonstrate t h a t these two p a r t i c u l a r passages comple
ment each other in a possible i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the main f ig u r e to
which they r e f e r .
4

I n t e r p r e t a t io n o f Is a ia h 14
Apocrypha and Pseudepiqrapha
Probably the f i r s t attempts to i n t e r p r e t Isa 14:12-15^ are
found in the pseudepigraphical works r e l a t i n g to the OT. In one of
the s e, The L ife o f Adam and Eve, the d e v il is quoted as saying:
"I w ill set my seat above the stars o f heaven, and w i l l be l i k e the
2
h i g h e s t . 11 Since t h i s statement obviously is derived from Isa 14:
1 3 -1 4 , i t in d ica te s t h a t the author o f t h i s work probably in te r p r e t e d
the passage in such a way as to apply i t to the d e v i l . A s im ila r
idea is r e fe rre d to in Slavonic Enoch, a pseudepigraphical work
c u r r e n t ly dated in the second century A.D.
One from out the o rd e r of angels, having turned away w ith

the order th a t was under him, conceived an impossible thought,
to place his throne higher than the clouds above the e a r t h ,
t h a t he might become equal in rank to my power. And I threw
him out from the h e ig h t with his a n g e ls , and he was f l y i n g
in the a i r contin u o u s ly above the b o tto m le s s .3
Although we are going tc deal w ith the whole song (v s s . 4b-

2 3 ) , in searching the h i s t o r y of the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the passage,
we are more concerned w ith the a u th o r's understanding and i n t e r p r e
t a t i o n o f vss. 12-15.
^V ita Adae e t Evae 15.3 [c A.D. 1 0 0 -c . 200], in R. H. Charles,

APQT 2 :137. J u lia n Morgenstern ("The Mythological Background o f
Psalm 8 2 ," HUCA 14 [ 1 9 3 9 ] : i 0 9 ) , besides ad m ittin g th a t the author of
The L i f e o f Adam and Eve could have copied the expression l i t e r a l l y
from Isa 14:13, th in k s the more probable was th a t "the wording of
th i s statement was used in the version o f the myth s t i l l p o p u la rly
c u rre n t in oral form a t the time o f composition of the book." In
the Apocalyptic book o f Sybyline Oracles [ c . A.D. 7 0 ] , a re ference
is made concerning a b a t t l e o f the s ta rs (which Charles [ APQT 2:373]
thinks is in the f u t u r e where i t is said t h a t "L u c ife r waged b a t t l e
. . . the might o f doughty L u c ife r burned up Aquarius. Heaven i t s e l f
was s t i r r e d t i l l i t shook the w a r r io r s , and in anger c as t them head
long to the earth" Sib o r 5:515, 527-29 (C h a rle s , APQT 2 : 4 0 6 ) .
^Slavonic Enoch 29. 4-5 [c . A.D. 2nd Cent.] (C h a r le s , APQT

2 :4 4 7 ).
5
Although we cannot say f o r c e rta in the w r i t e r of 1 Enoch is quoting
from or commenting on the Is a ia n ic passage, he seems to have had i t
in the back o f his mind in the two references to th is same id e a :
And I saw, and behold a s ta r f e l l from heaven. . . . And

again I saw in the v is io n , and looked towards the heaven, and
behold I saw many s ta rs descend and c ast themselves down from
heaven to t h a t f i r s t s t a r J
And I saw one o f those four who had come fo r th f i r s t , and

he seized th a t f i r s t s ta r which had f a l l e n from heaven, and
bound i t hand and fo o t and cast i t in to an abyss: Now th a t
abyss was narrow and deep, and h o r r i b l e and d a r k . 2
Jewish I n t e r p r e t e r s
The Jews in the Talmudic period'3 in te r p r e te d the I s a ia n ic
passage as having to do w ith immediate h i s t o r i c a l events in which

4
Nebuchadnezzar was i d e n t i f i e d as the "Oppressor." In the Midrash
Rabbah t h i s passage is applied to th a t same king.^
] 1 Enoch 8 6 . 1 - 3 (C harles, APQT 2 : 2 5 0 ) .
^ I b i d . , 88.1 (C h arle s, APQT, 2 : 2 5 1 ) . George W. E. N ic ke ls-

burg, J r . ( R e s u rre c tio n , Im m o rta lity , and Eternal L ife in In te r e s ta -
mental Judaism, HTS 26 [Cambridge: Harvard U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1972J ,
p. 79) thinks the account o f Antiochus’ (Epiphanes) death (2 Macc.
9 . 7 f f . ) was influenced by the language o f Isa 14.
^From the t h i r d century to the f i f t h century A.D.
4Shab. 149b; Pes. 94a, 94b; Hag. 13a; Huh 89a.
^See M id r . Gen 36:33; Mi d r . Exod 7 :1 ; 12:2, where i t i n t e r

prets Isa 14:12 as saying th a t Nebuchadnezzar used to worship the sun;
Exod 1 4 :1 5 ; Mi d r . Lev 16:1 f f . , where Isa 14:13 is applie d to Nebuchad
nezzar before his sickness, and vs. 17 is applied w ith re fe re n c e to
Evil-M erodach, who was set in Nebuchadnezzar's place during Nebuchad
n e z z a r's years o f sickness, and was l a t e r confined in priso n a f t e r
the s e n io r k in g 's h e a lin g ; "and whoever," says the commentary,
"entered prison in his days never came o u t , as i t is said 'He opened
not the house o f his p r i s o n e r s '. " See a ls o Midjr. Sum 2 2 : 2 ; Mi d r .
Esth 1 : 1 , which comments on Isa 14:22 a f f i r m i n g th a t "'name' re fe rs
to Nebuchadnezzar; 'remnant' r e fe rs to Evil-Merodach; 'o f f s h o o t '
r e f e r s to Belshazzar; and 'o f f s p r i n g ' r e f e r s to V a s h ti. Another
e x p la n a tio n : 'Name' r e fe rs to t h e i r S c r i p t ; 'remnant' r e f e r s to t h e i r
language; 'o f fs h o o t' and 'o f f s p r i n g ' r e f e r to son and grandson
6
Church Fathers
Origen (c. A.D. 185-c. 254) applied the passage to Satar,
emphasizing th a t he had been in heaven a t one tim e , b^t had f a l l e n
and had his g lo ry turned into d u s t. He connects Luke 10:18 with the
Isaian passage.^ Origen is one o f the f i r s t to i n t e r p r e t th is
passage in r e l a t i o n to Ezek 28. T e rtu llia n (c . A.D. 160-c. 225)
espoused the same view as Origen and said th a t the t e x t re fe rre d
to the one "who has raised up c h ild re n of disobedience against the
C reator H im s elf."^
From the beginning o f the t h i r d century, the Church Fathers
in te r p r e t e d the Isaian passage in two d i f f e r e n t ways:
1. Applied to Satan. Among those who follow ed the view o f
O rig in and T e r t u l l i a n are Cyprian (c . A.D. 2 00-c. 258),"* Gregory
Thaumaturges (c . A.D. 205-c. 2 6 5 ) , 4 Gregory Nazianzen (c . A.D. 329—
c. 390),"* Gregory o f Nyssa (c . A.D. 331-c. 400),** Jerome (c . A.D.
(Evil-Merodach and B e ls h a zz a r)." Mi d r . Cant 2 :1 2 ; 3 : 1 - 3 ; commenting

on Cant 8 : 1 4 , i t is said th a t "the Holy One, blessed be He, does not
punish a na tio n on earth t i l l He has cast down i t s guardian angel
from heaven. This is borne out by f i v e s c r ip t u r a l verses" (verses
c ite d : Isa 24:21; Isa 14:12; Isa 34:5; Ps 149:8; Ps 1 4 9 :9 );
Midr. Lam 1:4.
'Oriqen De P r in c i p i i s 1 .5 .5 (ANF, 4 : 2 5 9 ) ; Aqainst Celsus

6 .4 3 (ANF, 4 :5 9 3 T
^L. T e r t u l l i a n Aqainst M arcion, 5 .1 1 , 17 (ANF, 3:454, 4 66).
^Cyprian E p is tie s 54:3; T re atis e s 1 2 .3 .1 1 8 (ANF, 5:339, 5 5 6 ).
^Gregory Thaumaturgus Second Homily (ANF, 6 : 6 4 ) .
G r e g o r y Nazianzen O ratio n on the Theophany 3 8.9 (NPNF,

2nd s er. 7 :3 4 7 ).
^Gregory o f Nyssa Cantica Canticorum Homiliae 5:14 ( PGM

44:88 1 , 1081); C h r is ti Resurrectiorem Qrat 1 (MPG, 4 6 :6 0 8 ).
7
342-420).^ Prudentius (c . A.D. 3 48-420?).^ In singing in his poems
about the o r ig in of sin and the f a l l o f the angels, Prudentius used
the thought o f Isa 14. In his i n t e r e s t in g comments on "the S p i r i t
of P r id e ," John Cassian (c . A.D. 360-c. 448) i d e n t i f i e s the fig u r e
of vss. 13-14 as Satan and equates him w ith the serpent which
deceived Adam and Eve."* From Augustine (A.D. 354-430)4 to Gregory
Jerome Aqainst Pelagians 3 .1 4 ; Aqainst Jovinianus 2 .4 ;

L e t t e r s , 2 2 .4 ; 133.1 (NPNF, 2nd ser. 6 :2 7 2 , 391 , 480). Commentario
rum in Isaiam Prophetam, 5 .1 4 .1 2 -1 4 ; 6 .1 4 .1 2 ( PLM, 2 4 :1 6 1 -6 2 ; 219-20);
The L i f e of S t. Hi l a r i an of Gaza 4, in the Fathers of the Church,
ed. P.oy J. D e fe r r a r i (Washington, D .C .: Fathers of the Church,
1952), 15:248; Homilies 14, 41, in The Fathers of the Church, 48:107.
2
'The author o f i n i q u i t y is not God.
In mind o f f a l l e n ar.gel sin was bred,
Of one th a t l i k e a mighty s t a r once shone ( c f . Isa 14:12)
And w ith created splendor b r i g h t l y burned.
A ll things created are from nothing made;
Not so is God, tru e Wisdom, and Holy S p i r i t ,
The l i v i n g T r i n i t y th a t ever was,
3ut even angel m in is te rs He made.
One from t h e i r number, f a i r o f countenance,
Fierce in his might and by his strength puffed up,
Upraised h im s e lf w ith overweening pride ( c f . Isa 14:13-14)
And o f his brightness made a bold d is p la y ,
T i l l he persuaded some he was begot
Of his own power, and being from him self
Had drawn, to no c re a to r owing b i r t h . "
Prudentius Poems, v o l . 2, tr a n s . M. Clement Eagan, in FaCh 52:50.
Prudentius is r e f u t i n g a Manichaean heresy about the o r i g i n o f Satan.
^John Cassian I n s t i t u t e s 12.4 (NPNF, 2nd ser. 1 1 :2 8 0 -8 1 );

Conferences 5 .7 ; 8 .2 5 (NPNF, 2nd ser. 1 1:342, 386).
4Auqustine The Confessions 1 0 .3 6 .5 3 (NPNF, 1st s e r. 1 :1 5 9 );

The C ity of God 11:15 (NPNF, 1st ser. 2 :2 1 3 -1 4 ); Homilies on the
Gospel o f St. John 3 .1 7 ; 1 7 .5 .1 6 (NPNF, 1st ser. 7 :2 1 , 116) Exposi
tio n on the Psalms 3 6 .1 5 ; 4 8 .3 ; 89.12 (NPNF, 1st ser. 8 . 9 0 , 164-65;
432-33; Augustine maintained th a t Satan f e l l through p r i d e , and Isa
14 and Ezek 28 were used to support his view. Martin de Braga
W ritin g s o f Martin de Braga, in FaCh 6 2 :4 5 , 46. A urelius
Cassiodorius [c . A.D. 468- ] E xpo sitio Psalmorum (CCL, 97:35 2 ,
426, 535; 9 8:784, 806, 1113); Primasius [A.D. 6th C e n t.] Com-
mentariorum Super Apocalypsim L ib r i 5 .9 (PLS, 4 :1 2 1 3 ).
8
the Great (c . A.D. 5 9 0 -6 0 4 )^ most o f the church fa th e r s followed
the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Isa 14:12-15 as r e f e r r i n g to the d e v i l . As
had happened to Prudentius, several poets from the f i f t h century on
were influenced by the e a r l i e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Isa 14 and Ezek 28
in connection w ith Rev 12. In t h e i r compositions they sang Satan’ s

?
fa ll from heaven in p e c u lia r ways.
2. Applied to immediate h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t. The Syrian
f a th e r Aphrahat (c . A.D. 220-c. 350)^ and Chromatius A q u ile ie n s is
(A.D. 4th c e n t u r y ) 4 applied the words of Isa 14:13 simply in an
immediate h i s t o r i c a l sense and a t t r i b u t e d them to Nebuchadnezzar.
Chrysostom (c . A.D. 347-407) says they r e f e r to a "barbarian king"
and r e la t e s them to Ezek 28.^ Hippolytus (c . A.D. 1 70-c. 236)
r e la te d th is passage to the A n t i c h r i s t and saw i t as d e p ic tin g an
event to happen in the f u t u r e . He quotes Ezek 28 side by side with
Isa 1 4 . 6
Gregory the Great Book o f Pastoral Rule 2 .4 (NPNF, 2nd ser.

1 2 : 1 4 -1 5 ); E p is tle s 18, 21 (NPNF, 2nd s er. 12:166, 1 7 2 ); Gregory
says t h a t S atan's f i r s t war was provoked because o f his pride (he
quotes Isa 1 4 ) , and connects Rev 12:7-9 as r e f e r r i n g to the same
event. XL Homiliarum in Evangelia 2.34 (MPL, 7 6 :1 2 5 1 ).
^Claudius Marius V ic to r iu s [A.D. 5th c e n t . ] A le th ia (CCL,

1 2 8 :1 2 7 ); Dracontius Carmen Deo (MPL, 6 0 :8 0 8 -0 9 ). There were times
in the epoch c f the Church Fathers and in the Middle Ages when the
subject o f Satan and his war in heaven was not discussed so much in
th e o lo g ic a l t r e a t i s e s a-s i t was sung in poetry.
Âphrahat Demonstrations 5 .4 (NPNF, 2nd s e r. 1 3 :3 5 3 ).
4Chromatius A q u ile ie n s is Tractatus 50 ( CCL, 9 a : 445).
^Chrysostom Homilies on the Statues 11.4 (NPNF, 1st ser.

9 :4 1 4 ).
^Hippolytus T re a tis e on C h ris t and A n t i c h r i s t 53 (ANF,

5 :2 1 5 ).
9
Middle Ages
Throughout the Middle Ages several w r i t e r s such as Walafridus
Strabus (c . A.D. 808-849)^ and Haymo (A.D. 9th c e n t . a p p l i e d the
passage to the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar and to Satan. Others
adhered to the t r a d i t i o n a l view o f the f a t h e r s .^ Peter Lombard
(1100-1160) contended th a t L u c ife r was the most eminent o f a l l angels.
When Satan became proud, he decided to make h im s e lf equal with God,
and God cast him down from heaven. The a n g e l's pretentions and f a l l
4
are c it e d from Isa 14 and Ezek 28.
Albertus Magnus (1 2 0 5 -1 2 8 0 ), who r e l i e d much upon Lombard’ s
w r i t i n g s , saw L u c ife r (Is a 14:12) as the p r in c ip a l angel who led
the r e v o l t and a t t r a c t e d a larg e number o f o th e r angels to his cause.
L u c i f e r 's sin was th a t o f d e s ir in g e q u a l i t y w ith God. Pride which
proceeded from envy was the d e v i l ' s f i r s t s in .^
'W ala frid u s Strabus, Glossa Q r d i n a r i a - 1 ib e r Isaiae Prophetae,

1 4 . 5 f f . (PLM 1 13:1253).
2
Haymo, Commentariurum in Isaiam , 214 (MPL, 1 16 :790-93).
Âmbrosius Antpertus Tc. A.D. 710-784] Expositious in Apoca-

ly p ts ir. 2 . 2 . 2 4 ; 3 .5 .1 b ; 4 . 8 . 8 - 0 ; 4 . 9 . 1 2 b -13; 9 : 2 0 .8 (CCL, 27:149,
244, 334-56; i b i d . , 27A: 7 6 0 ). Rupert o f Deutz [c . A.D. 1075-c. 1129]
Commentariorum Appealypsim Joannis Apostoli 7 .1 2 (MPL, 169:1051-
1055); De V i c t o r i a Verbi Dei 1 .1 -3 0 (MPL, 1 69 :1 2 17 -1 2 43 ); where the
w r-'ter makes Rev 12 the basis f o r his prose epic on Satan's war
a gains t God, besides Isa 14 and Ezek 28 which are used e x te n s iv e ly
in the p re s e n ta tio n . Herveus Burgidolensis Monachus [12th c e n t .]
Commentariorum in Isaiam 2 .1 4 (MPL, 1 8 1 :1 6 4 -6 6 ); S aint Bernard
[1090-1153] Sermons on Songs o f Songs x v i i . 5 (MPL, 183-857, 1113,
'
i i
7 Aft \
.
4P e te r Lombard Four Books o f Sentences 2 .2 - 6 (MPL, 192:
1031-1035).
Âlbertus Magnus Summae Theoloqie 2.21-31 (B a s ile e : Jacobi

de P fo rtzh e im , 1 5 0 7 ), quoted by Edward Langton, Satan, A P o r t r a i t
(London: S k e ffin g to n & Son, 1 9 4 7 ), p. 69.
10
Although he does not e x p l i c i t l y quote the thought o f Isa
1 4 :1 2 -1 5 , the I t a l i a n poet and theologian Dante A l i g h i e r i (1265-
1321) makas use o f i t in describing the acts of L u c ife r , whom he
i n t e r p r e t s as being S a ta n .1
The most important and i n f l u e n t i a l sch o la s tic theologian and
philosopher o f the C a th o lic Church, Thomas Aquinas (c. A.D. 1225-

2
1 2 7 4 ), and the s o -c a lle d "Morning S tar o f the Reformation," John
W y c l i f f (c . A.D. 1330 -1 38 4 ),^ shared the Church Fathers' view,
seeing in the passage the acts o f the f a l l e n angel from heaven.
From the Reformation to the

nine te enth Century
Although Caspar Schwenckfeld (1490-1561)^ maintained the
t r a d i t i o n a l view o f the F a th e rs, the two g re a t reformers M a rtin
Luther (1483-1546) and John Calvin (1509-1564) broke w ith the
tra d itio n a l i n t e r p r e t a t io n held by the fa th e r s and scholars in the
Middle Ages. Luther a ffirm e d th a t " th is (1 4 :1 2 ) is not said o f the
angel who once was thrown out o f heaven (Luke 10:18; Rev 1 2 : 7 - 8 )
Dante A l i g h i e r i , "P aradiso," 1 9 .4 6 -5 7 ; 2 7 .2 2-32 ; 2 9 .5 5 -6 6 ;

in Divine Comedy, tra n s . and comm. Charles S. S in g le to n , 3 v o ls .
B ollingen Series 80 (P rin ce to n : U n iv e r s ity Press, 1 975), 2 :2 1 1 , 303,
327; " In fe r n o ," 31.1 42 -1 4 5; 3 4 .1 21 -3 9 . I b i d . , 1:337, 369. Dante
makes use o f his p o e tic imagination saying th a t Satan should f a l l to
e a r th a t a point d i r e c t l y antipodal to Jerusalem.
2
Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theoloqica, 3 v o ls. (New York:
3en zig e r Brothers, 1 9 4 7 ), 1 :3 14 -1 7 .
^John W y c l i f f , "Sermon 19," in John W y c l i f f 's L a tin Works,

ed. Johann Loserth (London: W y c li f f S o c ie ty , 1883-1907), 7 :4 7 5 ;
"De A n t i c h r i s t , " i b i d . , 15:204.
^Caspar Schwenckfeld, "Exposition o f Ezekiel 17, G a la tia n s

5 : 5 , and Hebrews 3 :1 4 ," L e tte r s and T re a tis e s o f Caspar Schwenckfeld
von Qssiqn— 1552-1 554, in Corpus Schwenckfeldianorum, 14 v o l s . , ed.
E lls w o rth Schultz (L e ip z ig : B re itk o p f E. H a r t e l , 1 93 5 ), 1 3:34 .
11
but of the King o f Babylon, and i t is f i g u r a t i v e language."^ Calvin
repudiated the a p p lic a tio n o f the passage to Satan and in te r p r e t e d
i t t o t a l l y in h i s t o r i c a l terms:
The e x p o s itio n o f th is passage, which some have g iv e n , as

i f i t r e f e r r e d to Satan, has arisen from ignorance; f o r the
context p l a i n l y shows th a t these statements must be understood
in reference to the king o f the Babylonians. But when passages
of S c rip tu re are taken up a t random, and no a t t e n t i o n is paid
to the c o n te x t, we need not wonder th a t mistakes o f t h i s kind
fr e q u e n tly a r i s e . Yet i t was an instance o f very gross
ignorance, to imagine th a t L u c ife r was the king of d e v i l s ,
and th a t the Prophet gave him th is name. But as these
inventions have no p r o b a b i l i t y whatever, l e t us pass by them
as useless f a b l e s . 2
In his commentary on Is a ia h , Calvin i d e n t i f i e d the fi g u r e of
Isa 14 as Nebuchadnezzar,^ while in his commentary on Psalms he

4
i d e n t i f i e d him as Sennacherib, and since C alvin was the f i r s t to
see in the f i g u r e an Assyrian king, i t is a high p o in t in the h is to ry
o f the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s passage. P o st-re form ation theologians
such as Thomas Manton (1620-1677) followed the view o f Luther
on th is passage.5 J. L ig h tf o o t (1602-1675) a pplie d Isa 14:12 with
Luke 10:18 to S atan, s t a t in g in a d d itio n th a t “L u c i f e r f a l l i n g from
^Martin L u th e r, Lectures on Isaiah 1 -3 9 , in L u th e r 1s Works,

ed. J a r o s la v -P e lik a n (S t . Louis: Concordia Pub. House, 1 9 6 9 ), 16:140.
2
John C a l v i n , Commentary on the Book o f the Prophet I s a i a h ,
4 v o l s . , tr a n s . W illia m P r in g le (Grand Rapids: Eerdmanis, 1 94 8 ), 1:442.
^C a lvin , Commentary on I s a i a h , 1:443.
4John C a l v i n , Commentary on the Book o f Psalms, tr a n s . James

Anderson, 5 v o ls . (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1 9 4 9 ), 2:219.
5
Thomas Manton, E p is t le o f Jude, in Works o f Thomas Manton,
22 v ols. (W orthington, PA: Maranatha Pub., 1 970), 5 :1 9 1 -9 2 , says
th a t "the f a th e r s -usually quote Isa 14:12-13 to expla in the o r ig in
o f s in . But i t is but a metaphorical passage concerning the king
o f Babylon, and the ground o f the mistake was because the angels
are often in S c rip tu re s et fo r t h by s t a r s , as Job 3 8 : 7 ."
12
heaven (v s . 12) is the King of Babylon, divested o f his throne and
dominion.
From the seventeenth century come two g re a t works of Puritan
lite ra tu re : John M ilto n 's Paradise Lost and John Bunyan's Holy
2
Mar. In i n t e r p r e t i n g and commenting on the Isa ia n t e x t , Bunyan
^John L i g h t f o o t , Hebrew and Talmudical E x e r c it a t io n s upon

St. Luke, in Whole Works, 13 v o l s . , ed. John R. Pitman (London:
J. F. Dove, 1 823), 12:92.
^John M i l t o n , Paradise L o s t, 1 .4 0 ; 5 .6 8 9, 7 1 5 -1 6 , 766 in

The Works o f John Mi 1to n , ed. Frank A. Patterson e t a l . (New York:
Columbia U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 3 1 -3 8 ), 2 : 9 , 11, 168 -6 9 , 176. See also
A r e o p a q it ic a , 4 :3 5 3 ; Eikonoklastes 1 5 , 5:218. I t is very i n te r e s tin g
th a t M ilto n h im s e lf, in De Doctrina C h r is t ia n a , omits Isa 14 and Ezek
28 from the te x ts used to present Satan's c h ara c te r and h is to r y .
There is much dispute concerning the sources M ilton used to produce
his "War in Heaven" d e s c r ip tio n ; see Harris F. F l e t c h e r , Mi 1to n ' s
Semitic Studies (New York: Guardian Press, I n c . , 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 111-13;
and J. M. Evans, The Paradise Lost and the Genesis T r a d it io n (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1 9 6 8 ), pp. 34-36 , 8 6 -9 9 , 219-22. For the view th a t
M ilto n 's m a te ria l came to him not from Hebraic or o th e r Semitic books
or m anuscripts. On the view th a t the basis f o r his p i c t u r e of the
war in heaven is the Bible and not the w r itin g s o f the poets of the
past, see Austin Dobbins, M ilto n and the Book o f R e v e la tio n : The
Heavenly Cycle (Tuscaloosa, AL: U n iv e r s ity o f Alabama Press, 1975),
pp. 2 6-52. M ilton presents "envy" as Satan's f i r s t s in ; t h i s was also
the view o f the author of the apocryphal book o f Wisdom o f Solomon
( 2 . 2 4 ) ; o f the Pseudepigraphical Book o f Adam and Eve (1 3 -1 6 , Charles
2 :1 3 7 ); and of Lactantius [ c . A.D. 260-330] ( The PivTne I n s t i t u t e s ,
2 . 9 ; 4 .6 [ANF 7 :5 2 -5 3 ; 1 0 5 ] ) . For comments on the sin o f Satan, from
the seventeenth century on, see S. P Revard, The War in Heaven
( Ith a c a : Cornell U n iv e r s ity Press. 1 980), pp. 7 0-85 .
John Bunyan, Holy War, in Complete Works o f John Bunyan, ed.
John G u l l i v e r (P h ila d e lp h ia : B ra d ley , Garretson & C o ., 1873), p. 371,
depicts in a very im aginative and metaphorical way the struggle th a t
has been going on between man and the enemy o f the s o u l, and u11 i - '
mately between God and the d e v i l . In his d e s c r ip tio n Bunyan says th a t
"This Diabolus is indeed a grand and mighty p r in c e , and yet both
poor and beggarly. As to his o r i g i n a l , he was a t f i r s t one o f the
servants o f King Shaddai, made, and taken, and put by him into most
high and mighty place; yea, was put in to such p r i n c i p a l i t i e s as
belonged to the best o f his t e r r i t o r i e s and dominions. This
Diabolus was made son o f the morning, and a brave place he had
o f i t ; i t brought him much g lo r y and gave him much brightness, an
income th a t might have contented his L u c ife ria n h e a r t , had i t not
bee;, in s a t ia b le and enlarged as h e ll i t s e l f . " (p . 371)
This is w ith o u t doubt an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Isa 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 as applied to
Satan.
and M ilto n used what scholars c a l l the "method of accommodation,"^
advocating th a t the passage r e fe rr e d to Satan and his f a l l . Basing
t h e i r views on the OT passages o f Isa 14 and Ezek 28, along with
te x ts from the NT, m a te ria l o f Sem itic o r i g i n , in g e n e r a l, views
and comments o f the Church Fa the rs, and possibly some m a te ria ls from
the Renaissance, they enlarged the vis io n concerning L u c i f e r .
The American theologian and philosopher Jonathan Edwards
(1703-1758) in te r p re te d the passage under discussion as applying to
the King o f Babylon, but he did not provide a d e t a il e d i n t e r p r e t a t io n
of the t e x t . In preaching about e v i l angels John Wesley (1703-1791)
applie d Isa 14 to Satan: "There is no a b s u rd ity in supposing Satan
. . . s ty le d 'L u c i f e r Son o f the morning' to have been a t le a s t one
of the f i r s t , i f not the f i r s t a r c h a n g e l." ^

Bishop R. Lowth (1710-
4
1787), along w ith his p o e tic a n a ly s is of t h i s passage, in te r p r e te d
The "Theory of Accommodation" had i t s o r i g i n s in the f i r s t

c e n tu rie s o f our era and was f r e q u e n tly used by the i n t e l l e c t u a l s of
the Renaissance. I t was an attem pt to e x p la in some b i b l i c a l anthro-
pormophism, e s p e c ia lly t h a t o f the OT. Theologians such as St.
Augustine, Thoras Aquinas, and C alvin made use o f accommodation.
For q u otations and comments on the m a tte r, see Roland M. Frye, God,
Man and Satan (P rin ce to n : U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 6 0 ), pp. 7-13;
C. A. P a t r id e s , "Paradise Lost and the Theory of Accommodation," in
B rig h t Essence, Studies in M i l t o n 's Theology, ed. W. B. Hunter
et a l . ( S a l t Lake C ity : U n i v e r s i t y of Utah Press, 1 9 7 1 ), pp. 159-63
Edward A. Dowey, J r . , The Knowledge o f God in C a l v i n 's Theology (New
York: Columbia U n iv e r s ity Press, 1 952), pp. 3 -1 7.
2
Jonathan Edwards, Freedom o f the W i l l , in Works o f Jonathan
Edwards, 6 v o l s . , ed. Paul Ramsey (New Haven: Yale U n i v e r s i t y Press,
1 95 7 ), 1 :402.
^John Wesley, "Sermon on E vil Angels," in Wesley's Works,

14 v o ls . (London: Wesleyan Methodist Book Room, 1831 ) , 6:372.
4
Robert Lowth, Lectures on the Sacred Poetry o f the Hebrews
(London: J. T. Buckingham, 1815 ( . f i r s t published in 1 7 5 3 ] ) , pp. i x ,
396, 397.
14
i t as a prophecy f o r e t p l 1 in g the ■‘' a l l and d e s tru c tio n o f Babylon by
the Medes and P e rs ia n s J
In the nineteenth c entury some new developments occurred in
the study and i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f Isa 14. K e lly f o r example saw in
the Babylonian power depicted in Isa 14
. . . a type o f him who w i l l w ield im perial power a g a in s t the

g lo r y o f God in the l a s t days. . . . What we have in Isa ia h
fu rn is h e s the groundwork f o r th a t which meets us in the Reve
la tio n . Thus the strong language in vss. 9-14 could sca rc ely
be said to have been exausted in Nebuchadnezzar or Belshazzar.
There was pride and s e l f - e x a l t a t i o n in the one, and most
degrading and profane lu x u ry in the o th e r; but what we have here
w i l l be f u l l y v e r i f i e d in the l a s t days and not before. A ft e r
ta k in g t h i s place o f power, the l o f t y one is to be abased as
no Babylonish monarch ever was h i s t o r i c a l l y . 2
K e lly was the e a r l i e s t commentator noted who c l e a r l y applied
the Is a ia n passage to the "Beast'' o f Revelation and i d e n t i f i e d
him as Rome and the papal power. Franz D e litzs c h remarked th a t
L u c i f e r , as a name given to the d e v i l , was derived from t h i s

passage, which the fa th e r s i n t e r p r e t e d , w ithout any w arrant
w hatever, as r e l a t i n g to the apostasy and punishment o f the
a n g e lic leaders. The a p p e l l a t i o n is a p e r f e c t l y a p p ro p ria te
one f o r the king o f Babel, on account o f the e a r l y date o f the
R. Lowth, Is a ia h : A T r a n s la tio n with P r e lim in a ry D is se r

t a t i o n and Notes (London: Thomas Tegg & Son, 1 8 3 7 ), pp. 215-24.
Bishop Lowth dramatizes vss. 4-28 presenting several scenes which
d e p ic t the f a l l o f Babylon, o f the t y r a n t , his a r r i v a l a t the regions
o f the dead ones, e t c . , and gives his a p p re c ia tio n o f the poem in the
f o llo w in g words:
" I b e lie v e i t may with t r u t h be a ffir m e d , th a t there is no poem
o f i t s kind e x ta n t in any language, in which the s ubjec t is so
w ell l a i d out and so h a p p ily conducted, w ith such a richness of
in v e n t io n , w ith such v a r i e t y o f images, persons, and d i s t i n c t
a c t io n s , with such r a p i d i t y and ease of t r a n s i t i o n , in so small a
compass as in t h i s ode o f I s a ia h . For beauty o f d i s p o s i t i o n ,
strength o f c o lo u rin g , greatness o f sentiment, b r e v i t y , p e r s p ic u ity ,
and fo rc e o f expression, i t stands among a l l the monuments of
a n tiq u ity u n riv a lle d ." (p . 218)
2
An Exposition o f the Book o f Isaiah (1871) (M inneapolis:
Klock & Clock C h ris tia n P u b lis h e rs , 1979 [ R e p r i n t ] ) , pp. 165-66.
Babylonian c u l t u r e , which reached back as f a r as the grey
t w i l i g h t o f primeval tim es, and also because o f i t s pre-
cominant a s t r o lo g ic a l c h a r a c t e r . 1
But he adds th a t
A re tro s p e c tiv e glance is now cast a t the s e l f - d e i f i c a t i o n

o f the king o f Babylon, in which he was the a n tity p e o f the
d e v il and the type o f a n t i c h r i s t (Dan. x i . 36; 2 Thess. i i . 4 ) ,
and which had met w ith i t s r e w a r d . 2
Although a l i t t l e confused in his a s s e rtio n , D e litz s c h seems to be
the f i r s t theologian to say th a t the h i s t o r i c a l fi g u r e t y p o l o g i c a l l y
r e la te d to the fig u r e o f Satan standing behind i t .
From the end o f the nineteenth century, theologians began
to see mythological elements in the passage. Thus, from th a t time
on, i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f the passage would in general be c l a s s i f i e d in
three main views: Satan View, H i s t o r ic a l View (which sometimes was
blended with the previous v ie w ), and Mythological View.
Satan View
From the end o f the nineteenth century on, when c r i t i c a l
methods f o r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the Bible were begun and
scholars had in hand more comparative m a te ria l w ith which to
i n t e r p r e t the OT, the Satan view has been held by very few theologians
In the 1930s Roberts re viv ed the Church Fathers' view— seing in

4
the passage the fig u r e o f Satan. Roberts also saw the overthrow
o f Babylon as necessary f o r the return o f Judah, but he believed
th a t i t was not only the c i t y the prophet had in view. He compared
' I s a i a h , pp. 3 11-12. ^ Ib id . , p. 312.
^ F v o n r o n c o r - v a t- i u p h i h t i r a l o y o n o f o c c n r h a c V a n d e r b u r g h ,
e t c . , did not see Satan behind Isa 14.

4
L. G. A. Roberts, Commentary on the Book o f the Prophet
Isa ia h (London: Covenant Pub. C o., 1931), pp. 39-41.
16
i t to the m ystic-Babylon, the e c c l e s i a s t i c a l - p o l i t i c a l system
presented in the Book o f R e v e la tio n . Besides seeing in the passage
the f ig u r e o f Satan, Roberts a ffirm ed th a t “we can only a t t r i b u t e
th is language to the pope h im s e lf, impersonated by Satan, or to
the e ig h t heads o f the beast who may occupy his place and go into
p e r d itio n (2 Thess 2 :3 ; Rev 1 7:1 1 -1 8 ; 1 9 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) . 1,1 He also con
nected the persecutor power o f Dan 10-12 and the f i g u r e in Ezek 28
w ith the Is a ia n ic passage.
Among those who have seen the f ig u r e o f Satan in the pas-

2 3 4
sage in th is century we may note: Fausset, C h a fe r, Iro n s id e ,
^ I b i d . , pp. 40-41.
Â. R. Fausset, "The Book of the Prophet I s a i a h ," in A Com

mentary on the Old and New Testaments (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1 9 4 5 ),3 :6 1 0 . Fausset th in k s the passage a p p lie s
"to the Babylonian king p r i m a r i l y , and a t the same time to
shadow f o r t h , through him, the g reat f i n a l enemy, the man of
sin o f S t. P aul, the A n t i- C h r i s t o f S t. John, and the l i t t l e
horn and blasphemous s e l f - w i l l e d king o f D a n ie l. He alone shall
f u l f i l l e x h a u s tiv e ly a l l the lineaments here giv en . . . . The
f a l l o f Babylon as a s e l f - i d o l i z i n g power, the type o f mystical
Babylon in the apocalypse (Rev 1 7 :4 , 5 ) , b e fore the providence
of God, is described in language drawn from the f a l l o f Satan
h im s e lf, the s p i r i t t h a t energized the heathen world-power, and
now energizes the apostate Church, and s h a ll h e r e a f t e r energize
the l a s t secular A n t i c h r i s t . Thus L u c ife r has n a t u r a l l y come
to be applied to Satan (Luke 10:18; Rev 1 2 : 8 , 9; Jude 6 ) . “
(p. 610)
\ . Sperry C h a fe r, Systematic Theology, 8 v o ls . (D a lla s :

D allas Seminary Press, 1 9 4 7 -4 8 ), 2 :4 4-50 .
a
H. A. Ir o n s id e , Expository Notes on the Prophet Isaiah
(New Jersey: Loiseaux B ro th ers , 1 952), pp. 8 8 - 9 2 , s ta te s th a t
" L u c ife r is a created angel o f the very highest order . . . th is
passage is h ig h ly p o e t i c a l , but describes in no u n certain terms
the o th e r d e s tru c tio n o f the l a s t great enemy o f I s r a e l in the day
of the Lord" (pp. 88, 9 0 ) .
17
UngerJ P a p in i,^ N i c h o l , 3 A r c h e r,4 L ockyer,3 Feinberg.^
H is to ric a l View
In 1830 A. Jenour applied the passage h i s t o r i c a l l y to
Babylon and equated L u c ife r to “Venus, the b r i g h t e s t . . . s t a r in
the heavens."^ A few years l a t e r J. A. Alexander r e la te d the
M e r r i l l Unger, B i b l i c a l Demonolcqy (Wheaton, IL: Van Kampen

Press, 1 9 5 3 ), pp. 184-5. Unger sees in vss. 12-17 the e n t i r e care e r
o f Satan, from his primeval s ta te as L u c ife r t i l l his f a l l to the
depth o f the p i t (Rev 2 0 : 3 ) . He goes on saying th a t Satan was placed
in charge o f the earth when t h i s plane was o r i g i n a l l y crea te d , and i t
was then, says Unger, quoting G. S. Faber, t h a t he (Satan) said in his
h e a r t , " I w i l l ascend in to heaven . . ." ( I s a 1 4 : 1 3 -1 4 ). " E v id e n tly
f o r t h i s presumptuous a c t God pronounced judgment upon th is pre-
Adamite e a rth and i t became chaotic as described in Gen 1:2" (p . 1 8 4 ).
^Giovani P a p in i, The Devil (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1 9 5 4 ),

pp. 3 1-32. Papini makes the fo llo w in g i n t e r e s t i n g comment:
"The chapters in Is a ia s (1 3 -1 4 ) where these verses appear, have,
as t h e i r basic theme, the war between Good and Evil and th e r e fo r e
i t is by no means impossible th a t the Prince o f Evil him self is
sketched in i t a ls o . A ll the more so, since the kings o f Babylon,
l i k e o th e r kings o f the a ncie nt O r ie n t , b e lie v ed themselves— o r
passed themselves o f f as being— o f d iv in e o r i g i n , come from
heaven to reign d e s p o t i c a l ly over the e a r t h . So, in a c e r t a in
sense, they were, by v ir t u e o f t h e i r dual c la im , l i k e Satan,
'd ia b o lic '. The end o f one o f them could very well r e c a ll another
p r i d e , another f a l l , th a t of the Prince who used to trample and
who s t i l l tramples the nations under his f o o t . " (p. 32)
3" L u c ife r " [ I s a i a h 1 4 : 1 2 ] , SDABC, ed. Francis D. Nichol

(Washington, D .C .: Review and Herald Pub. A s s n ., 1953-1957), 4 :1 70 .
Here i t is c l e a r l y a ffirm e d th a t the passage " a p p lie s to Satan before
his f a l l , as next to C h r is t in power and a u t h o r i t y and head of the
a n g e lic hosts" (p. 1 70 ).
4G. L. Archer, " I s a i a h , " WBC (Chicago: Moody Press, 1 9 6 2 ),

pp. 621-22.
^Herbert Lockyer, A ll the Doctrines o f the B ible (Grand

Rapids: Zondervan Pub. House, 1 96 4 ), pp. 1 34-35.
^Charles L. Feinberg, The Prophecy o f Ezekiel (Chicago:

Moody Press, 1969), p. 163. For strong re a c tio n to these views,
see Robert L. Alden, " L u c i f e r , Who or What?" JETS 11 (1 9 6 8 ):3 5 -3 9 .
See also Meadors, pp. 4 6 -6 5 , f o r extensive discussion o f the Satan
view in r e l a t i o n to the Is a ia n ic passage.
Â. Jenour, The Book o f the Prophet Is a ia h I (London: R. B.

S eeley, 1 930), pp. 269-73.
18
passage to the a n t i c h r i s t o f 2 Thess 2 :4 , as well a* to Ezek 28.
He also attempted to r e ta in the immediate h i s t o r i c a l a p p l ic a t i o n .
As C alvin had done before him, he challenged the t r a d i t i o n a l Church
Fathers' a p p lic a tio n to Satan, s t a t in g th a t from such an explanation
“has arisen the popular perversion o f the b e a u tifu l name L u c ife r to
s ig n if y the D e v i l . " 1 E. Henderson also opposed the t r a d i t i o n a l
view: "The scope and connexion then th a t none but the King of
Babylon is meant. . . . The a p p lic a t io n o f th is passage to Satan,
and to the f a l l of the apostate angels, is one of the gross per-

2
versions o f sacred w r i t . . . . "
C. W. E. Nagelsbach observed th a t “as e a r l y as the LXX,
t h is passage (vss. 12-15) seems to have been understood o f Satan.
I t points th a t way i f they change the second person in to the t h i r d ;
e tc ." 3 He in t e r p r e t e d the passage as r e f e r r i n g to
Babylon and i t s e x a l t a t i o n , but added, "The world-power is by i t s
very nature in im ic a l to God: i t s aim is to suppTant God and put
i t s e l f in His place. This tendency is in d w ellin g in the world-power
derived from i t s transcendental a u th o r, Satan, and is r e a liz e d in

4
every p a r t i c u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . " Ewald went astep f u r t h e r in
5
studying the l i t e r a r y s tr u c tu r e o f the poem but did not comment
much on the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the f i g u r e , tr e a t i n g the passage as
1J. A. Alexander, Is a ia h (New York: Charles S c rib n e r's

Sons, 1 851), pp. 200-204.
2
E. Henderson, The Book o f the Prophet Is a ia h (London:
Hami1t o n , Adams Co. , 1 85 7 ), p. 132.
3C. W. E. Nagelsbach, The Prophet I s a i a h , CHSL, v o l. 11

(New York: Charles S c r i b n e r 's , 1 878), p. 190.
^ I b i d . , p. 188. 3See below, pp. 149-50.
19
a prophetic utterance more concerned with Babylon than w ith an
in d iv id u a l. ‘
F. D e litzs c h a ffirm e d th a t the a p p lic a tio n o f the passage
to the apostasy o f the a n g e lic leader is without w a rra n t; but he
stated th a t the King o f Babylon in his s e l f - d e i f i c a t i o n was the
a n tity p e o f the devil and the type o f a n t i c h r i s t (Dan 11:36;
2 Thess 2 : 4 ) . He s t i l l emphasized the p r e d ic tiv e nature of the

2
te x t.
In his famous study on B i b l i c a l laments,^ C. Budde discussed
the s tru c tu r e and nature o f the passage, but he did not i n t e r p r e t
i t in s p e c ific terms; i t seems t h a t he accepted Lowth's view th a t
the song r e fe rs to the f a l l and death o f the King o f Babylon. 3.
Duhm a pplie d the passage to the immediate h i s t o r i c a l events a t the
end o f the Babylonian empire and also saw some mythic elements
4
in i t .
In 1896 Cobb made a study o f the p o e tic al s tru c tu re o f the
poem. He advocated th a t a re d ac to r inserted the word 7 2 2 7 in the
t e x t to apply i t to Babylon. From the d e l e t i o n , he held th a t
o r i g i n a l l y "the ode says nothing about a c i t y , but is a song o f
^Heinrich Ewald, The Prophet I s a i a h , tra n s . 0. Glover,

(London: Bell and Daldy, 1 8 6 9 ), pp. 158-62.
^F. D e lit z s c h , "The Prophecies o f Is a i a h ," BCOT, 1877

(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1 9 4 9 ), pp. 311-13.
^C. Budae, "Das hebraisch K la g e lie d ," ZAW, 2 (1 8 8 2 ),

p. 14. His study's discussed in chapter 3 in r e l a t i o n to the
t : ■>p meter when we consider the s tru c tu re o f the passage.
^Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch J e s a ia , GHK (G o ttin gen: Vandenhoeck

and Ruprecht, 189 2 ), pp. 117-20. I t seems th a t Duhm was the f i r s t
theologian who attempted a possible l i n k between the b i b l i c a l Helel
s to ry w ith the Greek fa b le o f Phaeton, p. 119.
20
triumph and d e ris io n over the f a l l o f some king."^ He went on to
r e j e c t the a p p lic a tio n o f the passage to any king o f the Neo-
Babylonian p e rio d , a ffir m in g th a t only Sennacherib o f Assyria

2
would f i t the t e x t and context o f the passage. E arly in the
tw e n tie th century Yandenburgh assigned d i f f e r e n t dates and authors
to the "oracle" (chap. 13) and the "Ode" (chap. 14) on the King of
Babylon."^ He a ffir m s th a t the Ode was not composed with reference
to any p a r t i c u l a r Assyrian or Babylonian king but was ready-made

4
when the Book o f Isa ia h was completed in p o s t - e x i l i c times. "The
Ode was w r it t e n with the purpose o f in s p ir in g the I s r a e l i t e s w ith
hope f o r d e liv e ra n c e from a domination o f which Sennacherib was
an a n tity p e ." ® In 1927 W illiam s a ffirm e d th a t the reference to the
fa ll o f L u c ife r in Isa 14:12 i s merely a metaphorical d e s c rip tio n of
the collapse o f the Babylonian power.®
The prince o f tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y theo lo g ian s , Karl B a rth , did
not discuss Isa 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 beyond mentioning i t as a d e s c rip tio n of
W i l l i a m H. Cobb, "The Ode in Is a ia h X IV ," JBL 15 (1 8 9 6 ):

18-19.
p
Following Hugo W inc k le r, Cobb asserts in the a r t i c l e th a t
the Ode came from the eighth century B .C ., r e s is t in g the increased
views begun by the turn o f the century a g ain s t Is a ia h 's authorship
o f many parts o f the book which bears his name.
^Frederick A. Yandenburgh, "The Ode on the King o f Babylon,

Isa ia h X IV :4 b -2 1 ," AJ5L 29 (1 9 1 2 -1 3 ):1 1 4 -1 6 .
\a n d e n b u r g h , p. 25, holds the view th a t the book o f Isaiah

was not completed u n t i l the second century B.C.
®Nabcnidus, a t the end o f his r e ig n , is also presented as

a possible subject to which the Ode r e fe rs ( i b i d . , p. 120).
®N. Powell W illia m s , The Idea o f the F a ll and o f O rig in a l

Sin Bal (London: Longmans, Green, and C o ., 1 927), p. 495. Cf"!
Eduard Konig, Das 3uch Jesaia (G uterslo h: C. Bertelsmann, 1 92 6 ),
p. 181, who has a s im i l a r view.
21
the King o f Babylon as the ra d ia n t morning s ta r ( L u c i f e r ) cast down
from heaven. He thinks the t e x t is "so uncertain and obscure th a t
i t is in a d vis ab le to allow i t to be a basis f o r the development of
the d o c trin e o f a fa 1 1 o f angels and th e r e fo r e o f an e xplanation
o f the existence o f the d e v il and demons."^
Several other theologians have a pplied the passage h i s t o r i
c a lly , but since t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is blended with mythic views
they are discussed in the next s e c tio n .
Mythological View
In discussing the mythic view we perceive there is some
overlap w ith the Satan and h i s t o r i c a l views; but since the major
emphasis is on the mythical elements i t is advisable to include
them in t h i s s ec tio n .
T. K. Cheyne was one o f the f i r s t commentators to see in
the passage some r e l i c s o f a mythical stage, and to r e l a t e the

2
morning s t a r w ith Venus. In his prid e the King of Babylon had
Karl B arth, Church Dogmatics, 12 v o l s . , ed. G. W. Bromiley

and T. F. Torrance (Edinburgh: T. & T. C la rk , 1958-1969), 3 :5 30 -3 1 .
Barth goes on to say th a t th is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
"a ris e s from the superfluous need to ground our knowledge o f
the f a l l o f man upon the notion o f a metaphysical prelude which
i t was q u ite i n a p p r o p r ia te ly thought should be located in
heaven. . . . To bring angels and demons under the common
denominator o f th is f a t a l concept o f freedom is to confuse and
obscure everything th a t is to be said of both. A tru e and
o r d e r ly angel does not do what is ascribed to some angels in th is
d o c tr in e ( i n obscure s peculation concerning th is d e r i v a t i o n ) .
And on the other hand i t cannot be said th a t a real demon has
ever been in heaven. The demons merely a c t as i f they came from
heaven. But the d e v il was never an angel. He was a murderer
He never stood in the t r u t h . No tr u t h was ever in
him." (p. 531)
2
T. K. Cheyne, The Prophecies o f I s a i a h , 2 v o ls. (New York:
Thomas W h itta k e r , 1890), 1 :9 0 -9 1 . A tte n tio n is c a lle d to the f a c t
th a t in the Assyrian te x ts we f in d reference to a masculine and a
22
been l i k e the morning s t a r in a n t i c i p a t i n g his lordship
over the sacred mountain o f I s r a e l . Cheyne admits, on the o the r
hand, a possible l i n k w ith Ezek 28:13, 14 in which t a l k s o f the
“holy mountain" by the garden of God. Skinner follow s Cheyne in
the m atter of i n t e r p r e t i n g the passage (vss. 12-15) as a probable
reference to the p la n e t Venus and b e lie v es i t derived from "some
Babylonian a s tra l myth."^
Gunkel also saw in the passage a nature myth which he t r i e d
to reconstruct. He suggested that i t could have had e i t h e r a

2
Babylonian or a Phoenician o r ig in .
Twentieth Century
By the turn o f the century scholars began to press the view
held by some previous scholars^concerning the date and authorship
feminine Venus: "The former had a t i t l e ( M u s t e l i l ) c lo s e l y r e la te d

to the Hebrew h £ l £ l , rendered here 'Shining One'; i t s period was from
sunset onwards, th a t o f the feminine Venus from sunrise onwards."
^J. S. S kinner, The Book o f I s a i a h , 2 v o l s . , CBSC (Cambridge:

U n iv e r s ity Press, 1 8 9 6 ), 1:122.
2
H. Gunkel, Schopfung und Chaos, pp. 133-34. In the myth,
Helal ben Shahar (The Morning S ta r , or the Son of the Dawn), who shines
in the skies in the morning, has his brightness dimmed by the sun's
rays. Gunkel, fo llo w in g Duhm, also ta lk s about the s i m i l a r i t y of the
Greek myth of Phaeton, son o f Eos, p. 134; Otto Procksch, Jesaia I ,
KAT (L e ip z ig : A. Deichertsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1 9 3 0 ), p. 197,
agrees with Gunkel in the view th a t an a s t r a l myth g l i t t e r s in vss.
1 2-13 , and discusses several aspects o f Babylonian myths which,
according to him, p a r a l l e l the m a te ria l o f th is passage. C f. also
O tto E i s s f e l d t , The Old Testament: An In tr o d u c tio n , tr a n s . P. R.
Ackroyd (New YorlTi Harper & Row, 1 96 5 ), p. 36; G o t t f r i e d Q u e ll,
"Jesaja 1 4 :1 -2 3 ," in F e s t s c h r i f t F r ie d r ic h Baumqartel, ed. J. Herrmann
and L. Rost (Erlangen: U niversitatsbund Erlangen, 1 9 5 9 ), pp. 150-53.
^J. G. L. Eichhorn ( E in le itu n q in das A lte Testament

[L e ip z ig : Weidmanns, 2nd e d . , 1 787), quoted by G. B. Gray, The
Book o f Isaiah 1 -3 9 , ICC [Edinburgh: T. & T. C la rk, 1 9 1 2 ], p. 233),
tr e a te d the e n t i r e o r a c le (1 3 :1 -1 4 :2 3 ) as p o s t - e x i l i c ; W. Gesenius,
23
of the "oracle a g ain s t Babylon." G. B. Gray saw the date o f the
composition of the prose o racle as coming no e a r l i e r than the

*
e x ile .1 He held th a t the poem ( 1 4 : 4 b - 2 1 ) , fo r which i t is d i f f i
c u l t to propose a d a te , r e fe r s to the f a l l o f Babylon. Babylon could
be to the w r i t e r a symbolic name f o r a l l those th a t oppress I s r a e l .
Concerning vss. 1 2-15 , Gray a ffirm s th a t “the ty r a n t is h a l f com
pared h a l f ( f o r the moment) i d e n t i f i e d w ith the r a d ia n t hero o f some

2
a s tr a l myth." This could have o r i g i n a l l y come from Babylon or
Phoenicia, but we cannot determine i t s e xa c t o r ig in a l form. In
his d is s e r t a t i o n on the prophecies a g a in s t Babylon in I s a i a h ,^
Lohmann proposed t h a t the passage was a reference to a version o f a
known myth of Helal ben Shahar. The king is compared to the ra dia nt
morning s t a r . He suggests th a t the poet could have had the Babylonian
Per Prophet Jesaia (L e ip z ig : Vogel, 1 8 2 1 ), quoted by Gray, Is a ia h ,

233, dated chap. 13 in the E x i l e , e tc . See Gray, I s a i a h , pp. 233-34,
f o r more discussion on the m atter.
^G. B. Gray, p. 233, considers 14:1 - 4a (2 2 -2 3 ) as post-

e x i l i c and th a t the author of 1 4 :4 b -21 is not the author o f 14:1- 4 a .
He b e lie v es t h a t a p o s t - e x i l i c e d i t o r wrote 14:1-4a to connect the two
poems (1 3 :2 -2 2 and 1 4 : 4 b -21) and pos sibly added 1 4 :2 2 -2 7 . Gray says,
" I f v. 19 be im a g in a tiv e prophecy, then i t is sim plest to see in
the e n t i r e poem a paean over A s s y ria , or Babylon, p e rs o n ifie d
(cp. 1 0 : 5 - 1 3 ) , or 'totum corpus Regum Assyriorum e t Babylonicorum,’
r a th e r than over a p a r t i c u l a r Assyrian or Babylonian kin g. So
i t is o f the c h a ra c te r and achievements o f a people r a t h e r than
o f a s in g le d e f i n i t e monarch th a t E zekiel th in k s , even when he
uses the term 'k in g o f T y r e ,' 'k ing o f E gypt,' in prophecies that
have several points o f contact w ith t h i s poem: see Ezek 28-32.
For a b r i e f e r example o f a lament w r i t t e n to s u i t m erely a n t i c i
pated and not actual con d itio n s, see Amos 5 : I f .
But i f v. 19 r e fe r s to an actual h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t, i t re fe rs
to d e t a i l s o f which nothing is otherw ise known, whether the king in
question be Sennacherib, Nebuchadnezzar, or Nabonidus." (p. 251)
2
G. B. Gray, I s a i a h , p. 525.
^Paul Lohmann, Die anonymen Prophetien qeqen Babel aus der

Z e i t des E x ils ( B e r l i n : Rostock U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 1 0 ), pp. 24-25.
24
I s h t a r myth in view , and i t has nothing to do with the Ita na myth.
The concept o f the mount o f meeting in the n o rth , says Lohmann,
was taken up by the I s r a e l i t e s in o ld e r times from Babylon through
the Canaanites.
A f t e r the discoveries o f Ras-Shamra in 1929, the primacy
o f the alleged myth became strong because there was a tendency to
replace the old Pan-Babylonian approach w ith Pan-Ugaritism.^ De

2 3
Vaux presented several correspondences in phraseology which he
saw between the Is a ia n ic passage and the m a te ria l from Ras-Shamra.
From those he a r r iv e d a t the conclusion th a t the poem o f Isa 14 was

4 - 5 6
in s p ire d by a Phoenician model. De Lange, Jacob, and Gray are a
sample o f those who have adopted a s im i l a r view.
In his lengthy a r t i c l e on Psalm 82, J. Morgenstern held the
^Donald E. Gowan, When Man Becomes God PTMS, 6 (P itts b u r g h ,

PA: Pickwick Press, 1975), p. 50.
2
Roland de Vaux, "Les Textes de Ras-Shamra e t L'Ancien
Testament," RB 46 (1 9 3 7 ):5 6 6 -4 4 7 .
^'rll 1 and Shr form the two p a r t ie s o f the U g a r i t i c Pantheon.

HI 1 is the f a t h e r o f goddess Kosharot. Shr forms w ith slm the couple
o f the "graceful gods," sons o f E l ; the Mount o f Assembly z "? rr )
may be compared to the "Assembly o f the sons of God" shown in one
t e x t , or w ith the Mount o f El Saphon, the mountain o f the gods, e tc .
See CTA 1 : 1 7 . 2 . 2 7 ; 1 : 2 3 . 5 2 - 5 3 ; ' 1 : 2 4 . b -6 , 40-42.
4
R. de Langhe, Les Textes de Ras Shamra-Uqarit e t leurs
rapports avec l e m ilie u B iblique de 1'Ancien Testament, 2 v ols.
(P a r is : Desclee de Brouwer, 1 9 4 5 ), pp. 239-44.
Êdmond Jacob, Ras-Shamra-Uqarit e t L'Ancien Testament

(N e u c h a te l: Delachaux e t N i e s t l e , 1 9 6 0 ), pp. 104-05; "Les Textes de
Ras S ham ra-Ugarit," RHPR 27 (1 9 4 7 ):2 5 5 —58.
^John Gray, The Legacy o f Canaan, VTSUP 5 (Leiden: E. J.

B r i l l , 1 965), p. 288, thinks the f a l l of the b rig h t V enus-star who
proved an inadequate s u b s titu te f o r Baal is r e f le c t e d in Isa
14: 12- 15.
25
view th a t the passage (vss. 12-14) is a combination o f two v a r ia n t
versions o f a myth which had been c u rre n t in Israel f o r some time
p r i o r to the composition o f Isa 14, but which was not n a tiv e in
Is ra e l. I t is his conclusion th a t
. . . the myths we have found c it e d in several v a r i a n t forms

in apocalyptic and N.T. w r i t i n g s , the myth of the f a l l o f
Satan and his a s s o c ia te angels from heaven to e a r t h , or even
in to the abyss, is id e n t i c a l w ith the myth of Helel ben Shahar
of Isa. 1 4 :1 2 -1 4 , t h a t , in o the r words, we have to do in a l l
these passages w ith only one myth, which must have been c u rre n t
in Judaism f o r a very long period and which q u ite n a t u r a l l y in
the course o f i t s e v o lu tio n and i t s adaptation to various pur
poses, h i s t o r i c a l and t h e o l o g i c a l , developed several s l i g h t l y
v a r ia n t forms. . . J
He assigns the chapter a date o f composition (c . 486-476 B .C .) and
i d e n t i f i e s the fi g u r e o f the King o f Babylon with e i t h e r Darius o r ,
more l i k e l y , Xerxes.
Walther E ic h r o d t, in his famous OT Theology, th in k s Isa ia h
used the fig u r e o f H i l a l as "a p o e tic s im ile f o r the outrageous
self-aggrandisem ent o f the e a r t h ly w o r l d - r u l e r . But behind i t
stands a myth stemming indeed from paganism, o f the r e b e l l i o n of
an a n g e lic being a g a in s t the most high God, which ended in his

2
being thrown down i n t o the underworld." In his e xtensive
"The Mythological Background," p. 109. Morgenstern

i d e n t i f i e s Helel ben Shahar with the fi g u r e o f Ps 8 2 : 6 , but is
c r i t i c i z e d by M a titia h u Tsevat ("God and the Gods in Assembly,"
HUCA 40-41 [ 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 7 0 ] :1 3 1 ) , who says t h a t " i f the c h i e f pro
ta g o n is t was g e n e r a lly known, th is name could hardly remain unmen
tioned in our Psalm passage."
2
Walther E ic h r o d t, Theology o f the Old Testament, tr a n s .
J. A. Baker, OTL, 2 v o ls . (London: S.C.M. Press, 1967 [ o r i g i n a l
German, 1 9 5 0 ]), 2 :208. Two decades l a t e r Eichrodt ( Per Herr
der Geschichte BAT 17, I I [ S t u t t g a r t : Calwer V erla g , 1 9 6 7 ], p. 25)
r e je c t s the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f L u c ife r w ith Satan, but thinks th a t
the prophetic usage o f the sto ry o f the r e b e llio n o f the morning
s t a r prepared the way f o r the new i n s i g h t concerning the c a re e r of
Satan which (according to him) obtained i t s impression through the
NT message.
26
discussion o f the L u c ife r theme in the B ib le , Schmidt a p p lie s the
song p r i m a r i l y to the king o f Babylon.^ He goes on to say th a t
H in te r solchen angeblich nur b i l d h a f t e n , ubertragenen

Wendungen s te c k t doch v ie l mehr, und damit geraten w ir in
den Bereich des Mythus. Ein solcher Mythus g i l t einem l e t z t -
lic h hintergrundigen Vorgang, einem damonischen, einem g o t t -
lichen Geschehen, aessen H in te r g r iin d ig k e it die Vordergriin- ~
d i g k e i t der Geschichte, des menschlichen Geschehens e r h e l l t .
And he says f u r t h e r ,
Das ein a s i a t i s c h e r Grosskonig a ls L u c if e r , Sohn der Aurora,

a u f t r i t t , i s t zu s p e z i f i s c h , a ls das da eine a b g e g r if fe n e ,
ubertragene Sprache v o rlie g e n konnte. Man mochte j a wohl an
sich den Vergleichspunkt zwischen Babelkonig und Morgen-
stern a l l e i n d a rin sehen, dass beiden Gestalten stra hle nde Macht
e ig n e t. Der Prophet i s t aber in seinen Drohworten n ic h t nur
damit b e s c h a f t i g t , sondern e r w e is t s o fo rt auf den S turz beider
Grossen aus der Hohe in d ie T i e f e . Und dazu dommt, dass der
Grosskonig sich d ie Bezeichnungen Helal und Sohn des Sachar
b e ile g t bzw. sich beilegen 1a s s t . 3
Eichrodt s a id , "The myth no longer has a l i f e o f i t s own . . . but
belongs to the treasure-house o f p o e try , on which poets and prophets

A
lik e d to draw in order to c lo th e t h e i r thoughts in r ic h a p p a r e l." ''
K. L. Schmidt c r i t i c i z e d th is by saying th a t myth and h i s t o r y should
not be "played o f f " a g a in s t each o th e r . The Is a ia n ii. Lui.iTer-
d e c la ra tio n m anifests richness and power when one understands i t
in i t s com plexity o f heavenly and e a r t h l y , o f demonic and human, of
enigmatic and e v id e n t. F i n a l l y he adds, " I s t es durchaus keine
metabasis e is a l i o genos, wenn der a ls L u c ife r a p o s tro p h ie rte
Babel-Konig m it dem Teufel g le ic h g e s e tz t worden i s t . " ^ Marvin
^Karl L. Schmidt, " L u c ife r a ls g e fa lle n e Engelmacht," ThZ

7 (1 9 5 1 ):1 6 1 -6 9 .
^ I b i d . , p. 166. ^ Ib id . 4E ic h ro d t, Theology, 2:115.
^ S ch m id t, “L u c i f e r , " p. 173; c f . Rivkah Scharf K lu g e r, Satan

in the Old Testament (Evanston, IL: Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y Press,
1967). Kluger a f f ir m s : " I t th e r e fo r e might not be going too f a r
to see in them (passages, inclu d in g Isa 1 4:12 -1 5 ) the re a l germ
c e l l s o f the l a t e r concept of Satan as the f a l l e n L u c ife r" (p . 117).
27
Pope^ believes th a t due to inform ation a v a ila b le from the Kumarbi

2 3
and Ullikummi myths and from what is known of the f a l l o f El in
the U g a r itic myths, we can say th a t the background of the Is a ia n ic
passage and r e la t e d te x ts (Ezek 28, Ps 82, e t c . ) is p r e - I s r a e l i t e
and o r i g i n a l l y had nothing to do w ith YHWH;
. . . the u ltim a te mythological background o f t h i s a ll e g o r y ,

as also in the case o f the Prince o f Tyre in Ezek. x x v i i i , is
a theomachy or Titanomachy, s i m i l a r to the Hurrian and Greek
versions, in which El and his champion (Prince Sea) ana his
cohorts were defeated and banished to the n e th e rw o rld .4
In one o f the most d e ta ile d studies o f Isa 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 , P.
G relot has taken up Gunkel's suggestion th a t the "Morning S ta r" is
Phaeton.^ He has endeavored to re c o n s tru c t the s o -c a lle d " o r ig in a l
myth" which he thinks l i e s behind the Isaian passage. This he has
done e s p e c ia lly by examining South A ra b ic , U g a r i t i c , and Greek
m a te ria ls . He concludes th a t the same myth is found— although in
v a r ia n t forms— in the l i t e r a t u r e o f U g a r i t , Greece, and I s r a e l .
This evidence suggests to him th a t Kelel is the same f i g u r e as
^Marvin H. Pope, El in the U g a r i t i c T e x ts , YTSup 2 (Leiden:

E. J. B r i l l , 1 9 5 5 ), pp. 103-05.
2
C f. A rvid S. Kapelrud, Baal in the Ras-Shamra Texts
(Copenhagen: G. E. C. Gad, 1952), p. 89.
Ê. Theodore M ulle n , J r . ( The Assembly o f the Gods, HSM 24

[Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980], p. 242) c r i t i c i z e s Pope, saying
th a t " i t is impossible to agree w ith M. Pope th a t the myth underlying
Isa 14 and Ezek 28 was a r e v o lt by J£l him se lf in an attem pt to
regain the p o s itio n taken by Bael . Both te x ts make i t p e r f e c t l y
c le a r th a t the r e v o l t was a g a in s t, not by the god ; E l . "
^Pope, p. 103.
5
P. G r e l o t , " Is a i e XIV 12-15 e t son a r r i e r e - p l a n mytholc-
gique," RHR 149 (1 9 5 6 } :1 8 -4 8 . Cf. W a lte r Baumgartner, " I s r a e l i t i s c h -
Griechische Sagenbeziehungen," in ZumA1 ten Testament und S einer Umwelt
(Leiden: E. J. B r i l l , 1959), pp. 157-58. Baumgartner draws a tte n tio n
by a North American Indian myth to the universal c h a ra c te r o f th is
motive and is doubtful concerning the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f H elal and
Phaeton.
28
Phaeton-Venus. ^ G re lo t suggests th a t vss. 12-15 could be a
possible p o rtion o f the 'A t t a r myth which is p a r t i a l l y preserved

2
in the U g a r i t i c m a t e r i a l .
At the end o f his a r t i c l e G relo t points out th a t the
b ib lic a l prophet u t i l i z e d themes frcm pagan myths and applied them
in the b i b l i c a l c o n te x t, or in the c o n te xt o f the b a t t l e of Yahweh
a g ain s t His human enemies, as well as a g a in s t the angels, e tc .
In the end he admits t h a t the u t i l i z a t i o n by the a ncient C h ris tia n
theologians o f Isa 14 to evoke the f a l l o f Satan was not an
a r b i t r a r y d e c is io n ; Helel the son of the dawn became, with good
reason, the poetic prototype o f the f a l l e n a n g e l . 3
In an extensive a r t i c l e on the Is a ia n passage, Quell has
held t h a t vss. 4 b -21 were not produced by Isa ia h but derived from
a pagan source. Vss. 12-15 e s p e c ia lly brin g evidence from the
mythical sphere of the a ncient form. The poem has nothing to do
with God; i t deals w ith gods. A minor prophet may have obtained
a work o f pagan p o e try , tra n s la te d in to Hebrew, and then Yahwehized
it. Quell thinks th a t o r i g i n a l l y the poem had nothing to do with
Babylon, th a t i t must have o r ig in a te d in a myth. He did not apply

4
th is oassaae to any S D e cific f i g u r e .
^See below, pp. 80-81, f o r c r i t i c i s m o f t h is view held by

G r e lo t.
Is a ie X IV ,'1 pp. 43-45. In h is i t n e r p r e t a t i o n of Helel as

being e q u iv a le n t to ‘ A t t a r , G re lo t is supported by Nickelsburg,
R e s u rre c tio n , p. 69; M ullen, The Assembly o f the Gods, pp. 238-42;
and J. Gray, “Day S t a r , " IDB, 1:785.
3G r e l o t , RHR 149 ( 1 9 5 6 ) :45-48.
4Q u e ll, “Jesaia 1 4 :1 -2 3 ," pp. 131, 150, 157. Cf. G. Fohrer,

Das Buch Jesaia I ( S t u t t g a r t : Zwingl i - V e r l a g , 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 190-92;
A. S. H e rb e rt, Isa ia h 1 -3 9 , CBC (Cambridqe: U n iv e r s it y Press, 1973),
p. 103.
29
Brevard Childs^ agrees w ith Gunkel that the old trans
l a tio n s o f Helal as the morning s t a r , and the reference to Baal
Zaphon in d ic a te th a t the passage (vss. 12-15). derives from Canaanite
mythology as a nature myth. According to C hilds , the prophetic

2
w r i t e r reworked the old myth in to his taunt song. Childs r e je c ts
the suggested p a r a l l e l s from Babylonian l i t e r a t u r e and points
towards a Canaanite provenience o f the myth, although he recognizes
th a t an exact p a r a l l e l in Canaanite l i t e r a t u r e has not yet been
found. He sees the use o f the myth in th is passage as o f "only
i l l u s t r a t i v e value as an extended f i g u r e o f speech."^
W. H. Schmidt holds the view th a t in Isa 1 4:13-15 o r i g i n a l l y
separate t r a d i t i o n s are fused:
Der Text i s t n ic h t nur l i t e r a r i s c h , sondern auch

t r a d itio n s g e s c h ic h tl ich spat. . . . Deshalb i s t von h ie r
aus kein Schluss auf die a lt e n T ra d itio n e n s t a t t h a f t ; der
Text l a s s t sich n ic h t ohne w e it e r e s auf einen kanaanaischen
Mythos zu ru c kfu h ren .4
In comparing the Isaian passage w ith Ezek 28:11-17 he adds:
Ident so d ie Vertreibung aus dem Gottesgarten zur Verstossung

vom Gottesberg w ird, g l e ic h t sich die Erzahlung vom Fall des
irdischen Konigs dem Mythos vom S turz des Himmelswesens
( Jes 1 4 :1 2 f f . ) an.5
Myth and R e a l i t y , pp. 6 8 -7 1 . Among those who have the

same idea a t t h i s point we note John B r i g h t , " I s a i a h , " PCB
(London: Nelson, 1962), p. 500.
2
See C h ild s , Myth and R e a l i t y , p. 69, f o r his suggested
reconstructed myth.
"^Childs observes th a t " i t was a serious misunderstanding

o f t h i s passage when C h r is tia n commentators ( T e r t u l l i a n , Gregory
the G rea t, e t c . ) in te rp re te d tne f a l l of Heial in the l i g h t of
Luke 10.18 as r e f e r r i n g to the p r e - h i s t o r y of Satan and revived a
mythology a lre a d y overcome in the Old Testament" (p. 7 0).
4
Werner H. Schmidt, Konigtum Gottes in l l g a r i t und I s r a e l ,
BZAW 80 ( B e r l i n : A lfre d Topelmann, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 35.
51bid . , p. 35.
30
In her studies on the mythological elements in the OT,
Ohler^ a ffirm s th a t H e lel ben Shahar became a model of the con
duct o f arrogant k in g s , as w ell as the f i r s t created model f o r the
c i t y o f Tyre. Ohler emphasizes th a t Helel ben Shahar s t r i v e s to
reach up in to the h ig h e st regions o f heaven, but he i s , neverthe
l e s s , in heaven i t s e l f a lre a d y . He is thrown out o f heaven into
e a r t h , in to the p i t . A myth, otherwise unknown to us, is reckoned
as according the h ig h e st honor to the arrogant aims o f t h i s Helel
ben Shahar. Several reasons are presented by Ohler to show th a t
the being in Ezek 2 8 : 1 1 -1 7 , and Helel are two d i f f e r e n t f ig u r e s .

2
Each is based upon a d i f f e r e n t myth.
Oldenburq has made a d e t a il e d study on ' A t t a r ' s myth in
South A ra b ia , but he was unable to demonstrate any tr a c e o f i t
present in Isa 14.^ He th in k s th a t El o f the U g a r itic pantheon,
who had his residence upon Mount Sapan, may be r e f l e c t e d in the

4
words o f Isa 14:13. Summing up, Oldenburg admits th a t there are
no myths in the Hebrew B ib le . However,
I l l u s t r a t i o n s from G e n tile mythology are used as parables

expressing s p i r i t u a l t r u t h s . Whereas El is Yahweh, who is
indeed the only t r u e god, every o th e r r iv a l d e i t y was i d e n t i
fie d w ith the d e v i l . Thus the myth o f the f a l l e n s t a r in
r e a l i t y describes Satan's downfall in primeval t i m e s . 5
Annemarie O h le r , Mytholoqische Elemente im Alten Testament

KBANT (Dusseldorf: Patm os-Verlag, 1 9 6 9 ), pp. 1 7 6 ff.
2
Ohler po in ts out t h a t a d i s t i n c t d iffe re n c e between these
two s to r ie s is the f a c t t h a t they take place in d i f f e r e n t realms:
the d iv in e realm from which i t f a l l s down in the one myth is heaven
and in the other is th e e a r t h l y mount o f God (p. 1 76).
\ l l f Oldenburg, "Above the Stars o f El: El in Ancient South

Arabic R e lig io n ," ZAW 82 (1 9 7 0 ):2 0 6 - 0 8 .
\ l l f Oldenburg, The C o n f l i c t between El and Ba'al in

Canaanite Religion (L e id e n ! E. J. B r i l 1 , 1969), p. 104.
Ôldenburg, "Above the S ta r s ," p. 206.
31
j. W. McKay^ examined G r e lo t 's a r t i c l e and points out th a t
his analysis o f the Greek m aterial is i n t e r e s t i n g and i l lu m i n a t i n g
and agrees w ith him in " th a t the Hebrew and the Greek myths c o r r e
spond." McKay goes even f u r t h e r in f i t t i n g the correspondence
and a dm itting " t h a t Phoenician mediation may s t i l l be m a in ta in e d ."
However, he sees some remaining serious d i f f i c u l t i e s such as the
non-correspondence of the p a r e n t - d e i t i e s , " f o r Eos was a goddess
whose beauty the Greeks e x t o l l e d , w h ile Shahar, with his bro th e r
Shalim, is a voracious young male god who roams the de se rt fr i n g e s .

2
. . .“ In contin u in g his e f f o r t s to solve the "alleged mytho
lo g ic a l a llu s io n s " in Isa 1 4:12-15, McKay has made a study o f the
use of the word G enerally i t is taken as r e f e r r i n g to a
personal b e in g , according to the MT. I t is thus taken as a
reference to a n a tu ra l phenomenon. McKay admits the p o s s i b i l i t y o f
i t s being found in the mythological m o tifs o f the myths of Helel and
Phaeton, but he is aware th a t "there is no known Canaanite or

4
Phoenician myth which shows close correspondence with those myths."
F i n a l l y he t h in k s i t possible th a t upon i t s entrance in to Canaan,
the Greek myth underwent change and m o d ific a tio n in a way which
made i t in to a w h o lly Canaanite t a l e even though the ro le s o f i t s
characters were m o d ifie d . McKay suggested a l i s t of steps by
^"Helel and the Dawn-Goddess," VT 20 (1 9 7 0 ) : 4 5 1 -6 4 ; f o r

other d i f f i c u l t i e s pointed out by McKay, see p. 456. C f. F r i t z
S t o l z , S tru k tu re n und Fiquren im K u lt von Jerusalaem, BZAW 118
(B e rlin ! W a lte r de G ru y te r, 1970), p. 111. See Herrmann B arth,
Die Jesaja-W orte in der J o s i a z e i t , WMANT 48 (Neukirchen-Vluyn:
Neukirchener V e r la g , 1 9 7 7 ), p. 134, f o r c r i t i c i s m on McKay's views.
2McKay, " H e l e l , " p. 455. 3I b i d . , p. 461. 4Ib id .
which the Greek myth came to be a l t e r e d J
Seth Erlandsson sees mythological a llu s io n s in vs. 12 and
a r e la tio n s h ip o f i t with Ezek 2 8 :1 1 -1 9 . Components of a myth
have been used to represent the k in g 's arrogance and f a l l . Besides
t h a t Erlandsson be lie v e s " a llu s io n is also made to O rie n ta l royal

2
ideology with d iv in e kingship as an example o f h y b r is ." Since
Erlandsson's c e n tra l contention is th a t Isa 13 and 14 have t h e i r
" l i n g u i s t i c and h i s t o r i c a l context in the accounts of the prophet
Is a ia h on the occasion o f the Assyrian o c cup ation," he obviously
must see behind the poem (vss. 4b—21) the f i g u r e o f an Assyrian
k in g , i . e . , Sargon I I or Sennacherib.
3 4
C ra ig ie c a r r ie s f u r t h e r F o h re r's view th a t Is a ia h 14:12-15
is an adaptation o f c e r t a in themes associated w ith the Canaanite
god A th ta r by f i n d i n g a b e t t e r t r a n s l a t i o n f o r an e p it h e t o f
A th ta r which would be "luminous” and would stress the c h a ra c te r
as a "shining one." He emphasizes th a t the name ben Shahar is not
an in d ic a tio n o f genealogy but a re fe re n c e to in descent (th e f a l l
of the Venus s t a r a t dawn); th is stresses A t h t a r 's c h a ra c te r as a
w arrio r.
In his commentary on Is a i a h ,^ W ildberger holds the view
th a t the poem was w r it t e n l a t e r than I s a i a h 's times. He pre se nts ,
^ I b i d . , pp. 463-64.
2Seth Erlandsson, The Burden o f Babylon, CBOT 4 (Lund:

CWK Gleerup, 1 9 7 0 ), pp. 121, 123, 161, 166.
^P. C. C r a i g ie , " H e le l, A th ta r and Phaeton ( I s a 1 4 : 1 2 - 1 5 ) , "

ZAW 85 (1 9 7 3 ):2 2 3 -2 5 .
4J e s a ja , 1 :1 79 -8 0 .
5Hans W ild b e rg er, J e s a ja , BKAT 10 (Neukirchen-Vluyn:

Neuchirchener V e rla g , 1974), pp. 5 4 2 f f .
w ith some re s e r v a tio n , the idea th a t Nebuchadnezzar could f i t the
fi g u r e in the passage. He holds th a t i t was w r itte n before the
death o f th is monarch. W ildberger points out th a t th is personage
is not i d e n t i f i e d . Since i t was common in those days to i d e n t i f y
such fig u r e s in presenting the o racles a g a in s t the foreign n a tio n s ,
t h i s fi g u r e could represent a more general world power— in the
same way "Babel" has become a general code name f o r a world power.
The t e x t , according to W ild b e rg er, would have some h i s t o r i c a l
re fe re n c e , but not o f any u ltim a te s ig nicance. Hence, the passage
could deal p r im a r ily w ith the type.
In 1975 D. Gowan presented some considerations concerning
the i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f the Is a ia n passage through the years. He
sees considerable a f f i n i t i e s w ith the U g a r i t i c m aterial in i t and
agrees th a t the Ras-Shamra te x ts have shed new l i g h t on many terms
which occur in Isa 14. These include the rephaim, Saphon, e t c .
However, Gowan c r i t i c i z e s the idea th a t because o f such s i m i l a r ! t i e
in both m a te ria ls th e re must have e x is te d a Canaanite myth l i k e
Isa 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 , from which the l a t t e r was derived.^
Gowan takes the g re a t m ythological themes which appear in
Isa 14; (1 ) the ascent in to heaven, (2 ) the f a l l from heaven,
( 3 ) war in heaven, e t c . , and compares them w ith s im ila r themes in
r e la te d l i t e r a t u r e from o th e r c u ltu r e s . From these comparisons he
a r r iv e d a t the fo llo w in g conclusions:
1. "No one has y e t discovered a close p a r a l l e l to the
myth recounted in Isa 14; even though each o f the elements in i t
D ona ld Gowan, When Man Becomes God, p. 45.
34
appears in other l i t e r a t u r e s they are always combined in s i g n i f i
c a n t ly d i f f e r e n t ways . " 1
2. “The stru c tu re o f Isa 14.4-21 makes a human being the

p
subjec t o f a l l these themes."
3. "The passage t e l l s of a r e b e llio u s god, w ith the sub
j e c t changed; now i t is a human being.
In concluding he observes th a t the I s r a e l i t e w r i t e r has
almost "exalted man to heaven, a t l e a s t to the p o in t th a t he can

4
dream o f e q u a l i t y w ith the most h ig h ."
0. Loretz^ declares t h a t equating the hybris o f the r u l e r
o f Babylon and his f a l l w ith the myth o f rt‘9 - ] a V ■> n mythol
ogizes i t s d e s tin y . The myth, he a f f i r m s , appears in the passage
a lre a d y in the casing of the a s t r a l angelology which appears also
in Isa 2 4:21 -2 2 . The fo llo w in g then would be seen in Isa 14:12-15:
1. The poem on the f a l l o f the king reaches back to the
t r a d i t i o n o f the Canaanite p o e try .
2. I t tra n s fe rre d to the f a t e o f the King o f Babylon.
3. The f a l l of the King of Babel was explained by the Helel
ben Shahar myth.
4. This i n t e r p r e t a t i o n th a t occurred through the myth of
Helel ben Shahar came to supply the background o f the views about
the o r i g i n , work, and f a t e o f the good and e v i l s p i r i t s and angels.
Babylon and i t s r u l e r thus developed in to a m a n ife s ta tio n o f the
1 I b i d . , pp. 65-66. 2 1 b id .
3 1bi d . 4 1bi d .
5 0. L o re tz , "Der Kanaanaisch-Biblische Mythos vom Sturz

des Sahar-Sohnes H e l e l , " UF 8 (1 9 7 6 ):1 3 5 .
35
f a l l e n heavenly beings who are contrary to God.
Loretz adds:
Babylon wird auf diese Weise a ls eine damonisch-satanische

Macht beschrieben und der u b e r l i e f e r t e Text im Sinne der neuen
Theologie i n t e r p r e t i e r t , die wohl u n te r iranischen E in flu s s den
bosen Geistern Oder Engeln Einwirkung a u f das Geschehen in der
Welt z u s c h r e i b t J
Hermann B a rth , in his w ell-researched commentary on Isa

2
14:12 -1 5 , sees in Shahar, E l, and Elyon the mount of assembly,
the top o f Saphan, mythical u n ity -m o tiv e s ; but he adds th a t
Jedoch s t e l l t der Abschnitt n ic h t e in fac h eine ad hoc

komponierte Addition solch e in z e ln e r Traditionselem ente d a r,
sondern g r e i f t einen mythologischen S t o f f a u f, in dem
verschiedene e in z e ln e Vorstellungselemente b e re its innerhalb
der D a rs te llu n g eines Vorgangs verbunden w a r e n . ^
Barth be lie v es th a t the o r ig in o f the imagery employed come
to th is myth from Canaanite sources, but he does not th in k i t is
very l i k e l y th a t vss. 12-15 are based upon the reco n s tru c tio n from
a myth. He thinks the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Helel with ' A t t a r is doubt
f u l , holding th a t the episode in the Baal cycle contains important
d iffe r e n c e s from the acts described in Isa 1 4 :1 2 -1 4 . He also
r e je c ts the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Helel w ith the Greek Phaeton. He

4.
compares Isa 14:12 -1 5 w ith Ezek 28:11f . and a r r iv e s a t the con
clusion t h a t the former is to be seen a g a in s t the backdrop o f a
concept in which the king or p r im it iv e man is banished from the
mount o f God because o f his s e l f - e x a l t a t i o n . From there he was
cast down to e a r t h .
1 Ib id ., p. 136.
^H. B arth, Die J es aja-W orte, pp. 131-35.
3 I b i d . , p. 132. 4 Ib id ., p. 134.
36
Our conclusions derived from th is review of the l i t e r a t u r e
on the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Isa 14 are summarized below a f t e r the
l i t e r a t u r e on Ezek 28 has been reviewed.^

In t e r p r e t a t io n o f E zekiel 28
Jewish In t e r p r e t e r s
Among the Jewish commentators we f i n d the passage (Ezek 28)

2 3
a p p lie d to Hiram, King o f Tyre, to Nebuchadnezzar, and to Adam
4
and Eve in the Garden of Eden. We also f i n d a very in te r e s tin g
commentary on Ezek 2 8:13-14 which says:
Adam deserved to be spared the experience o f death. Why

then was the p enalty o f death decreed a g a in s t him? Because
the Holy One, blessed be He, foresaw t h a t Nebuchadnezzar and
Hiram would declare themselves gods; th e r e fo r e was death
decreed against him. Thus i t is w r i t t e n , Thou wast in Eden
the garden o f God (Ezek. x x v i i i , 13): was then Hiram in Eden?
S u re ly not! But He said thus to him: " I t is thou who causedst
him who was in Eden [s c . Adam] to d i e . " R. Hiyya, the son o f
R. B e rekiah's daughter, quoted in R. B e rek ia h 's name: Thou
wast the fa r -c o v e r in g cherub— kerub: I t was thou who didst
cause th a t youth ( robeh— sc. Adam) to d i e . ^
We see in th is quotation the E zekiel passage connected
to Isa 14 (Nebuchadnezzar being the o p p re ss o r), and the Cherub,
who is represented by the King o f Tyre, as being the one who caused
Adam to fa 11.
From the Church Fathers

to the Reformation
As we have seen in the case o f Isa 14, the passage of the
"Guardian Cherub" (1 3 o n : i ' , : ) o f Ezek 28 has— fromthe time of
^See pp. 48-51.
3Baba B athra, 75a; Hul1 , 89a; M i d r , Gen 38:1; Exod 7 :1 ;

Lev 1 5 :1 .
3 M idr. Gen 47:29. 4 M idr. Lev 1 6 : 1 . 5 Midr. Gen 1:31
37
Origen to the Reformation— been connected w ith the "Morning S ta r"
(f n r 72 7 7 ti) and g e n e r a lly been applied to Satan. Besides
th a t we have seen some o th e r instances in which the Ezekiel passage
was in te r p r e t e d or commented upon independently. In r e fu tin g the
d u a l i S t i c theogonies o f Gnosticism, O rigin r e fe r s to Ezek 28 by
saying th a t the passage (vss. 12-17)
cannot be understood o f a man, but o f some superior power

which had f a l l e n away from a higher p o s itio n . . . . These
powers (angels) were not formed or created so by n a tu re ,
but f e l l from a b e t t e r to a worse p o s i t i o n , and were con
verted into wicked b e in g s J
T e r t u l l i a n fu r t h e r s O rigen's view , s t a t in g :
For in the person o f the prince o f Tyre i t is said in

re ference to the d e v i l : "Moreover . . . " (Ezek 2 8 : 1 2 -1 6 ).
This d e s c r ip tio n , i t is m a n ife s t, p ro p e rly belongs to the
transgression of the angel, and not to the p r in c e 's : fo r
none among human beings was e i t h e r born in the paradise o f God,
not even Adam h im s e lf, who was r a th e r tr a n s la te d t h i t h e r ; nor
placed with a cherub upon God's holy mountain, th a t is to say,
in the heights o f heaven, from which the Lord t e s t i f i e s t h a t
Satan f e l l ; nor detained amongst the stones o f f i r e , and the
fla s h in g rays o f burning c o n s t e l l a t i o n s , whence Satan was
cast down l i k e lig h t n in g (Luke 1 0 : 1 8 ). No, i t is none e lse
than the very author o f sin who was denoted in the person o f a
s in f u l man: he was once ir r e p r o a c h a b le , a t the time o f his
c r e a t i o n , formed f o r good by God, as by the good C reator of
irreproachab le c r e a tu r e s , and adorned w ith every a n g e lic g lo r y ,
and associated w ith God, good with the Good; but afterw ards
o f his own accord removed to e v i l . 2
C y r il of Jerusalem (c . A.D. 315-c. 386)^ and Ambrose (c . A.D.
340-397) held the same v ie w . 4 Jerome has an i n t e r e s t i n g comment on
t h i s passage which we quote a t length:
Ôrigen De P r i n c i p i i s 1 . 5 . 4 (ANF, 4 :2 5 8 ).
?
T e r t u l l i a n Against Marcion 2 .9 -1 0 .
JC y r il of Jerusalem Cathechetical Lectures 2 .4 (NPNF,

7 :8 -9 ).
4Ambrose De Paradise 1 . 2 . 9 (MPL, 1 4 :2 9 4 ).
38
He is the one to whom the words of Ezechiel are addressed:

"You were stamped w ith the seal of p e r f e c t io n ." Notice e x a c t ly
what the prophet says: "the seal o f p e r f e c t io n . " He did not
say to the d e v i l , you are the sign of p e r f e c t io n , but the seal
of p e r fe c tio n . God had set His impression upon you and made
you l i k e unto H im s e lf; but you afterw ards destroyed the
resemblance. You were Created in the image and likeness o f
God.
In th a t same prophecy i t says, moreover: “With the Cherub
I placed you; you were in the Garden o f God among precious
stones, the beryl and the g a rn e t. And you f e l l , " Ezechiel says,
"and were banned from the mountain o f the Lord." This prin c e
is the king o f T y r e , the king o f Tyre from the time he f e 11 —
inasmuch as Tyre in Hebrew means SOR, t h a t is t r i b u l a t i o n .
That p rince, t h e r e f o r e , who a t f i r s t was in heaven, has now
become the king o f T y re, the king o f the t r i b u l a t i o n of th is
world. "You s h a ll f a l l l i k e one o f the p rin c e s ." Since i t
says " l i k e one," i t shows t h a t there are others a l s o J
Throughout the c e n tu rie s scholars such as Gregory the

2 3 4
G reat, Rabanus Maurus (c . A.D. 7 7 6 -8 5 6 ), Thomas Aquinas, and
5
Caspar Schwenckfeld shared the view o f the Church Fathers in the
in t e r p r e t a t io n o f Ezek 23 as being applied to Satan.
The Reformers
Luther comments very b r i e f l y on Ezek 28, and says, "For thus
Ezekiel says to the Devil under the name o f the prince o f Tyre
(Ezek 2 8 :3 ): 'Behold, you are w iser than D a n ie l'." ®
Jerome Homily on Psalm 8 2 , in FaCh, 4 8:107-08. Note

Commentariorum in Ezechielem Pruphetan 10.28 (MPL 2 5 : 2 7 3 ), where
Jerome r e la te s Ezek 28 to Isa 14 and Luke 10. See a ls o , Against
Rufinus 2.2 (MPL, 2 3 : 4 4 9 ).
^Gregory the G reat E xp o sitio Librum Job 3 2 .4 0 .2 3 (MPL, 76:

6 6 4 -6 5 ).
^Rabanus Maurus Commentariorum in Ezechielem 11 (MPL, 110:

7 9 2 ).
^Thomas Aquinas Summa Theoloqica 1 .3 1 7 .
^Caspar Schwenckfeld, "Fragment of a L e t t e r to Leonhart

Hieber?" 13:142.
®Luther, F i r s t Lectures on the Psalms, in L u th e r's Works,

10:347.
39
Calvin stopped his commentary on Ezekiel in chap. 20, so
we do not have his comments on chap. 28, but i t is almost c ertain
he re je c te d the p a t r i s t i c a p p lic a tio n to Satan as he did with
Isa 1 4 . 1
In the Nineteenth Century
W. J. Schroeder held the view t h a t the Cherub in th is
passage has l i t t l e or nothing a t a l l to do with paradise. He sup
posed th a t the d e signation Cherub simply points to the temple a t
Jerusalem, and e s p e c i a l l y to the most holy place th e re . He con
nects i t w ith the in flu e n c e Tyre had there in the time o f David
and Solomon when the Tyrians helped in the b u ild in g ente rpris e s
2
in I s r a e l .
In 1876, F a i r b a i r n , the great t y p o l o g i s t , in te r p r e te d the
passage as a p p lyin g only to the h i s t o r i c a l Tyre. He c r i t i c i z e d
the Church Fathers and others who had a p p lie d t h is t e x t as having
to do m y s t ic a ll y w ith Satan.^ The passage is taken as an
h i s t o r i c a l parable in which the kings o f Tyre were f i r s t personi
f i e d as one i n d i v i d u a l — an id e a l man.
Keil i n t e r p r e t e d t h i s passage (vss. 1-10} as applying to
h i s t o r i c a l events t h a t occurred in Tyre in the s ix th century B.C.:
"The th r e a t a p p l ie s , not to the one k in g , I t h o b a l , who was reign ing
a t the time o f the siege o f Tyre by the Chaldeans, but to the
'C a l v in , I s a i a h , 1:442.
2
W. J. Schroeder, Der Prophet H e z e k i e l , Lange Bibelwerk
( B i e l e f e l d und L e ip z ig : Velhagand und K la s in g , 187 3 ), p. 260.
"^Patrick F a i r b a i r n , Ezekiel and the Bock o f His Prophecy:

An Exposition (Edinburgh: T. & T. C la r k , 1876), pp. 306-8, 314.
40
King as the founder and c r e a to r o f the might o f Tyre. . . .
Concerning the lament (vss. 1 2 -1 9 ), Keil says Ezekiel com
pares the s it u a t io n of the prince of Tyre w ith th a t of the f i r s t
man in P aradise; drawing in vss. 15, 16 a comparison between the
fa ll o f the King of Tyre and the f a l l o f Adam.
Keil dedicates nine pages o f his commentary to c i t i n g
a n c ie n t sources with which he t r i e s to e x p la in the f u l f i l l m e n t o f
t h i s prophecy about Tyre, from the famous t h i r t e e n - y e a r siege by
Nebuchadnezzar, the stru g g le o f Alexander the Great to overcome

2
it, e tc . In the end, he says, the prophecy f i n a l l y was f u l f i l l e d .
At the close o f the n ine te enth century B e rth o le t saw th is
passage not as r e f e r r i n g to an in d iv id u a l but merely to a ty p ic a l
in d iv id u a l who represents T y re's s in ; his g u i l t is th a t o f con
s id e r in g him self a god. For him the paradise conception is the
same here as th a t in Gen 3, and thus i t probably was borrowed
from t h a t source.^
Toy affirm ed t h a t "the prophet had before him not the l a t t e r
(Gen 2 ) , but a f u l l e r Babylonian n a r r a t i v e , out of which that in

4
Genesis also was probably drawn up"; and i n te r p r e t e d the Cherub as
^K. F. K e i l, The Prophecies o f E z e k i e l , BCOT (Grand Rapids:

Eerdmans, 1952 [ f i r s t e d . , 1 3 7 7 ] ) , p. 408.
2 Ib id ., pp. 417-25.
2A B e r th o le t, Das Buch H e s e k ie l, KHC (L e ip z ig : J. C. Mohr,

1 8 9 7 ), pp. 147-49.
4 C. H. Toy, The Book o f the Prophet E z e k i e l , SBOT 12 (New

York: Dodd, Mead. & C o . , 1899), p. 154; he adds th a t “the Jewish
e x i l e s in Babylonia, however, appear to have tr a n s fe rr e d Paradise
to the sources of the Euphrates and T i g r i s in the n o rth , because
they b e lie v e d th a t God dw elt in the n o rth , and not, as o f o ld , a t
Horeb. C f . , the notes on Ezek 1 : 4 , Isa 1 4 :1 3 , and Jastrow, Re 1iq io n
o f Babylonia and Assyria (Boston, 1 8 9 8 ), pp. 5 06 ,5 7 7 " (p . 15TT
41
guardian, not as the king. Kraetzschmar viewed the passage as an
im agina tiv e handling o f the Paradise story by E z e k i e l J while
Gunkel c a l l s i t an o ld e r and more mythological recension than
Gen 2 - 3 . 2
The Twentieth Century
By the beginning o f the tw e n tie th century most i n t e r p r e t e r s
held the hypothesis th a t the I s r a e l i t e and neighboring peoples
probably knew an a ncie nt myth from which these two passages (Ezek
and Gen) d e riv e d . Both o f these Hebrew w r i t e r s are thought to
have adapted the legend o f a glorious being who dw elt in a Paradise
to t h e i r purposes, which e x p la in s the s i m i l a r i t i e s in the accounts.^
One o f the commentators r e p re s e n ta tiv e o f th is group is John
S kinner, who in 1908 wrote th a t “the king here is simply the

4
r e p re s e n ta tiv e of the genius of the community." Skinner held th a t
the Prince in vss. 1-10 is conceived as a man, and the King in
vss. 11-19 appears as an a n g e lic being, an in h a b it a n t of Eden, and
^R. Kraetzschmar, Das Buch E z e c h ie l, HAT (G ottin gen: Vanden-

hoeck, Ruprecht, 1900), p. 217.
2
H. Gunkel, Genesis GHK (G ottingen: Vandenhoeck, Ruprecht,
1 9 0 1 ), pp. 34.
.. 2 See, e . g . , 0. Procksch, Geschichtsbetrachtung und geschicht-

l i c h e U b e rlie fe ru n g bei den V o rexilischen Propheten (L e ip z ig : J!
C. H in r ic h s , 1 902), pp. 161-64; and A. A. Bevan, "The King o f lyre in
Ezek X X V I I I , " JTS 4 (1 9 0 2 -1 9 0 3 ):5 0 0 -0 5 , who held s i m i l a r id e as , and
a f f i r m s th a t "the legend o f the primeval garden served to exp la in
the decorations o f the Sanctuary, and the Sanctuary, in i t s tu r n ,
seemed to an u n c r i t i c a l age a standing witness to the t r u t h o f the
legend. . . . The fu nctions ascribed to the l i v i n g Cherub in Para
d ise may, by a very n a tu ra l fig u r e o f speech, be ascribed also to
the symbolical Cherub in the Tyrian Temple."
John Skinner, The Book o f E z e k i e l , Exp B 13 (New York:

A. G. Armstrong and Son, 1 9 0 8 ), p. 252.
42
a companion of the Cherub, sin le s s a t f i r s t and f a l l i n g from his
high s ta te through his own transgression. " . . . The passage only
clothes in forms drawn from Babylonian mythology the boundless
s e l f - g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f T y re ." * According to Skinner, Ezekiel must
have obtained a knowledge o f some fragments o f these mythical notions

2
during his sojourn in Babylon. Several authors have suggested
mythological o r ig in s f o r the passage such as "a theomachy or
Titanomachy s im i l a r to the Hurrian and Greek versions";'* the myth

4
of Prometheus; but except f o r the mentioned Prometheus myth, no
myths have been presented upon which the a llu s io n s are based.^
Most tw e n tie th -c e n tu r y scholars see t h i s passage in E z e k ie l,
to a g r e a te r or le s s e r degree, as derived from or r e f l e c t i n g the

6
Genesis n a r r a t iv e .
1 I b i d . , p. 253. 2 Ib id . , p. 257. 3 Pope, El_, p. 103.
4 T. G aster, Myth, Legend and Custom in the Old Testament

(New York: Harper and Row P ub lis h e rs, 1 9 6 9 ), pp. 322-23.
5 C f. McKenzie, JBL 75 (1 9 5 6 ):3 2 2 -2 3 .
Â. B. Davidson and A. W. Streane, The Book o f E z e k i e l ,

CBSC (Cambridge: U n i v e r s i t y ° r e s s , 1 9 1 6 ), p. 223; J. Herrmann,
Ezekiel u b e rs e tzt und e r k l a r t , KAT 11 (L e ip z ig : A. Deichertsche
Werner S c h o ll, 1 9 2 4 ), p. 182; N. P. W illia m s , The Ideas o f the F a l l ,
p. 56; G. A. Cooke, The Book o f E z e k i e l , ICC (Edinburgh: T. & T.
C la r k , 1 93 6 ), pp. 313-20. A. B e r th o le t ( " H e s e k i e l , “ HAT [Tubingen:
J. C. B. Mohr (Paul S ie b e c k ), 1 936], pp. 102, 103) viewed the
passage as a p a r a l l e l o f the Paradise s to ry o f Gen 3, but i t seems
to p r o je c t a much o ld e r mythic s e t tin g o f in d iv id u a l fe a tu r e s . He
presents a series o f mythical scenes which he says Ezekiel i n t e r
mingles w ith the p e r s o n a lity o f the king o f Tyre as. a p e r s o n i f i
cation o f the mercenary c r e a tu r e . See also J. H. Kroeze, "The Tyre-
Passages in the Book o f E z e k i e l, " in Studies on the Book o f Ezekiel
(P re to ria : U n iv e r s ity Press, 1 961), 10-23; D. M. G. S t a lk e r ,
E z e k i e l , TBC (London: SCM Press, 1 96 8 ), p. 216. J. W. Wevers,
E z e k i e l , NC8 (London: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1 96 9 ), pp. 213-19,
thinks vss. 1 - 1 0 are almost fre e from m ythological overtones and
are "a judgment a g a in s t the c i t y as p e r s o n ifie d under the fig u r e o f
i t s k in g ," vss. 11-19 deal w ith the person o f the king, and must
r e f e r to I t t o b a a l . The Paradise myth can be seen behind th is
43
l ?
In 1954 J. L. McKenzie, fo llo w in g Cooke, took the p o s itio n
th a t Ezek 2 8 :12 -1 8 contains a v a r i a n t form of the t r a d i t i o n which
appears in Gen 2 -3 . He admits " in d is p u ta b ly common fe a tu re s " n
the two passages but recognizes some remarkable divergences.^
passage, but the lament has been considerably expanded. Wevers

t r i e s to recover the o r i g i n a l t e x t by removing what he thinks were
re d a c to r ia l i n s e r t i o n s . W alther E ic h ro d t, E z e k i e l , OTL (London:
SCM Press, 1 9 7 0 ), p. 392, has the opinion th a t the passage is
c lo s e ly real ted to the s to ry o f Gen 2 - 3 , but Ezek 28 has c le a r
traces of i t s heathen o r i g i n . This suggests oth e r t r a d i t i o n s
besides the Paradise s to ry which were known to Is ra e l and d e a lt
w ith the beginnings o f the human race. C. Westermann, Genesis,
BKAT (Neukirchen-VIuyn: Neukirchener V erla g , 1 97 0 ), p. 335,
recognizes s i m i l a r i t i e s and sees more mythical elements in the
E zekelian passage than in Genesis. Walther Zim m erli, E z e k i e l ,
2 :9 0 , 91, 95, b e lie v e s t h a t the passage deals w ith the person o f
the f i r s t mar. and sees in the t e x t a kind o f o ld e r form of the
paradise t r a d i t i o n ; the c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n the passage makes of
c re a tu re and C re a to r shows i t s Yawehist s a t u r a t io n . Like Wevers,
he sees re d a c tio n a l in s e r tio n s in several pa rts o f the t e x t and
makes an attem pt to remove then so the o r i g i n a l can be recovered.
He applies the lament to the king o f Tyre, where he is compared to
a mythical f i g u r e ; but a t the same time he thinks th a t i t was tr a n s
formed by a p o s t - e x i l i c i n t e r p r e t e r to a permanent paradigm (p.
6 8 9 ). Norman C. Habel, "E zekiel 28 and the F a ll o f the F i r s t
Man," CTM 38 (1 9 6 7 ):5 1 6 - 2 4 , b e lie v e s Ezek 28:12-19 is a "reformu
l a t i o n of a F a ll t r a d i t i o n in terms which are meaningful and
appropriate f o r the Tyre s it u a t i o n o f the time o f E z e k ie l. E zekiel
made the F a ll event r e le v a n t f o r the king o f Tyre by describing
the downfall o f th a t king as though he were the f i r s t man" (p. 5 23).
^J. L. McKenzie, "The L i t e r a r y C h a r a c te r is tic s of Gen 2 - 3 , "

TS 15 (1 9 5 4 ):5 3 1 —53. In an a r t i c l e McKenzie wrote two years l a t e r
^ M y th o lo g ic a l A llu s io n s in Ezek 2 8 : 1 2 -1 8 ," JBL 75 [ 1 9 5 6 ] : 3 2 2 - 2 7 ) ,
he again c r i t i c i z e s the authors who say Ezekiel " e i t h e r recounts a
fo re ig n myth or allu d e s to one" but c i t e no myth upon which the
a llu s io n s are based. He concludes by r e s t a t i n g his previous view
th a t Ezek 2 8 :1 -1 8 "has more points o f contact w ith the Paradise
s to ry than w ith any o th e r b i b l i c a l passage or w ith any known
mythological p a tte r n " (pp. 322, 3 27).
Ê zek ie l , p. 313.
^Cf. Ernst Haag, Der Mensch am Anfanq, TTS 24 ( T r i e r :

Paulinus V e r la g , 1970), pp. 7 3 -1 0 0 , who has made a d e t a ile d study
o f Gen 2 -3 , comparing i t to Ezek 2 8:1 -1 9 ( e s p e c i a l l y vss. 12-16)
a r r i v i n g a t the conclusion t h a t the a ffir m a tio n s o f Genesis have
d i r e c t l y furnished the s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e f o r E z e k ie l's prophetic
u tte ra n c e s , Ezek 28 being a re al v a r i a n t o f the Yahwistic o r i g i n a l
form.
44
A f t e r c r i t i c i z i n g some aspects of the views o f KraetzschmarJ

2 3 - 4
Gunkel, Cooke, and Holscher, McKenzie stressed the s u p e r io r ity
o f the Hebrew account in comparison to the Mesopotamian cosmogony
and affirm ed t h a t there is a s im ila r c i r c l e o f ideas in which the
Hebrew account and Mesopotamian mythology move; there was a general
common knowledge about the paradise s to ry among the Semitic peoples.
He views the f i g u r e in vss. 12-19 as no more than a human one.^
G. Fohrer*’ holds the view th a t the myth o f the- Garden of
Elohim is o r i g i n a l l y from Mesopotamia, and th a t l a t e r i t was i d e n t i
f i e d with Eden in I s r a e l i t e t r a d i t i o n . He also thinks Ezekiel may
have been enriched by the Canaanite-Phoenician myth with Babylonian
m otifs or v i c e - v e r s a . 7 Herbert G. May b e lieves th a t the Ezekelian
1 E z e c h i e l , p. 217; Kraetzschmar thinks th a t th is passage is

an im aginative handling by Ezekiel o f the paradise sto ry .
"Genesis, p. 34; Gunkel has c a lle d Ezek 28 an o ld e r and

more mythological recension than Gen 2 -3 .
Êzekiel , p. 313; Cooke b e lie v e s th a t "the f o l k l o r e upon

which Ezekiel drew had been steeped in Babylonian mythology from
e a r l y tim es."
4 G. Holscher, H e s e k ie l, der D ic h te r und das Buch, 8 ZAW 39

(Giessen: A l f r e d Topelmann, 1 924), p. 142, held th a t the m a te ria l
was a Babylonian myth.
^McKenzie, "Mythological A llu s io n s ," pp. 232-24; "The

L i t e r a r y C h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f Genesis 2 - 3 , " TS 15 (1 9 5 4 ):5 5 2 . Cf.
Herbert' G. May, "The King in the Garden o f Eden: A Study of
Ezekiel 2 8 : 1 2 -1 9 ," in I s r a e l ’ s Prophetic H e rita g e (New York:
Harper & B ro th e rs , 1 9 6 2 ), p. 168.
^Georq Fohrer, E z e c h ie l, HAT 13 (Tubinqen: J. C. B. Mohr

[P. Siebeck], 1 9 5 5 ), p. 162.
7 McKenzie, "Mythological A llu s io n s ," pp. 322-23, disagrees

w ith Fohrer, saying th a t although the e xistence c f mythological
a llu s io n s in the OT cannot be denied, "experience shows t h a t i t is
r a r e l y p o s s ib le , i f e v e r , to re co n s tru c t these myths from b i b l i c a l
a llu s io n s alone w ith any degree o f accuracy."
45
passage must have been based on a story o f a royal f i r s t man and
"Adam1' who was k in g J
Kalman Yaron has published a d e t a il e d a r t i c l e on Ezek 28:
1 2-19 , in which he s t a r t s with the c ru c ia l question concerning
whether the d w e lle r in the Garden o f God was a Cherub (MT) and
i f the Cherub (reading vss. 14-16 with the LXX) plays the same ro le
2
as i t does in Gen 3 :2 4. He holds th a t i t is important to determine
the fu n c tio n of the Cherub in order to c o r r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t th is
passage.
At the end o f his a r t i c l e Yaron concludes, "in opposition
to McKenzie and in agreement w ith Pope, th a t the a lle g o ry de sc ribing
the descent o f the Prince o f Tyre to the p i t is b u i l t o f e x a c t ly
the same elements as the Phoenician epic o f E l , and does not f i t
any le s s e r godlike being, such as the cherub."^ He finds th a t the
d w e lle r o f the Garden o f God was modeled a f t e r the p a ttern o f
the "kingship ideology" o f the Ancient Near E ast, i . e . , the king-
p r ie s t, etc . He also admits th a t E z e k i e l's ideas are in accordance
w ith the m onotheistic sto ry o f the Garden o f Eden.
In his commentary on Ezek 2 6-28 , Van D i j k c l e a r l y sets
h im s e lf on the side o f MT when exegeting 2 8:1 4 -1 6 . He i d e n t i f i e s
H e r b e r t G. May, "The King in the Garden," pp. 169-76. For

more on the king ideology or a royal f i r s t man, see Aage Bentzen,
King and Messiah (London: Lutterw orth Press, 1 955), pp. 17-18;
"King Ideology— 'Urmensch'— 'T r o o n s b e s t if g i n g s f e e s t '," ST 2
( 1 9 5 0 ):1 5 2 ; Sigmund Mowinckel, "Urmensch und ‘ K o n ig s id eo lo g ie 1," ST
2 (1 9 4 9 ): 8 3 f f .
^Kalman Yaron, "The Dirge over the King of Tyre," ASTI 3

( 1 9 6 4 ) :2 8 -5 7.
^ I b i d . , p. 54. See M ullen, p. 242, who c r i t i c i z e s Pope's

and consequently Yaron's p o s itio n on the m a tte r. See above p. 27,
n. 3.
46
the Cherub w ith the king of Tyre or w ith - f i t ~ of vs. 12.^
Although Van D i j k does not e x p l i c i t l y i d e n t i f y the main f i g u r e of
the passage, he quotes C o r n i l l ' s thought: “For most e v id e n t ly the
prince is presented as a f a l l e n a n g e l," which he says is "a very

2
re le v a n t suggestion."
O hler contends th a t the passage is an independent myth
which serves as an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f the thre a te ning o f the downfall
o f the c i t y o f Tyre. God cast down from the heavenly realm to the
e a r t h , a special c reature who, on account o f his p r id e , had sinned.
The prophet could be applying to Tyre an old I s r a e l i t e teaching
concerning the f a l l of a special being which found expression in
the myth. What may be r e la te d to the pagan notions about oth e r gods,
the w r i t e r ascribes to Yahweh.^
0. Sowan compared a lle g e d mythological themes— as he did
concerning Isa 1 4 :12 -1 5 — with s i m i l a r themes found in o th e r r e la te d
c u ltu re s . 4 From his comparison he a r r iv e d a t the conclusion th a t
the paradise myth in i t s p a r t i c u l a r Hebrew form was the main source
of a ll the m a te r ia ls the prophet presented. He re je c te d any sug
gestion t h a t Ezekiel was quoting a l o s t Phoenician myth. Both
passages, Isa 14 and Ezek 28, have to do— in Gowan's view— w ith
cases o f h y b r is , when man wants to become God. He also r e je c ts
any i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f those passages which would r e l a t e them to
the f a l l o f angels.
^H. J. van D i j k , E z e k i e l 's Prophecy on T y r e , BO 20 (Rome:

P o n t i f i c a l B i b l i c a l I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 6 8 ). p. 114.
2 3
Ib id . Mytholoqische Elemente, pp. 173-75.
A
When Man Becomes God, pp. 19-25.
47
A f t e r discussing the views o f several scholars who wrote
from the end of the nineteenth century to the p re se n t, Williams
r e c e n tly wrote concerning th is passage:
I t may be th a t in t h i s passage we have less a d e r iv a tio n from

a f u l l y contained o r i g i n a l t a l e but more a combination of
elements from the t r a d i t i o n s o f the tim e, mythological as well
as contemporary, used to make a s a t i r i c a l a tta c k a g ain s t an
important f i g u r e u t i l i z i n g phraseology which was w ell known
a t the t i m e . '
Thus an a l t e r n a t i v e e x p la n a tio n of Ez 28:12-19 is th a t i t

is not taken from a lo s t myth o f a primeval being or even th a t
i t is a f u l l e r version o f the Genesis 2-3 s to r y . Rather i t is
a c a s tig a tio n o f the Tyrian r u l e r on the grounds o f his hubris
in commercial a c t i v i t i e s and his p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the local
sanctuary r i t e s o f sacral k in g s h ip . With fir m use o f i l l u s
t r a t i v e metaphor the prophet d r iv e s home his a t t a c k using
language and terms e a s i l y understandable a t the tim e . If
anything t h i s should serve to show th a t he is not so much
bound by the m a te ria l he is using as employing i t in an
im aginative way f o r his own purposes . 2
As he did w ith Isa 14, Lo re tz makes a s tic h o m e tric an aly s is
o f the poem o f Ezek 2 8 :1 -1 9 .^ A f t e r examining the passage in th is
way, he has s elected some phrases upon which ne b e lie v e s the
o racle was based. The connection between the basic o r i g i n a l m a te ria l
from the myth o f c r e a tio n o f man and the king took place l a t e r .
The presence o f the paradise myth in the Tyre o ra c le points out an
a b i l i t y o f the prophet to in c o rp o rate new m a t e r i a l . F i n a l l y Loretz
thinks t h a t a p o s t - e x i l i c i n t e r p r e t e r transformed the d i r e c t l y
impending events in to a permanent paradigm. He adds: "Die
v e r s ta r k t e Hereinnahme des Mythos d ie n t der Auswetung der
Ânthony J . W illia m s , "The Mythological Background of

Ezekiel 28:12-19?" BTB 6 (1 9 7 6 ):5 4 .
c I b i d . , pp. 6 0-61.
^0. L o r e tz , "Der Sturz des Fursten von Tyrus (Ez 2 8 : 1 - 1 9 ) , "

UF 8 (1 9 7 6 ):4 5 5 - 5 8 .
48
Vorlage iiber e in h is to r is c h begrenztes Anliegen hinaus."^

2
Some scholars have advanced the view th a t Ezek 28:12-19
has to do w ith aspects o f the Tyrian r e l i g i o n and i t s temple, and
th a t the c ity -g o d Mel k a r t was meant by the King o f Tyre.
F i n a l l y , there e x i s t s a very small group o f scholars who
apply the passage e s p e c i a l l y to Satan and/or to the a n t i c h r i s t
t y p o l o g i c a l l y , as did the Church Fathers. They do not deny th a t
the n a r r a t iv e has some h i s t o r i c a l bearing, but they say th a t Ezekiel
discerned behind the e a r t h l y monarch a t t i t u d e s o f the m otivating
force and p e r s o n a lity t h a t were im pelling him in his opposition to
God. Those commentators u s u a lly r e s i s t the idea o f any im portation
of a fo r e ig n mythology or pagan legends in to the t e x t . Among those
theologians are C hafer,^ Fausset,^ SDABC,^ I r o n s id e ,^ S c o f i e l d , ' 7 and
1Ib id ., p. 458.
^Bevan, "The King o f Tyre," d d . 5 0 0 -5 ; Cameron Mackay, "The

King o f T y re ," CQR 117 (1 9 3 4 ):2 3 9 -5 8 ; J. Dus, "Melek S5r-Melqart?
(Zur I n t e r p r e t a t i o n von Ezek 2 8 : 1 1 -1 9 )," ArOr 26 (1 9 5 8 ):1 7 9 -8 5 ; see
also Steven R. P u lle y , "The Qinah concerning the King o f Tyre in
Ezekiel 28:11-19" (M .D iv. th e s is , Grace Theological Seminary, 1 98 2 ),
pp. 2 2 -2 5 , f o r discussion o f the view and b ib lio g r a p h y on the m a tte r.
^Systematic Theology, 2 :3 9-44 .
Â. R. Fausset, The Book of the Prophet E z e k i e l , CONT (Grand

Rapids: Eerdmans, 1 9 4 5 ), 4:309.
5,1 King o f Tyrus" [Ezek 2 8 : 1 2 ], SDABC, ( 1 9 5 3 - 5 7 ) , 4:675.
Î s a i a h , pp. 8 8 -8 9 . Ironside b e lie v e s t h a t the words o f

th is passage "cannot apply to any mortal man," and t h a t the Cherub
of Ezek 28 is L u c ife r o f Isa 14. He was the g r e a t e s t o f a l l angels
and p e r f e c t , t i l l he f e l l through p rid e .
7 C. I . S c o f ie ld , The New S cofield Reference B ib le (Oxford:

Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 6 7 ), comments on Ezek 2 8 :1 2 -1 7 . He says:
"Here, as in Isa 1 4 :1 2 , the language goes beyond the king o f
Tyre to Satan. . . . The u n fa lle n s t a t e o f Satan is here
d escribed; his f a l l in Isa 14:12 -1 4 . But more is here. The
v is io n is not o f Satan in his own person, but o f Satan f u l f i l l i n g
49
F e in b e r g J This l a t t e r w r i t e r is one o f the few contemporary
theologians who goes a g a in s t the mainstream in the i n t e r p r e
t a t i o n of t h i s passage. Feinberg s tro n g ly r e s i s t s the views
which say t h a t ( 1 ) there is in th is chapter an i n t e r p r e t a t io n of
fo r e ig n mythology or pagan legends; (2 ) E zekiel was fo llo w in g a
f r e e im agin a tio n ; (3) the n a r r a t iv e behind the prophecy was
supposed to be an a d aptatio n o f the paradise s tory in Genesis; and
( 4 ) the prophet made use o f irony in p resenting his prophecy or
lament. On the other hand, Feinberg takes h is side on the i n t e r
p r e t a t io n o f the passage stre ss in g th a t ( 1 ) i t is impossible, by
any s tr e tc h o f the im a g in a tio n , to apply most o f the passage to any
e a r t h l y king; (2 ) the prophet saw the work o f Satan, whom the king
o f Tyre was emulating in so many ways; (3 ) the anointed Cherub was
none oth e r than Satan him se lf in his p o s itio n o f honor about the
throne of God; (4 ) only i f we admit the two previous items can the
passage be em inently i n t e l l i g i b l e and in p la c e .
Conclusions
crorr the survey ^ f Liie l i t e r a t u r e c o v e r iny trie in t e r p r e
t a t i o n o f the passages discussed above, several conclusions emerge:
Observations Concerning Isa 14
From the f i r s t century A . D . , when e x p l i c i t i n t e r p r e t a t io n s
o f the passage ( e s p e c i a l l y vss. 12-15) began to appear, through the
h im s e lf in and through an e a r t h l y king who arrogates to him

s e l f d iv in e honors, so th a t the prince o f Tyrus foreshadows
the 3east (Dan 7 :8 ; Rev 1 9 : 2 0 ) ."
Ê z e k i e l , pp. 158-64. C f. also G. T. Meadors, "The I d e n t i

f i c a t i o n of ~ nr? ' n 7 7 ^ ~ in Isa ia h 14:12" (M .D iv. th e s is , Grace
Theological Seminary, 1 9 7 6 ), pp. 46-65.
50
era o f the e a r l y Church Fathers, through medieval tim e s , and up to
the beginning o f the Reformation, most o f the i n t e r p r e t e r s applie d
the passage as r e f e r r i n g to Satan. Jewish i n t e r p r e t e r s applied
i t as having to do w ith immediate h i s t o r i c a l events, such as the
oppression by Nebuchadnezzar.
The two g re a t reformers, Luther and C a lv in , broke w ith the
tra d itio n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the f a th e r s and repudiated the idea
by applying the passage only in h i s t o r i c a l terms, i . e . , to the king
o f Babylon.
In the seventeenth c en tu ry, M ilto n and Bunyan, in t h e i r
w r i t i n g s , accepted the t r a d i t i o n a l view o f the Church ca th e rs .
New developments occurred in the study o f Isa 14 in the
nineteenth century when theologians s ta r te d seeing m ythical elements
in i t . By the end o f the century the passage had undergone more
d e t a il e d study on several aspects:
1. The nature of the passage. The lament form— which uses
the Qinah Meter— was detected.
2. The s tru c tu re o f the poem. The textual boundaries o f
the song had t e n t a t i v e l y been determined and i t s s tr o p h ic d iv is io n
had been suggested. Proposals about possible te x tu a l corru p tio n s
began to appear.
3. R e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and r e l a t i o n s h i p s . New i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s
f o r the main f i g u r e o f the n a r r a t iv e had been suggested, and the
r e la t i o n s h i p o f the main elements in the passage to m ythic m a te r ia ls
was discussed.
4. The o r i g i n o f the m a t e r i a l . The possible r e la t i o n s h i p
between the passage and the r e l i g i o u s c u ltu r e and m ythic m a te ria l
o f the F e r t i l e Crescent area was in v e s tig a te d by s c h o la rs . The
Pan-Babylonian approach was s tr o n g ly emphasized in t h i s search,
and a t e n t a t i v e reconstruction o f an o r ig in a l a s t r a l myth behind
i t was proposed. New dates f o r the poem l a t e r than the time o f
Isaiah were proposed. The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the morning s t a r with
the Venus S ta r — i d e n t ic a l to the Greek Phaeton— has been held by
many scholars since the end o f the nineteenth c entury t i l l the
present time.
A f t e r the d iscoveries o f Ras-Shamra in 1929, the Pan-
Babylonian approach has been replaced by Pan-Ugaritism and a more
decided emphasis upon Canaanite sources in the background o f th is
work. With i t has come a tendency to i n t e r p r e t the passage in the
l i g h t of th a t m a t e r i a l . The Phoenician model has a t t r a c t e d most
theologians but South Arabic and Greek p a r a l l e ls have also been
suggested.
On the o the r hand, the tw e n tie th century has produced many
scnolars who continue to defend the e a r l i e r p o s itio n o f the Church
Fathers; nor has i t lacked those who apply the passage to the work
o f the a n t i c h r i s t throughout the ages, past and f u t u r e .
Summarizing the examination o f the main body o f l i t e r a t u r e
on the m a tte r , we p re s e n tly have several views concerning the
i n t e r p r e t a t io n of the taunt a g a in s t the King o f Babylon in Isa 14
(e s p e c i a l l y vss. 1 2 -1 5 ):
1. The lament c o n s t itu te s a pure myth^ o f C a n a an ite -
i
'Among the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f Helel and Shahar we f i n d th a t
they are i d e n t i f i e d w ith : ( 1 ) d i f f e r e n t aspects o f the moon, ( 2 )
d i f f e r e n t aspects o f the sun, ( 3 ) Helel is i d e n t i f i e d w ith J u p i t e r ,
(4 ) Helel is i d e n t i f i e d with Venus (Greek Phaeton and South
Arabian A t h t a r ) , the b r ig h te s t s t a r in the morning.
52
I s r a e l i t e s e ttin g w ith Arabic and Greek in flu e n ce . This idea was
f i r s t introduced in to the t e x t with the f a l l of Babylon and i t was
applied to th a t eve n t. In t h i s , the f a l l of Babylon or the king of
Babylon has been compared to the f a l l o f H e le l. Some in t e r p r e t e r s
o f th is school o f thought hold th a t "the myth no longer has a l i f e
o f i t s own but belongs to the treasurehouse o f p o e try , on which
poets and prophets lik e d to draw in order to clothe t h e i r thoughts
in ric h a p p a r e l.'1^
2. The passage also has an h i s t o r i c a l sense. Although
fragments o f mythic nature can be found in the lament, the compo
s it i o n is I s a i a n i c , and the message o f the passage has some bearing
on a h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e — Sargon I I and others have been suggested.
3. The passage can be applied l i t e r a l l y to immediate
h i s t o r i c a l events, but i t can also be considered symbolic o f what
happened, is happening, and w i l l happen in a cosmic s tru g g le between
God and Satan, between good and e v i l . Human agents are shown as
carry in g on such a struggle in some b i b l i c a l passages, but in th is
passage the mastermind o f the cosmic war is c l e a r l y emphasized. In
other words,
Behind such a lle g e d only i l l u s t r a t i v e tr a n s fe r a b le phrases,

there is much more, and with i t we get in the domain o f myth.
Such a myth a p p lie s to a f i n a l l y enigmatic i n c i d e n t , to a
demonic, to a godly event, which illu m in a te s the foregrouna
and background o f the h is to r y o f the doings of m a n k i n d . 2
The number o f d i f f e r e n t shades o f meaning adopted by
various i n t e r p r e t e r s in these three schools of thought can be
m u l t i p l i e d , but a l l o f them b a s i c a ll y belong to one o r another
o f these main views.
^ E ichrodt, Theology, 2:115.
^K. L. Schmidt, " L u c i f e r ," pp. 161-79.
53
Observations Concerning Ezekiel 28
The Ezekelian passage ( e s p e c i a l l y vss. 12-19) has, from
the time o f Origen to the Reformation, been associated w ith th a t
of Isa 14 and applied to Satan. The main exceptions to th is view
have been those o f some Jewish commentators who applied i t to Hiram
of T y re , Nebuchadnezzar, or to Adam and Eve in the Garden o f Eden.
From the time o f the Reformation to the beginning of the
nineteenth century, the view of the Church Fathers was held. From
the second h a l f o f the nineteenth century t i l l the pre se n t, i n t e r
p re te rs have developed the follo w in g trends and views.
1. One small group has follow ed the view o f the Church
Fathers and apply the passage e s p e c i a l l y to Satan and/or the
a n tic h ris t ty p o lo g ic a lly . This group admits th a t the n a r r a t iv e
has some h i s t o r i c a l be aring, but the main o b je c tiv e of the passage
transcends the h i s t o r i c a l re a lity .
2. A second group says the passage is a p oetic lamentation
which has to do only with the king o f Tyre or the c i t y o f Tyre
its e lf.
3. The t h i r d group, the one which is followed by the m a jo r i t y
of modern i n t e r p r e t e r s , sees the passage as r e la te d to the Paradise
n a r r a t iv e of Gen 2 - 3 . This point o f view has been developed with
several d i f f e r e n t m o d ific a tio n s :
a. I t is borrowed d i r e c t l y from the Paradise n a r
r a t i v e — a comparison between the f a l l o f Adam and the f a l l
o f Tyre has developed from t h i s id e a.
b. The prophet had in mind a known Babylonian myth
from which the Paradise s to ry o f Genesis and the Ezekelian
54
passage d e riv e d — th is was applied to Tyrian s e l f - g l o r i f i
c a tio n .
c. Although d e t a il s of E z e k i e l 's ideas are in
accordance w ith the monotheistic s to r y o f the Garden o f
Eden, the account is b u i l t r a t h e r upon the same elements
as the Phoenician epic of E l— the d w e lle r in the garden
o f God being modeled a f t e r the p a tte r n of the "royal
ideology" o f the ancient Near East.
d. There is a c i r c l e of ideas in which the Hebrew
account and Mesopotamian mythology move and a g e n e r a lly
common knowledge about the Paradise s to ry among the Sem itic
peoples— from th is m i l li e u E z e k i e l 's account d e riv e d .
4. The fo u r th group believes the passage is an independent
myth which serves as an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f the t h r e a t of the impending
downfall o f the c i t y o f Tyre. The prophet is here applying to Tyre
an old I s r a e l i t e teaching concerning a s p ec ia l creature who was
cast down from the heavenly realm, an idea which also found expres
sion in myth.
There i s , o f course, a ra th e r broad v a r ia tio n in the d e t a i l s
expressed by d i f f e r e n t in te r p r e te r s o f the passage, but the ones
expressed above represent the main spectrum o f the most re p re
s e n ta tiv e views.
Aim and Plan of the Study
The main reason f o r our research on these two passages is to
determine the degree to which they r e l a t e to the o r ig in o f e v i l .
From the survey o f the l i t e r a t u r e on the i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f these
passages from the beginning o f the C h r i s t i a n era to the present tim e,
55
a re la te d problem has emerged: We a re f a r from having developed
consensus on the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of these passages. A v a rie ty o f
views represents the th in k in g on such m u ltip le topics as:
( 1 ) o rig in s o f the m a t e r i a l ; ( 2 ) d a tin g o f the lament in i t s pre se n t
form; (3 ) i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the f i g u r e s , p laces, and expressions;
and (4 ) the o r i g i n a l form o f the t e x t as produced by the b i b l i c a l
w rite r.
Since a g re at number of scholars in the 1980s b e lie v e t h a t
these two texts have more or less drawn t h e i r ideas and content from
mythical m a te ria l o f the nations in the F e r t i l e Crescent, a u s efu l
approach is to commence t h i s study w ith an examination of those
e x t r a - b i b l i c a l m a te ria ls and to compare them w ith b i b l ic a l n a r r a
tiv es to determine i f the authors drank d i r e c t l y from s im i l a r
l i t e r a r y sources o f the a n c ie n t Near East and i f there was a common
b e l i e f about t h i s subject among peoples o f th a t world. Such an
examination can also look a t other I s r a e l i t e te x ts to see i f th e re
was a p a r t i c u l a r I s r a e l i t e background form which the te x ts s p e c i f i
c a l l y emerged. Chapter 2 is dedicated to th a t task.
In chapter 3 the passages are exegeted. The t e x t , s t r u c t u r e ,
and context o f these two main passages are then examined in d e t a i l
in order to determ ine, as f a r as p o s s ib le , the most o r i g i n a l form
o f the t e x t .
Based on a l i n g u i s t i c and h i s t o r i c a l approach, an a tte m p t is
made to determine whether the t e x t should be understood in the
immediate h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t, p r o p h e t i c a l l y — o r e s c h a t o lo g ic a lly —
or both. A comparative study of the two passages is c a r r ie d o ut to
determine whether the claim made by some commentators th a t " L u c if e r "
56
and the "Guardian Cherub" are the same personage is accurate or not.
An e f f o r t is also made to d is co v e r, as f a r as possible w ith in
reasonable l i m i t s , the s ig n ific a n c e of the th e o lo g ic a l content of the
passages in r e l a t i o n to t h e i r re spective prophetic books. The
context of the whole S c rip tu re s — Old and New Testaments— is also kept
in view in th is process o f c arrying out t h i s examination o f these
p a r t i c u l a r passages.
In view of the problems raised in the in tr o d u c tio n and the
above review o f l i t e r a t u r e , the plan o f study presented above is
j u s t i f i e d , e s p e c i a l l y since a d i s s e r t a t i o n , as f a r as can be
determined, has not been w r itte n which studies these two passages
together w ith the emphases and d ir e c tio n s described above.
CHAPTER I I
ORIGINS AND PARALLEL HYPOTHESES CONCERNING THE

ORACLES AGAINST THE KING OF BABYLON AND THE
PRINCE AND KING OF TYRE
As noted in chapter 1, B ible i n t e r p r e t e r s , s ta r tin g with
the Church Fa the rs, perceived the s im ila r nature of the passages
studied in t h i s work and began to r e la t e them to each o ther.
L a te r they in te r p r e te d the passages in two main ways: (1 ) in the
context o f immediate h i s t o r i c a l events and ( 2 ) f i g u r a t i v e l y -
having ty p o lo g ic a l meaning.
Modern scholars and commentators^ have seen these pas
sages ( I s a 14 and Ezek 2 8 ) , to some e x te n t, as a borrowing from
a ncie nt myths, bringing them from e x t r a - b i b l i c a l or b i b l ic a l sources.
^See above, pp. 15-16; 40-44.

2
Scholars agree th a t i t was Bishop Robert Lowth who in 1753
( De Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum [ O x i n i i : E. Typogratheo Clarendoniano,
1753J, p. 2 5 2 ), w ith his idea o f S tilu s P a ra b o lic u s , opened the
way f o r the concept o f myth in to b i b l i c a l study. Cf. C h ris tia n
H a r t l i c h and W a lte r Sachs, Per Ursprunq des Mythosbeqriffes in der
modernen B ib e lw is se n s ch aft, SSEA, 2 (Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul
SiebeckJ, 1 952), pp. 6 -1 0. H a r t l i c h and Sachs have made an h i s t o r
ic a l in v e s t ig a t io n of the myths r e la te d to the b i b l i c a l m a te ria l
from Lowth (1753) u n t i l the middle o f th is c en tu ry. See also G.
Henton Davies, "An Approach to the Problem o f Old Testament Mythology
PEQ 88 ( 1 9 5 6 ):8 3 -8 4 . The names o f J. G. Eichhorn and J. P. G abler—
who made studies o f mythology in the Old and New Testaments— should
be mentioned as scholars who s ta r te d seeing more c l e a r l y the myth
problem in the B ib le . See H a r t l i c h and Sachs (pp. 11-19) and G. L.
Bauer, who in 1802 produced his Hebraische Mytholoaie des A!ten und
Neuen Testaments (2 v o ls. [Leipzi"g"i Weygand, 1802J ) which became
a c la s s ic on the m atter u n t i l the present.
57
58
1 2 3 4 5
Although Jenour, Alexander, Cheyne, Duhm, D e litz s c h , and others
had r e fe rre d to the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Helel with Venus or some
astral body, i t was Herman Gunkel who c a t e g o r i c a l l y a ffirm e d th a t
we have here the Helal myth which was not o f I s r a e l i t e o r i g i n . ^
L a te r he t r i e d to reconstruct th a t myth and suggested some probable
places o f o r i g i n . ^ From Gunkel on several suggestions have appeared
th a t present myths from which the m a te r ia l o f Isa 14:12-15 and Ezek
2 8 :2 -1 9 might have o r ig in a t e d . I t is to the examination o f those
a lle g e d mythic o r ig in s or p a r a l l e l s o f passages--both e x t r a - b i b l i c a l
and b i b l i c a l — t h a t we now turn our study.
Methodology
In i n t e r p r e t in g passages o f the nature o f Isa 14, Ezek 28, and
oth e r re la te d passages such as Isa 27 and Ps 82, e t c . , scholars have
u s u a lly f a l l e n in to two extremes: One is d ic ta te d by the s o -c a lle d
"myth and r i t u a l " school which assigns these passages to and i n t e r p r e t s
them in the realm o f mythology and r i t u a l i s m ; the other is reoresented
by the group which sees the passages as fr e e from any in flu e n c e of

g
the c u ltu r a l m ilie u and any mythological overtones.
^ I s a i a h , p. 272. Î s a i a h , p. 200.
3 4
The Prophecies o f I s a i a h , 1 :3 1 1 . J e s a ja , p. 90.
Î s a i a h , p. 119.
Schopfunq und Chaos, pp. 1 32-34. ^ Ib id . , p. 134.

g
Yehezkel Kaufmann ( The R e lig io n o f I s r a e l , tr a n s . Moshe
Greenberg [Chicago: U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago Press, 1 960], pp. 1 -4 )
seems to belong to th is group. For a d i f f e r e n t approach to the
m a tte r , see F. M. Cross, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic. Essays
in the H istory o f the R e lig io n o f I s r a e l (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
U n iv e r s it y Press, 1973), pp. v i i - i x .
Because o f the nature o f these passages, there probably
w ill always be some sense of u n c e r ta in ty concerning t h e i r f u l l and
complete meaning. Nevertheless some c o n tr o ls , i f applied in t h i s
in te rp re ta tio n , w ill help us to form ulate a reasonable under
standing of these passages. Some p r i n c ip l e s or c ontrols which
should be observed in our methodology o f comparing Near Eastern
mythological m a te ria ls w ith the b i b l i c a l t e x t are as fo llo w s :
1. Ideas o f the OT should not be compared with mythological
m a te ria ls o f the a n cie n t Near East on the basis o f "occasional
s i m i l a r i t i e s " or c e r t a i n d e t a i l s , but by asking what place these
d e t a i l s occupy in the t o t a l s tru c tu re o f each r e li g i o n . ^
2. The c o n te xt should be respected in th a t excerDts from
the passages be not compared in i s o l a t i o n from the block o f t e x t

2
in which they are found.
3. The i n t e r p r e t e r should be aware o f the p o s s i b i l i t y th a t
"independent development o f analogical c u l t u r a l fe a tu re s '" ' could
have occurred, and t h a t although resemblances and p a r a l l e l s may
occur, the i n t r i n s i c meaning and a p p l i c a b i l i t y can conceivably be

4
com pletely d i f f e r e n t .
^See Helmer Ringgren, "Remarks on the Method of Comparative

Mythology," in Near Eastern Studies in Honor o f W. F. A lb r ig h t
(B a ltim o re : Johns Hopkins Press, 1 5 7 1 ), pp. 407-11. Cf. also
Claus Westermann, "Sinn und Grenze r e lig io n s g e s c h ic h t lic h e r
Para’. l e i e n , " TLZ 90 (1 9 6 5 ):4 9 0 -9 1 . Westermann contends f o r a
l i n e a r comparison r a t h e r than f o r a p u n c t i l i a r comparison in order
to c o r r e c t l y d e te c t any p a r a l l e l .
^Cf. Samuel Sandmel, "P arallelom ania ," JBl 31 (1 9 62 ):1 -1 3 .
^Cf. Nahum M. Sarna, Understanding Genesis (New York:

Jewish Theological Seminary, 1 965), pp. x x v i - x x v i i i .
4Cf. Avery D u lle s , "Symbol, Myth, and the B i b l i c a l R e v e la tio n ,

TS 27 (1 9 6 6 ):1 5 -1 7 ; John L. McKenzie, "Myth and the Old Testam ent,"
in Myths and R e a l i t i e s : Studies in B i b l i c a l Theology (Milwaukee:
Bruce Pub. Co., 1 9 6 3 ), p. 191.
60
4. The i n t e r p r e t e r should be aware o f the fa c t
th a t c e r t a i n mythical elements can be present in various

mythologies w ithout the myths themselves being id e n tic a l as
to ta litie s . One element— which obviously must be supposed to
express a c e r t a in l i m it e d idea— can be combined with one set
o f elements in one r e l i g i o n and w ith o th e r sets o f elements
in oth e r r e l i g i o n s J
These fo u r b r i e f p r i n c ip l e s provide some g u id e lin e s which should be
observed in t h i s type o f research study.
Isaiah 14
E x t r a - B i b li c a l L ite ra tu re
2
In 1895 Gunkel proposed— and he was supported in th is by
Skinner^— th a t the Is a ia n m a te ria l could have had i t s o r ig in in

4
Babylon. Lohman a ffirm e d th a t the poet could have had the Baby
lonian Is h t a r myth in view. In 1930 B outflow er3 suggested an Assyro-
Babylonian source, with Is h ta r and Nanna or Inanna in view. Konig^
proposed t h a t Isa 14:13 -1 5 was an a llu s io n to the Etana Myth, but
more r e c e n tly Childs suggested th a t "the Etana myth has only a
vague connection"7 with the Helal myth. Because o f these a ss e rtio n s
^ in g g re n , "Remarks," pp. 410-11.

2
Schopfunq und Chaos, p. 134.
3J. S. S kinner, I s a i a h , p. 122, "The conception is borrowed

from some Babylonian a s t r a l myth in which a r a d ia n t star-demon was
represented as presumptuously aiming a t supreme d e i t y , and as paying
the p e n a lty o f his ambition by being cast down to the underworld."
Cf. also G. M. Wade, The Book o f the Prophet I s a i a h , WC (London:
Methuen & C o., 1 9 1 1 ), pp. 100-101; G. B. Gray, Is a ia h 1 -3 9 , pp. 225-26.
4
Die anonymen P ro p h e tie n , p. 25.
^Charles B outflow er, The Book o f Is a ia h (New York:

Macmillan C o., 1 9 3 0 ), pp. 77-78; c f . also H. Gressmann, Per Messias
(G ottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1 92 9 ), pp. 165-70.
5Konig, J e s a ja , pp. 181-82. 7Myth and R e a l i t y , p. 69.
61
and views we now turn to the examination of the Mesopotamian m aterial
Sumerian
The Sumerian myth "Inanna's Descent to the Netherworld"^
is the predecessor and prototype o f the Semitic myth " Is h t a r 's

2
Descent to the Netherworld."
In th is myth Inanna, "queen o f heaven," decides to v i s i t the
n etherw orld. She arrays h e rs e lf in a l l the d iv in e accouterments,
dresses h e r s e lf w ith the roya’ robes and je w e ls , and readies her
s e l f to tr a v e l to "the land o f no r e t u r n . " Before going to the
netherworld Inanna in s tru cts her messenger Ninshubur to f i l l heaven
w ith complaints f o r her, and to plead w ith E n lil not to allow harm
to his daughter. I f E n lil refuses to h e lp , the messenger should go
The t e x t o f th is myth is reconstructed from about th ir te e n

t a b l e t s and fragments found in Nippur. Although we cannot determine
the date o f the f i r s t composition, e x t a n t ta b le ts come from the
f i r s t h a l f o f the second millennium B.C. While some parts of the
myth were published e a r l i e r (see RA 34 [1 9 3 7 ]:1 2 , and BASOR 79 [1 9 4 0 ]:
18 f o r r e f e r e n c e s ) , i t was Samuel Noah Kramer who published a f i r s t
f u l l e d i t i o n o f the te x t ("in a n n a 's Descent to the Netherworld," RA
34 [ 1 9 3 7 ] : 9 3 - 1 3 4 ) , based on the e ig h t ta b le t s then a v a i l a b l e . In
another two a r t i c l e s ("A dditional M a t e r i a l s to 'In a n n a 's Descent
to the N e the rw orld," RA 36 [1 9 3 9 ]:6 8 —8 0 ; " Is h ta r in the Netherworld
According to a New Sumerian T e x t ," BASOR 79 [ 1 9 4 0 ] : 1 8 - 2 7 ) , he
published some o th e r pieces of the myth ( c f . also S. N. Kramer,
Sumerian Mythology [P h ila d e lp h ia : American P hilosophical Society,
1944J, pp. 8 3 -8 8 , f o r a more d e t a i l e d s to ry about the gathering of
the myth). A new e d itio n of the t e x t , based on a l l the ta b le ts and
fragments we have today, was produced by Kramer in PAPS 85 (1942):
293-323. Other studies of the t e x t w ith t r a n s l a t i o n s , based on
previous p u b l i c a t i o n s , were published by A. Falke n s te in ("Zu 'Inannas
Gang zu r U n t e r w e lt ' ," AFO 14 [ 1 9 4 2 ]:1 1 3 —3 8 ), and Maurus Witzel
("Z u r Sumerischen Rezension der H o l l e n f a n r t I s c h t a r s , " OR 14 (1 9 45 ):
2 4-69). Kramer has also published the Sumerian v ersion o f the myth
in ANET^, p p . 52-57; and E. A. S p eis e r the Semitic version in ANET^ ,
pp. 106-9. In t h i s study we fo llo w e s p e c i a l l y the t r a n s la tio n
found in ANET.
2
This process gives us an example of l i t e r a r y borrowing
and tra n s fo rm a tio n .
62
to Ur and present the same request to Nanna (th e moon-god). If
Nanna denies the p r o te c tio n , the messenger should go to Eridu and
make the same plea before E n k i, the Sumerian god o f wisdom who
knows "the food of l i f e " and "the water o f l i f e . " He would
c e r t a i n l y be able to save her from death.
A f t e r those in s tr u c t io n s Inanna descends to the netherworld
whose queen is Ereshkigal (Ina nna 's o ld e r s i s t e r , but her enemy).
The gatekeeper wants to know the reason f o r her v i s i t . Inanna says
th a t she was in v ite d and presents some reasons fo r the i n v i t a t i o n .
The gatekeeper, on in s tr u c t io n s from his m is tr e s s , allows Inanna to
e n te r thorugh the seven gates o f the netherw o rld. As she passes
each o f the seven gates, her garments and jew e ls are removed piece
by p ie ce . A f t e r the l a s t gate she is naked and is brought before
Ereshkigal and the Anunnaki judges who decree her death. She is
turned in to a corpse which is then hung from a stake. A f t e r three
days and three n ig h ts , seeing th a t his m istress has not re tu rn e d ,
Ninshubur s t a r t s to approach the gods as Inanna had in s tr u c te d .
E n l i l and Nanna deny any help f o r Inanna but Enki makes plans to
save her l i f e . He fashions the Kurgarru and the K a la tu r r u , two
sexless c re a tu re s , e n tr u s tin g to them the "food o f l i f e " and- the
"water c f l i f e , " and commanding them to go to the netherworld to
r e v iv e Inanna's impaled body by s p rin k lin g "food" and "water" s ix
times upon her corpse. They do as commanded, and Inanna is r e v iv e d .
As she ascends to the e a rth she is accompanied by dead and g h o s tly
c rea tu re s from the n etherw o rld. Accompanied by th a t crowd Inanna
goes from c i t y to c i t y in Sumer. As we can see, there are some
elements in the myth o f Inanna which could be re la te d to elements
63
in Is a i a h 's Helel accounts. On the o th e r hand, however, s t r i k i n g
d iffe r e n c e s can also be seen in several fa c e ts of the two accounts.
Resemblances may be pointed out as follow s:
1. There a r e , in both accounts, scenes in three d i f f e r e n t
realms, and a s h i f t o f the main fig u r e from one realm to the o th e r.
In Is a ia h there is the movement: Earth ■» netherworld -»■ Heaven ->•
ea rth J In the Inanna myth the movement i s : Heaven - netherworld
- earth . 2
2. The language o f both m a te ria ls is v iv id and f i g u r a t i v e ,
and some elements are common to both accounts. These are descending
to the netherworld or to the grave; personages th a t are d is p le a s in g
to God, or the gods;^ the p u rs u it o f power; e tc .
D ifferences may be noted as:
1. In the myth Inanna descends to the netherworld and
ascends from there a g ain ; in Isaiah Helel is brought to the grave—
to the depths o f the p i t — but he does not re tu rn from th e r e , his
fa t e is f i n a l .
2. In the myth, Inanna sets her mind to go to the n e therw o rld;
in Is a ia h Helel has been cast down to the p i t because his power or
r u ie r s h ip has been broken because o f his proud a t t i t u d e , his
a s p i r a t i o n s , and his oppression over the n ations.
3. The Is a i a n ic language is very v iv id and fig u re s o f speech
are used to make the d e s c rip tio n more im pressive. For example, trees
Îsa 1 4 :4 b -8 ; vss. 9-1 1; vss. 12-15 ; vss. 16-21.
2lin e s 1-71; 72-272; 273-328. ANET3 , pp. 53-57.
JIn Inanna myth we do not have the d ispleasing a c t e x p l i c i t l y

s ta te d , but the c o ntext and events presuppose i t .
64
and the s p i r i t s o f the departed ones speakJ A s i m i l a r kind of
language and fig u r e s o f speech are presented in the myth o f Inanna.
However, the n a r r a t iv e in Isa ia h is o b j e c t iv e , c l e a r , and lo g ic a l
in sequence. This is not the case w ith the Sumerian myth; i t is
q u ite r e p e t it io u s and presents f a n t a s t i c episodes such as the
in c id e n t where Inanna entered the seven gates of the netherworld
and l o s t her clo th e s and was l e f t naked, and the hanging o f Inanna's
3
body on a sta ke .
Having examined the myth and pointed out some resemblances
and d iffe r e n c e s in r e l a t i o n to I s a i a h , we a r r iv e a t the conclusion
t h a t although i t is not impossible th a t the prophet made use o f
Sumerian t r a d i t i o n , the d iffe r e n c e s are such th a t i t would be u n fa ir
to say th a t the Inanna myth is the source f o r the Is a ia n lament.
Some is o la te d elements o f p a r t i a l p a r a l l e l s are found, but the
t o t a l content is completely d i f f e r e n t . The phrases which show
some s i m i l a r i t y are common in the d e s c rip tio n s o f m a te r ia l o f the
same na tu re , although expressing d i f f e r e n t or even opposite r e a l i t i e s .
Akkadian
The Descent o f Is h ta r to the Netherw orld. The "Descent of

4
I s h t a r to the Netherworld" myth i s , as noted above, a kind of
h s a 1 4 :8 -1 0 . 2Lines 126-156, ANET3 , p. 55.
3l in e s 167-168, ANET3 , p. 55.

4
This myth has come to us in two recensions coming from Ashur
(c . 1200-100 B .C .) and from the l i b r a r y o f Ashurbanipal a t Nineveh.
The o ld e r recension ("A ") has been published by E. E b elin g ("Ein
H eldenlied auf T i g l a t p i l e s e r I und der Anfang e in e r neuen Version
von ' Is t a r s H o l l e n f a h r t ' nach e in e r S c h u le rta fe l aus Assur," OR 18
[1 9 4 9 ]:3 0 -3 9 ; KAR 1 [WVD0G 18 (1 9 1 5 -1 9 1 9 )] [ p i s . 1 - 4 ] , and p. 321).
The other recension ("N") was published by C. B. F. Walker
65
adapted version of the Sumerian Inanna m ythJ The general out
lin e s o f the s to ry agree in both accounts: the goddess descends
to the netherw o rld, goes through the seven gates lo s in g her gar
ments in the process, is k i l l e d a t the command o f E r e s h k ig a l, is
re stored w ith the help o f Enki (the Semitic Ea), and ascends to the
2 3
earth. On the o th e r hand, as Kramer says, "few o f the d e t a i l s
th a t go to f i l l in these skeleton lines of the myth are a l i k e in the

4
two versions." Kramer continues his comments— w ith which we agree—
on the comparison o f the two versions by s t a t in g :
What is even more i n t e r e s t i n g is the palpable d i f f e r e n c e in

s t y le and tone. For the temper of the Sumerian v e rs io n , l i k e
t h a t o f Sumerian l i t e r a t u r e as a whole, is calm, subdued,
passive and unemotional; the incidents are r e c i t e d im passively
and repeated to the p oint of monotony. The S e m itic v ers io n ,
on the o th e r hand, glosses over many o f the p a r t i c u l a r s , but
expands w ith language t h a t is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y passionate
and intense those d e t a i l s which are r ic h in emotional possi
b ilitie s . There is l i t t l e doubt th a t the Sumerian version is
( Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian T a b le ts , 52 [London: B ritis h

Museum Pub.. 1959], p. 15, p is . 4 5 -4 8 ). Among the tr a n s la tio n s
a v a i l a b l e we have those by Peter C. A. Jensen ("Sammlung von
assyrischen und babylonischen Texten in um schrift und Ubersetzung,"
KB 6 [1 908] : 8 0 f f . ) , N recension; Samuel G e lle r (" D ie P.ezension von
"T s ta rs H o l l e n f a h r t ' aus Assur," OLZ 20 [ 1 9 1 7 ] : 4 1 f f . ) , A recension;
£. Ebeling ( "Unterweltsmythen," in AOT, pp. 2 0 6 f f . ) ; Alexander
H e id e l, The Gilqamesh Epic and Old Testament P a r a l l e l s (Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago Press, 194 6 ), pp. 121-28. A re c e n t tra n s
l a t i o n based on both the Ashur and the Nineveh recensions has been
published by E. A. Speiser in ANET^, pp. 106-109.
^Cf. Kramer, ANET^ , pp. 52-57; 106-107. See A lfr e d Jeremias

( The Old Testament in the L ight o f the Ancient E a s t , TTL, 28, 2 v o l s . ,
t r a n s . C. L. Beaumont [London: Williams and Norgate, 1911], 1 :1 17 -2 3 )
f o r the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Is h t a r in the Babylonian pantheon.
2
Kramer, " I s h t a r in the Netherworld," p. 20.
^The d e t a i l s o f the d iffe re n c e s between the two versions

are not discussed here because they are not c r u c ia l f o r the purpose
o f our research.
4 Ib id ., p. 2 0 .
66
the more o r i g i n a l : the Sem itic account developed from i t in

the course o f the c en tu rie s as a r e s u lt o f m o d ific a tio n s made
by the Babylonians in accordance w ith t h e i r own temper and
g e n iu s . ''
The I s h t a r account does not have those ''abandoning" and "descending

2
to the netherworld" phrases encountered in the Inanna myth. In
a d d itio n the d e s c rip tio n o f her preparation o f her apparel f o r the
t r i p and her dialogue with the messenger concerning a c tio n to be
taken in case she does not re tu rn are lacking from the Akkadian
v e rs io n .” On the other hand the Akkadian version presents I s h t a r 's
v i o l e n t a t t i t u d e toward the gatekeeper o f the netherworld and gives
d i f f e r e n t reasons fo r going in t o the "land of no r e t u r n . " D e ta ils
about her entrance through the seven gates and losing her apparel
4
are presented— w ith some d i f f e r i n g nuances— in both versions.
Next the Sem itic version presents the m iseries which Ereshkigal
cast upon I s h t a r 3 and the consequences o f Is h t a r 's departure from
the n a tu ra l w o r ld . 3 The Akkadian version does not r e f e r e x p l i c i t l y
to the death o f I s h ta r .
In the Is h t a r myth we have next the c re a tio n o f Asushunamir
(a eunuch) and his being sent to the "land o f no re tu rn " to bring
^ I b i d . ; c f . E. D. Dhorme, Les Religions de Babylonie e t

d 'A s s y r i e , ARO (P a r is : Presses U n i v e r s i t a i r e s de France, 1949),
p. 67. For a good survey on the c u l t and function o f I s h t a r in
the Assyro-Babylonic c u l t u r e , see pp. 6 7-78, 321-24.
2l i n e s 3 -1 3 , ANET3 , p. 53.
3Lines 14-120, ANET3 , pp. 53-54.
\in e s 121-160, ANET3 , p. 55; and lin e s 3 8-64 , ANET3 , pp.

107-8.
5l i n e s 6 5 -7 4 , ANET3 , p. 108.
3Lines 75-80 (o b v e rs e ), 1-10 ( r e v e r s e ) , ANET3 , p. 108.
67
the goddess back. The same r i t u a l fo r t h i s — w ith s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t
nuances--is present as in the Inanna v e r s i o n J The long i n t e r
cession o f the messenger before the gods is found in the Sumerian
version but is absent from the Akkadian. On the o th e r hand, the
Semitic version presents a dialogue between Asushunamir and
Ereshkigal w ith some t h r e a t o f the l a t t e r a g a in s t the former, and
the devaluation of I s h t a r ' s apparel as she passes back through the

2
netherworld gates. These two incidents are absent in the Inanna
v ersion. The end o f the Akkadian version presents the r e s to r a tio n
o f Tammuz, I s h t a r ' s lo v e r , to l i f e . Z
The same observations made concerning the Sumerian version
o f the myth could l e g i t i m a t e l y be made f o r the S em itic version.
The d iffe r e n c e s between them are in d e t a i l s which do not modify the
main i d e n t i t y and nature o f the o r ig in a l myth to any g reat e x te n t.
As was said b e fo re , the d iffe r e n c e s are— in g re a t measure— in s ty le
and tone 4 and are accounted f o r as r e s u lt o f the more passionate and
emotional nature o f the Sem itic version. The Akkadian version does
not add any phrase, as f a r as we can p e rc e iv e , th a t would supply
m a te ria l th a t would help us to i d e n t i f y the I s h t a r myth with the
Isaian Helel ben Shahar s to r y . The same observations made con
cerning the Sumerian version can thus be a p p lie d to the Akkadian
version o f the descent o f the goddess to the n etherw o rld.
^Lines 11-37, ANET3 , p. 108.
ZLines 11-46, ANET3 , pp. 108-9.
\ i n e s 4 7-59 , ANET3 , p. 109. This is the f i r s t time th a t

Tammuz appears in the myth.
4 Vandenburgh, "The Ode," p. 118, c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to the

f a c t th a t the poem o f the I s h t a r myth i s , as the Is a ia n Ode, a
pentameter.
68
The myth o f Zu. ^ Zu is a d iv in e fig u r e (c a lle d the bird

n
god ) mentioned in several Mesopotamian t e x t s , who became f o r a
time the lo rd o f the world a f t e r having s tolen E n l il s Ta blets of
D e s tin ie s . The Semites described Zu as a "doer o f E v i l , the one
who rais e s the head o f e v i l . " 3 The s to r y says th a t Zu was once
in attendance on the god E n l i l , when
Heidel Spei ser
5. His eyes behold what E n lil The e x e rc is e of his E n l il s h i p

does as sovereign. his eyes view.
6. The crown o f his sovereig nty, The crown o f his s o ve re ig n ty ,

the robe of his d i v i n i t y . the robe o f his godhead.
7. The t a b l e t o f d e s t in ie s (be His d iv in e Tablet o f D es tinie s

longing to ) his ' d i v i n i t y ( ? ) ' Zu views c o n s ta n tly .
Zu beholds again and again.
8. And as he beholds again and As he views c o n s ta n tly the

again the f a t h e r o f the gods, f a t h e r of the gods, the god
the god o f D u ra n k i , 4 o f D u ra n k i,
This myth appears in two fo rm u la tio n s , in Akkadian (OB) and

Assyrian. The OB recension was f i r s t published— with t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n
and French t r a n s l a t i o n — by V. Scheil ("Fragments de la legende du dieu
Zu," RA 35 [ 1 9 3 8 ] : 1 4 - 2 5 ) . For o the r t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n s and t r a n s la tio n s
and some c o l l a t i o n , see Jean Nougayrol, "Ningirsu Vainqueur de Zu," RA
46 ( 1 9 5 2 ) : 8 7 - 9 7 ; E rich Ebeling, "Eine neue Ta fe l des akkadischen Zu-
Mythos," RA 46 (1 9 5 2 ) : 2 5 - 4 1 . The Assyrian version was published by
C. B. F. Walker, CTBT 15 ( 1 9 6 2 ) :3 9 -4 0 ; and a d d itio n s by E ric a Reiner,
"Deux fragments du mythe de Zu," RA 48 (1 9 5 4 ):1 4 5 -4 9 ; tr a n s la t i o n s
were made by J. Jensen, "Sammlung," pp. 4 7 -5 5 ; E. E beling, "Unter-
weltsmythen," pp. 1 41-43. English t r a n s l a t i o n s — which are a kind o f
c o n fla tio n between the two recensions— were made by Alexander Heidel
( The Babylonian Genesis [Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1951 ( f i r s t
published in 1 9 4 2 )J . pp. 144-47; and E. A. S p eis e r, ANET^, pp. 111-
13. See also A. K. Grayson, ANET^, pp. 5 14-17, f o r some a d d itio n a l
m a te ria l o f the myth. Because o f d i f f e r e n c e o f s ty le and phraseology,
two tr a n s la t io n s o f the t e x t are presented.
2
For r e a c tio n o f the suggestion on the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Zu
w ith the Sumerian t h i r d millennium " d iv in e IM-dugud b i r d , " see
T. Fish, "The Zu B i r d , " BJRL 31 ( 1 9 4 8 ):1 6 2 - 7 1 .
3C f. i b i d . , p. 166.
4
"God o f D u ra n k i," according to Heidel and S p e is e r, is an
e p ith e t of E n lil. Duranki (meaning "the bond o f heaven and e a r th " )
was the name o f the temple tower a t Nippur.
69
9. He conceives in his h e art a The removal of E n l il s h i p he

d e s i r e ( ? ) f o r E n l i l ' s p o s itio n ; conceives in his h e a rt.
10. As Zu beholds again and again As Zu views constantly the

the f a t h e r o f the gods, the f a t h e r o f the gods, the god
god o f Duranki, of D u ra n k i,
11. He conceives in his h e art a The removal of E n l il s h i p he

d e s ir e ( ? ) f o r E n l i l ' s p o s itio n . conceives in his h e a rt.
12. " I w i l l take the t a b l e t o f 111 w i l l take the d iv in e T a b le t

the d e s tin ie s of the gods, of D e s tin ie s , I ,
even 1 1
13. Also the omens of a l l the And the decrees o f a l l the

gods I w i l l c o n tro l! gods I w i l l r u le !
14. I w i l l e s ta b lis h (my) throne I w i l l make firm my throne and

and w i l l control (?) the be the master o f the norms,
de cre e s !
15. I w i l l control a l l the I g i g i I w i l l d i r e c t the t o t a l i t y

to g e th e r!" o f a l l the I g i g i ."
16. A f t e r his heart has planned the His h e art having thus p l o t t e d
a tta c k , aggression,
17. He w a its f o r the beginning o f At the entrance o f the sanctuary,

the day a t the entrance of which he had been v ie w in g ,
( E n l i l 1s) chamber, which he He awaits the s t a r t of day.
had beheld re peatedly.
18. As E n l i l was washing in c le a r As E n l i l was washing w ith pure

w a te r, w a te r,
19. A f t e r his t i a r a had been taken His crown having been removed
o f f and placed on the throne, and deposited on the th ro n e ,
20. He seized the t a b l e t o f He seized the Ta blet o f D e s tin ie s

d e s t in ie s with [ h i s ] hand in his handsJ
21 . And usurped sovereignty (the Taking away the E n l i l s h i p ;

power), to issue decrees. suspended were [the norms].
22. Zu (th e n ) flew away and When Zu had flown away and
Chid( ? ) ] in his mountain. re p a ire d to his mountain.
2
As Gowan has remarked, t h i s myth seems to be the only good example
^Here begins the p a r a l l e l account o f the Akkadian v e r s io n ;

see ANET^, n. I l i a .
2 P. 60.
70
in the ancient Near East (outside the 0T) o f a rebel who is unsuc
cessful in his attempt to grasp the kingship o f the god. When we
compare some po rtio n o f the Zu myth w ith the Isaian passage, we can
d e te ct some s i m i l a r i t i e s , as well as some d iffe re n c e s in the main
themes and elements o f both m a te ria ls .
S i m i l a r i t i e s can be l i s t e d as:
1. A f a i l e d attempt to grasp the kingship and c ontrol
everything^— Zu wants E n l i l ' s p o s itio n , and Helel wants "to be
l i k e El yon."
2. A process which went on in the f i g u r e 's h e a r t , a pro
cess o f envy and a d e sire to become l i k e the supreme God. Several
steps occur in the development o f the projected act to reach the

2
pinnacle o f power.
3. The establishm ent o f a throne or the enthronement o f
the Rebel. This is c l e a r l y a tte s te d .
Zu Helel ben Shahar
(H e id e l) "I w i l l e s t a b lis h my “I w ill s i t enthroned . " 4

throne . .
(S p e ise r) "I w i l l make fir m my th ro n e ."
4. A mountain to which Zu f le e s a f t e r having s to len the

5
t a b l e t of d e s t in ie s . Helel seeks to be enthroned on the "Mount
o f Assembly" in the "heights o f Zaphon."®
^Lines 11-15; Isa 1 4:13 -1 4 . 2Lines 12-16; Isa 1 4 :1 3 -1 4 .
3l i n e 14. 4 Isa 14:13b.
5Line 22; see also lin e s 37, 45, 49, 93 (ANET3 , p. 1 1 3 ),

where the "Assembly o f the great gods" is mentioned.
6 Isa 14:13c.
71
5. Zu being described by the Semites as "doer o f e v i l ,
the one who ra is e s the head o f e v i l . " ^ H e l e l 's c h a r a c t e r is t i c s
are also those o f an e v i l personage. Although not as e x p l i c i t ,
th is comparison seems l e g it im a t e .
Differe n c es t h a t can be d is tin g u ish e d are:
1. The c o n te xt o f Zu’ s myth is obviously p o l y t h e i s t i c
and consequently several gods are c a lle d to beseige Zu and bring

2
back the Tablet o f D e s tin ie s . In H e l e l 's sto ry the context shows
3
his designs being f r u s t r a t e d by Yahweh, who brings him down to the
p *t.
2. Zu belonged to the underworld. Helel was thrown down
in to the p i t , but did not l i v e there be fore .
3. The main theme in the Zu myth is his s t r i v i n g to steal
E n l i l ' s Ta blet o f D e s tin ie s which he f i n a l l y got. H e l e l 's s to ry
has nothing concerning such a t a b l e t .
4. Zu became f o r a time the lord o f the w orld, w hile the
Isaian passagedoes not give any h in t th a t Helel was a t some time
the lord o f any domain.
We have to admit th a t despite the several d iffe r e n c e s pre
sented, these two l i t e r a t u r e s are incieed very s i m i l a r in major
trends such as r e b e l l i o n o f a s u b je c t, attem pt to grasp kin gship,
etc. On the o th e r hand we know th a t war among gods and the s t r i v
ing to d e fe at a more eminent god is very common among the myths.
V i s h , p. 166. 2lin e s 2 7 f f . , ANET^, p. 113.
2See vss. 5, 22. I t is tru e th a t these two vss. are out

o f the main passage (vss. 12-15) which are said to come from a
mythic source; but in vs. 13b a Supreme God 0? x ) is mentioned,
which p a r a l l e l s the "most High" (] T> > v ) in vs. 14b.
72
Summarizing, we would say th a t we cannot prove th a t the
b i b l i c a l w r i t e r borrowed his ideas from the myth discussed; but
n e ith e r can we prove th a t the author o f the Zu myth was not ins pire d
by some knowledge he had o f the same remote event.
The Etana Myth. Keeping in mind C h i l d s ' ^ statement about

2
the r e la tio n s h ip o f the Etana myth, we now turn our a t t e n t i o n to
an examination o f t h a t myth. Etana was a legendary r u l e r o f the
p o s t-flo o d Dynasty of Kish, known as "a Shepherd who ascended to
heaven."^ His l i f e was marred by the f a c t t h a t his w ife was c h i l d
le s s . The only remedy would be to get the p la n t o f b i r t h , which
Etana would have to bring from heaven in person. The s o la r d e i t y
gives him i n t e l l i g e n c e to perceive t h a t he should make use o f an
eagle to tra n s p o r t him to Anu's heaven to bring the p la n t o f b i r t h
from th e re . Before doing so, however, Etana had to rescue the
eagle from a p i t in to which she had been thrown by the serpent
because o f her b e tra y a l o f her f r i e n d . The e a g le , once rescued,
C h ild s , Myth and R e a l i t y , p. 64, says th a t "the Etana

myth has only a vague connection" w ith the Helal myth ( I s a 1 4 : 1 2 -1 5 )-
C f. Lohmann ( Die anonymen P ro p h e tien , p. 2 5 ) , who says "M it dem
Itana-mythus s e lb e r hat jedoch unsere S t e l l e w ahrscheinlich n ichts
zu sch a ffen , wenn auch d ie Farben des Liedes an denselben
e rin n e rn ."
2
The te x ts o f the myth come to us in fragments o f three
recensions: Old Babylonian (A ); Middle Assyrian (B ) ; and Neo-
Assyrian (C ). See ANET-3, p. 114, f o r the references o f the p u b l i
c ation o f the various t e x t s . Our research uses the reconstructed
t e x t o f the three versions published by E. A. S peiser, ANET^,
pp. 114-18.
^Thorkild Jacobsen, The Sumerian King L i s t , AS 11 (Chicago:

U n iv e r s it y Press, 1 93 9 ), pp. 80-81 . See also Henri F r a n k f o r t,
C y lin d e r Seals (London: Macmillan C o ., 1 9 3 9 ), pp. 138-39, and
P I. XXIV-V , where a shepherd is depicted r i s i n g to heaven on the
wings o f an e a g le .
73
agrees to tra n s p o rt Etana to Anu' s heaven, saying,
"My f r i e n d , b r ig h t [ . . . ] .
Up, I w i l l bear thee to the heaven [ o f Anu]!
Upon my breast place thou [th y b r e a s t ] ,
Upon the fe a th e rs o f my wings place thou [th y hands],
Upon my sides place thou [ t h in e a r m s ]!“ l
Etana follow s the e a g le 's in s t r u c t i o n and is c a r r ie d to the t h i r d
heaven, which belongs to Anu. Apparently the p la n t o f b i r t h was
not found, f o r they went higher to I s h t a r ' s heaven. Looking down,
however, Etana was taken by fe a r and plunged down together w ith the
2
e a g le .
Comparing the account o f E tana' s myth w ith the Isaian pas
sage is a task th a t is complicated by the fragmentary s ta te o f the
Akkadian t e x t and the nature o f the m a te ria l involved. We fin d
some sparse elements which could be said to resemble each o th e r.
In Etana's myth we fin d the realms o f heaven (s everal heavens),
e a r t h , and the p i t (o r n e th e rw o rld ). There is an ascending to
heaven; there is the f a i l u r e to reach the o b j e c t iv e ; and there is
the consequent plunging down from on high (probably in to the p i t ,
though we are not sure since the t e x t is incomplete a t th is p o i n t ) .
On the oth e r hand, we are faced again w ith remarkable d i f
ferences or divergences: (1 ) The purpose f o r ascending to heaven
is q u ite d i f f e r e n t in the two accounts. The Isa ia n story shows
Helel tr y in g to e s ta b lis h his throne in the utmost heights o f the
ANET3 , p. 118, lin e s 15-19.

2
In a more r e c e n tly published t e x t , J. V. Wilson ("Some
C o n trib u tio n s to the Legend o f E tana," IRAQ 31 [ 1 9 6 9 ] : 8 - 1 7 ) ,
shows th a t Etana obtained the p la n t of b i r t h and suggests th a t
the story had a tr a g i c ending, whereas S peiser (ANET3 , p. 114)
suggests a happy ending to the s to r y .
74
sacred mountain; Etana ascends to get the p la n t o f b i r t h . (2 ) The
Etana myth says nothing about his oppressing r u l e r s h i p , w hile the
Isaian account doesJ (3 ) The p o l y t h e is t i c nature o f the myth
contrasts w ith the b i b l i c a l passage. (4 ) The myth is r e p e t it io u s
and i t s language is less n a t u r a l; i t p e rs o n ifie s the elements o f
nature to a gre ater e x te n t than does the b i b l i c a l passage.
To say th a t we have the same myth in both accounts would be
q u ite in a c c u ra te . That the Isaian passage had i t s o r ig in in the
Akkadian myth is very d i f f i c u l t to demonstrate; th a t some elements
came d i r e c t l y from the Akkadian m a te ria l into the b i b l i c a l account
is y et to be proved.
I t could be th a t both accounts have elements o f the same
m y th ic a l— or p r e - h i s t o r i c a l — o r i g i n a l event, but i f th a t were the
case— and we are not sure th a t i t i s — there are no convincing argu
ments to demonstrate i t . I f such a procedure were c a rrie d o u t, we
b e lie v e i t would be found th a t the elements involved were "combined

2
in s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t ways." The more probable explanation
o f some g e n e r a lly common elements or resemblances between the two
s to r ie s would be th a t o f the existence o f "common circumstances
o r something basic to human n a t u r e .'1^
^Vss. 4 -6 , 16-17.
2
C f. Gowan, When Man Becomes God, pp. 6 5 -6 6 , who believes
th a t the main elements in the Isaian passage are found in the
F e r t i l e Crescent l i t e r a t u r e , but sees a ra d ic a l d iffe r e n c e in the
s tr u c tu r e o f the s to r y ; he thinks Isaiah deals w ith a human being's
attem pt to become god.
JCf. i b i d . , p. 52. We return to th is aspect in the

conclusion of th is chapter. See also Gowan, pp. 5 4-58, f o r
suggestive mythical elements p a r a l l e l to Isa 1 4:12-15 in other
Ancient World m a t e r i a l .
75
H ittite
Some scholars have suggested th a t the Kumarbi and Ullikummi
H i t t i t e myths^ are more o r i g i n a l forms o f the m a te ria l o f Isa 14:

2 3
12-15. In one o f the epics we le a rn th a t there was a heavenly
kingship which went through several generations of gods such as
A l l a l u , Anu, Kumarbi, and the storm-god Teshub. A l l a l u was driven
away by Anu, who then reigned in heaven. The "mighty Kumarbi" who
was servant of Anu r e v o lte d against Anu and made him f l e e . Kumarbi
threw him from heaven and castrated him. Anu f o r e t o ld t h a t three
c h ild re n would be born to Kumarbi, one o f which was the storm-
god, u s u a lly c a lle d Teshub. A f t e r several acts of r i v a l r y between
The ta b le t s found were w r i t t e n between 1400 and 1200 B.C.;

the o r ig in a l composition could be from the f i f t e e n t h c en tu ry B.C.
The bulk o f the t e x ts was published in cuneiform by H. Otten
("Mythische und magische Texte in h e t h i t i s c h e r Sprache," KUB 33
(1 9 4 3 ), and E. 0. F o r r e r ("Eine Geschichte des Gotterkonigtums aus
dem H a tti Reiche," AIPH 4 [ 1 9 3 6 ]:6 8 7 - 7 1 3 ). The te x ts (fragmentary
copies) contain two e p ic s : “Kingship in Heaven" and "The Song of
U llikum m i," which, based on the preserved p a r t s , were reconstructed
by Hans G. Giiterbock ("The H i t t i t e Version o f the H urrian Kumarbi
Myths: O rien tal Forerunners o f Hesiod," AJA 52 ( 1 9 4 8 ):1 2 3 - 3 4 ; and
"The Song o f Ullikum m i. Revised Text o f the H i t t i t e Version o f a
Hurrian Myth," JCS 5 [1 9 5 1 ]:1 3 5 - 6 1 ; 6 [ 1 9 5 2 ] : 8 - 4 2 ) . A new tra n s
la t i o n was made by A lb re c h t Goetze in ANET^, pp. 1 20 -2 5 . See
E. A. Speiser, "An I n t r u s i v e H u r r o - H i t t i t e Myth," JAOS 62 (1942):
98-102, fo r the view t h a t the myth is not o r i g i n a l l y H i t t i t e but
an adaptation o f a H u rria n product.
Pope, El_, p. 97; Paul D. Hanson, "Rebellion in Heaven,

A z a z e l, and Euhemeristic Heroes in 1 Enoch 6 -1 1 ," JBL 96 (1977):
207-09, where a comparison o f mythical p a tte rn between the material
o f Isa 14 and the H i t t i t e myth is made.
^Cf. Goetze, ANET^, pp. 120-21; Giiterbock, "The H i t t i t e

V ersion," pp. 123 -2 5 ; S p e is e r, “An In t r u s iv e H u r r o - H i t t i t e ," pp. 98-102.
See also Kapelrud, Baal in the Ras Shamra T e x ts , pp. 8 9 -9 3 , fo r
more commentary on the Kumarbi te x ts .
76
Anu, Kumarbi, and his son the storm-god, the l a t t e r seems to have
taken over the kingship of heavenJ
On the essence o f th is myth Giiterbock concludes that the
Song of Ullikummi describes the c o n tin u a tio n of the b a t t l e between

2
o ld e r and younger gods. U n s a tis fie d w ith the supremacy o f the
storm god, and d e s ir in g to continue as the " fa th e r o f the gods,"
Kumarbi c reates the sea monster Ullikum m i. The l a t t e r was a th r e a t
a gains t the storm god, who devised plans to destroy Ullikummi.
In examining these myths we f in d m otifs which resemble some
found in the Is a ia n passage, but we f in d also s t r i k i n g d iffe re n c e s
in the account.
S i m i l a r i t i e s may be pointed out as:
1. A r i v a l r y is developed, and there is opposition against
gods (God).
2. One is ascending to take up the kingship.
3. A seat is prepared f o r a god to s i t upon.
4. The d e fe a t o f one o f the p a r t ie s is noted, with the
subsequent “dragging down from the sky."
D iffe r e n c e s noted are as fo llo w s :
1. The c o ntext of the H i t t i t e myths is a p o l y t h e i s t i c one,
where many gods are involved in a confused and complicated r i v a l r y .
In the b i b l i c a l passage somebody r a is e s him self a g a in s t God ( E l )
who is the Most High (E ly o n ).
^The outcome o f the b a t t l e u n fo r tu n a te ly is not preserved,

but the "Song o f Ullikummi" presents the storm god as a king. See
ANET3 , p. 121.
^Giiterbock, "The H i t t i t e V e rs io n ," pp. 125-32.
77
2. The b i b l i c a l m a te ria l — although d i f f i c u l t - - i s more
c l e a r and i n t e l l i g i b l e than the H i t t i t e myth which is d if f u s e
and hard to understand as to the sequence o f events.
3. The s u b lim ity o f the I s a i a n ic acocunt contrasts w ith
the grotesque le v e l o f the H i t t i t e myth; f o r example, the myth c it e s
an in c id e n t in which Kumarbi swallowed Anu's manhoodJ
Despite some s u p e r f ic i a l resemblances presented above, i t
is very u n l i k e l y th a t t h i s myth would be a "more o r ig in a l form"
of I s a i a h 's m a t e r i a l . Those scholars who suggest th a t have had

2
d i f f i c u l t y in demonstrating such a dependence.
Greek
In 1877 F. D e litz s c h c a lle d a t t e n t i o n to the f a c t th a t Helel
d e riv e s i t s name from i t s s t r i k i n g b r i l l i a n c y and is c a lle d son o f
the dawn " ju s t as in the c la s s ic a l mythology i t is c a lle d son o f
Eos."^ Dilmann 4 agreed with D e lit z s c h , and Duhm^ e x p l i c i t l y com
pared Helel to Phaeton and said t h a t both were inspired by an
1 ANET3> p . 120.
2
Pope (EX, pp. 97-98) suggests t h a t there was a known “myth
o f the vanquished and banished god or gods" in the Old and New
Testament times ( c f . also Morgenstern, "The Mythological Background,"
pp. 29-126) from which Isa 1 4 :1 2 -1 4 d e r iv e s , and connects the Kumarbi
and Ullikummi myths w ith the Is a ia n passage. But he is confused in
the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f H e le l. Cf. McKay, " H e l e l , " p. 463, n. 1.
Î s a i a h , p. 311. D e litz s c h a ls o mentions th a t among the

Semites the morning s ta r is p e rs o n ifie d as a female. According to
W. Baumgartner ( I s r a e l i t i s c h - G r i e c h i s c h e ," p. 1 5 7 ), 0. Gruppe in
the 1880s was also discussing the s i m i l a r i t i e s between Isa 1 4 :1 2 -1 4 ,
and the Greek myth o f Phaeton.
4
J e s a ia , p. 136. Cf. also Gunkel , Schopfung and Chaos,
p. 134.
^ Jesaia, p. 119; c f . also Grey Hubert S kip w ith , "The Lord

o f Heaven," JQR 19 (1 9 0 7 ):7 0 2 .
78
a stral phenomenon; but he i d e n t i f i e d the s ta r with Mercury. U n til
the middle o f the tw e n tie th century scholars have paid l i t t l e
a t t e n t i o n to the equation H e le l-P h a e to n . G re lo t, however, was
one who made a more d e t a ile d study o f Phaeton's role in the Greek
te x ts .^
2
The fi g u r e o f Phaeton in Greek mythology does not have a
3 4
c le a r i d e n t i t y . His genealogy is confused, and his s to r y is
presented in several v a r ia n ts . Among the more re le v a n t Greek te x ts
examined by G re lo t we f in d :
1. Odyssey 2 3 .2 4 6 .^ — Phaeton is presented as one o f the
c o lts th a t bear the c h a r io t o f the dawn.^
2. Theoqony 986—91 - ^— Hesiod presents Phaeton here as a
god, a strong son o f Eos and Cephalus, whom— in his youth— "Aphrodite
l u I s a ie 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ," pp. 2 5-32.

2
= "the s h i n i n g . ” For sources on Phaeton, see
" f a Thesaur us Graecae Linguae, 1954, 9:573-74; and
A Greek-English Lexicon (1 9 6 8 ), p. 1911. Ovid ( Metamorphoses,
2 .1 -4 0 0 , [ t r a n s . Frank Justus M i l l e r , LCL, pp. 6 0 -8 9 ]) o f f e r s a
more d e ta ile d account of a Phaeton myth or fa b le .
^See “Phaeton," D i c t i o n a ir e de la mythologie grecque e t

romaine (1 9 5 1 ), pp. 364-65, f o r the p l u r a l i t y of Phaeton’ s i d e n t i t y .
Âccording to Hesiod ( Theoqony 986-91 [tr a n s . H. G. Evelyn-

W hite, LCL, pp. 1 5 3 ] ) , Phaeton is son o f Eos and Cephalus; according
to Ovid ( i b i d . , 2 . I f f . ) , son o f A pollo (H e lio s ) and Clymene.
^Horner, Odyssey ( t r a n s . A. T. Murray, LCL, 2 : 2 9 1 ) .
^23.246 •'■auiov -tau Jac'covi . t .-.5 tja : 1. I y c j c ..

G re lo t ( " I s a i e 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ," pp. 2 5 -3 2 ) in examining th is and other
Greek te x ts has demonstrated— d e s p ite the nuances in using the
term Phaeton— th a t the term is a r a th e r common e p i t h e t f o r the
a s t r a l d e i t i e s , and th a t Lampon and Phaeton are the pla nets
Mercury and Venus.
^Hesiod, Theoqony, p. 153.
79
seized and made a keeper o f her shrine by n i g h t , a d iv in e s p i r i t . " ^
3. A Greek story o f another Phaeton, who is described as
son o f Apollo (H e lio s ) and the nymph Clymene. Mention of him appears
2 3
in several a n cie n t w r i t e r s , but Ovid supplied us w ith the most
d e ta i1s . ^
One day Phaeton had a dispute with Epaphus, son of Zeus and
Io , who scoffed a t the idea o f Phaeton s o r i g i n . He complained to
his mother who sent him to Helios to ask info rm a tio n concerning his
d iv in e b i r t h . Helios confirmed th a t he was his f a t h e r , and Phaeton
made Helios promise to prove before the eyes o f the gods th a t he
P. Mazon ( c f . G r e l o t , " Is a ie 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ," pp. 28-30 comments on

th is passage based on the co n te xt— th a t the d e s c r ip tio n of Phaeton
as a "genie Nocturne” i d e n t i f i e s him as the evening S ta r, Venus.
G relot supports him. A f t e r examining the quoted te x ts and the mean
ing o f the words Phaeton, Eosphoros, Esperos, Phosforos, and
L u c i f e r , G r e lo t a rriv e s a t the pro v isio n a l conclusion that
"Helel f i l s de Sahar e s t le meme personnage mythique que
Phaeton f i l s de'E&s. Sur ce p o in t, ou bien le mythe grec
depend du modele phenicien connu de I ' a u t e u r d ' I s . XIV, ou
bien tous les deux remontent a un m§me p ro to ty p e . Le personnage
en question n 'e s t a u tre que 1 'a s tr e du matin p e rs o n n ifie :
E3sphoros-Phosphoros. De ce f a i t , les tra d u c tio n s d ' I s . XIV 12
dans les LXX (c^cpocos) e t la Vulgate ( L u c i f e r ) sont e x c e lle n t e s ,
e t la paraphrase du Targum e s t bien dans le lig n e du te x te
o r i g i n a l " (p . 30).
^ A r i s t o t l e Meteoroloqica 1 .8 .2 ( t r a n s . H. D. P. Lee, LCL,

p. 59) ". . . Some say t h a t the M ilk y Way is the path taken by one
o f the s ta rs a t the time o f the legendary f a l l o f Phaeton." Diodorus
of S i c i l y , H is to ry 523 .2-3 ( t r a n s . C. A. O ld f a t h e r , LCL, 3 :1 5 8 -6 1 );
Diodorus presents a comprehensive account o f the s to ry . Horace
Odes 4 .1 1 .2 5 ( t r a n s . C. E. B enett, LCL, p. 329) says th a t the
"scorched Phaeton serves as a warning to ambitious hopes. . . " .
Cicero De Natura Deorum 3.31 ( t r a n s . H. Rackham, LCL, p. 363).
Lucretius De Rerum Natura 5.395-405 ( t r a n s . W. H. D. Rouse, LCL,
pp. 3 67-6 9 T
^Metamorphoses 2 :1 -4 0 0 .
^Concerning th is recension, G relot says ( " I s a i e 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ,"

p. 31) "Assurement dans c e t te recension, le mythe s 'e s t degrade en
fa b le e t son i n s p ir a tio n o r i g i n e l l e e s t d i f f i c i l e a re tro u v er
d e r r ie r e les excroissances d ’ une imagination decadente."
was his son. A f t e r Helios promised, Phaeton demanded permission to
d rive the sun's c h a rio t f o r one day. Helios t r i e d to dissuade the
boy, showing him the dangers o f such an e n t e r p r is e , but i t was in
v ain . Because o f his o a th , H elio s granted permission.
The youth took the c h a r i o t and drove i t . When the steeds
perceived th a t they were being driven by d i f f e r e n t and weaker hands,
they rushed headlong and l e f t the tra v e le d road, going w ild ly through
space. Phaeton looked down upon the earth and was shaken with t e r r o r
The horses, now u n re s tra in e d , went up and down, almost touching the
stars a t one extreme and the e a r th a t the o t h e r . As a re s u lt the
r i v e r s o f the e a rth began to dry up, and the s o il to burn. Seeing
the danger, Zeus struck Phaeton w ith a thund erb o lt throwing him
in to the waters o f the Eridanns r i v e r , which quenched his burning
body. His s i s t e r s , as they were lamenting his f a t e , were turned
in to poplar tre e s on the banks o f the r i v e r .
The f i r s t recension o f Phaeton's s to ry a t t r i b u t e s to him a
d i f f e r e n t genealogy than the one presented in the Theoqony. In the
former, Phaeton is son o f H elio s and Clymene; the heros are semi-gods
and the account is a kind o f m o ra liz in g f a b l e . In the Theoqony,
Phaeton is a god, son o f Eos and Cephalus, and the account is a
cosmogony. Although the a s s o c ia tio n w ith the c h a r i o t of the sun
(and o f the dawn) remains, as says G re lo t,^ the f ig u r e of Phaeton-
Eosphoros has been divided in two: (1 ) a s t a r of the morning,
L u c i f e r , who is r e la te d to the dawn; and ( 2 ) an impoverished and
imprudent god whose ambition is explained through his solar
1“ Is a i e 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ," pp. 31-32.

2
Ovid, Metamorpnoses, 2 .1 1 1 -1 5 .
81
filia tio n .'' Thus Phaeton son o f the sun seems an a va ta r of Phaeton
son of the dawn.
A f t e r examining these Greek te x ts which introduce us to
Phaeton, we recognize attached to Helel-Ben Shahar o f Isa 14:12 -1 5 ,
a s i m i l a r m o tif o f the ascending and f a l l i n g which was attached to

?
Phaeton Son o f Eos. Both also seems to bear a r e la tio n s h ip to the
Venus S ta r."' G re lo t has helped us to understand the f a c t that
although the Phaeton term is an e p i t h e t applied to several a s tra l
bodies such as the sun, the moon, e t c . , i t r e la t e s most d i r e c t l y to

4
the Venus S ta r. Although the prophet seems to use an a s tra l
5
phenomenon — which was used by the pagan myth— to i l l u s t r a t e the
fa ll o f the f ig u r e in his lament, we fin d some d iffe r e n c e s between
the two s to rie s which m i l i t a t e a g ain s t i d e n t i f y i n g the mythic
Phaeton with the Is a ia n fi g u r e as G re lo t and McKay advocate.^
Let us consider some o f these points :
'ib id ., 1 .7 4 8 -7 6 .
^With G r e lo t ( " I s a i e 1 4 : 1 2 -1 5 ," p. 3 2 ) , and Duhm, J e s a ia ,

p. 119.
^Duhm had m istak e nly i d e n t i f i e d the myth w ith Mercury.
4,1 Is a ie 1 4 : 1 2 -1 5 ," pp. 24-30.
Âgainst McKay, " H e l e l , " pp. 455-57.
^ I b i d . , pp. 455-60. McKay t r i e s in his a r t i c l e to demon

s t r a t e th a t although m t ' appears used in the 0T t r a n s la t io n as a
n a tu ra l phenomenon, i t appears in the MT most o f the time accompanied
by a c t iv e verbs— and never p r e fix e d by temporal p re p o s itio n and oes-
c r i p t i v e phrases which express the time element— which would in d ic a te
th a t -rrrvw as a personalized being. He also i d e n t i f i e s as an
a n cie n t female d e i t y , a dawn-goddess. A f t e r a sequence o f compari
sons o f pagan d e i t i e s , McKay a r r iv e s a t the conclusion th a t G relot
is c o r r e c t in equating Helel and Phaeton and proceeds to trace some
steps by which he thinks the Greek myth became changed to appear as
i t does in Isa 1 4 :12 -1 5 ( i b i d . , pp. 4 6 3 -6 4 ).
1. There is a d iffe r e n c e in gender among the parent d e i t i e s
Shahar is a male ged while Eos is a goddess.
2. The motive fo r Phaeton ascending in to heaven in the
sun's c h a r io t is to confirm his o r i g i n , and a f t e r his attempt he
was thrown down from heaven. The I s a i a n ic f ig u r e wanted to ascend
in to heaven to be enthroned in the mount o f assembly and to make
h im se lf l i k e the Most High. There is an attempt to usurp the throne
o f the Most High God; somebody is tr y i n g to supplant a god. This
does not occur in the case o f Phaeton.
3. The context o f the Isaian account is not thesame as
the one in the Greek myth e i t h e r . Although I s a ia h 's poem uses
q u it e a number o f images, i t has i t s own i n t e g r i t y and is f a r from
having the same nature as the Greek f a b l e . I n s u f f i c i e n t elements
are present to e s t a b lis h an organic connection between the s to ry
in Isa ia h and th a t in Phaeton's myth. And even i f some o f the
symbols were derived from a common source, i t s t i l l would be
necessary to ask i f the meaning— in a new c o n te xt— is the same or
d i f f e r e n t from the o th e r .
U q a ritic
2
Gunkel was the f i r s t scholar to suggest (1895) th a t we
might have in Isa 14 some m a te ria l o f Phoenician o r i g i n . In 1912
G. B. Gray^ mentioned Phoenicia with c e r t a i n re se rv e. I t was a f t e r
the Ras-Shamra d is c o v e rie s th a t the view th a t Isa 14:12-15 had been
^Despite McKay's ( i b i d . , pp. 456-54) e f f o r t to j u s t i f y the

d if f e r e n c e o f gender o f these two f i g u r e s , the d iffe r e n c e remains.
^Schopfund und Chaos, p. 134. Îs a ia h I-X X XIX , p. 255.
83
ins p ire d by U g a r itic mythology flo u ris h e d . In 1932 A lb rig h t sug
gested, in view of the s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y to the s t y le o f a
Canaanite e p ic , that the passage (vss. 13-15) was a quotation of
the Baal E p ic . 1 De Vaux admits th a t Isaiah is not a te x t p a r a l l e l to

the Ras-Shamra m a t e r i a l , but a ffirm s th a t there are points o f
?
contact between the two bodies o f m a te r ia l. In his a r t i c l e on
Ps 82^ Morgenstern pointed out th a t the o r i g i n a l myth fo r the
m a te ria l o f Isa 14:12-15 and other passages in the OT came from
the Northern Semites. Thus from the 1930s onwards the idea th a t
Canaanite m a te ria l i s behind our passage became the view of most

4
scholars. G relot t r i e d to reconstruct the myth by drawing
e s p e c ia lly upon Greek and U g a r i t i c m a te r ia ls . Based on the root
and meaning o f the proper names in d i f f e r e n t source m a te ria ls in
t h e i r re s p e c tiv e languages,^ in the hybris am bition and immoderate
a t t i t u d e motives of the personages, he a r r iv e d a t the conclusion
th a t the b i b l i c a l prophet im ita te d a prototype o f a Phoenician
^'The North non-Canaanite Epic o f 'A l'e y a n Ba'al and Mot,"

JPOS 12 (1 9 3 2 ):1 9 2 . Cf. JPOS 14 (1 9 3 4 ):1 5 6 , where A lb rig h t says
t h a t the Canaanite myth is quoted "almost v e rb a tim ." Cf. also
A l b r i g h t , Archaeology and the Religion o f Is r a e l (B altim ore: Johns
Hopkins U n iv e r s ity Press, 1 942), p. 84, where 'A shtar is r e la te d
to H e le l; A lb r ig h t held the same view in 1968 ( Yahweh and the Gods
of Canaan, JLCR V II [London: Athlone Press ( U n iv e r s it y of London),
1968], pp. 2 0 1 -2 ); and M i l l e r , The Divine W a r r i o r , p. 23.
^"Les T e x te s , ' 1 p. 547.
^"The Mythological Background," p. 112.
4 Cf. Q u e ll, "Jesaja 14:1-23," p. 156; G r e l o t , " Is a ie 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ,"

p p . 19-48; W. H. Schmidt, Koniqtum G o tte s , p. 35; Schmidt thinks th a t
in Isa i 4 there is a fusion o f d i f f e r e n t kinds o f mythical streams;
M ullen, The Assembly, p. 148, c a lls the passage a "hig h ly Canaanized
di r g e . “
^Phaeton, Eosphoros, ' A t t a r , H e l e l , being equated to the

m o rn in g -s ta r, or the planet Venus.
84
myth. He added t h a t , although i t is found in v a r i a n t forms, the
same myth appears in the Greek, U g a r i t i c , and I s r a e l i t e lite ra tu re . 3

2
There seems to be l i t t l e doubt among the scholars tha t
many terms in the Isaian passage are very s i m i l a r to the U g a r itic
m a te ria l and demonstrate points o f c o n ta c t. This they also expect
since I s r a e l occupied the land o f the Canaanites and the two c u ltu re s
were close in several aspects. But beyond the in d iv id u a l elements,
i t has been a ffirm e d that Isa 14:12-15 is a quotation of the "Ashtar
passages1' in the Baal Epic t e x t s . " 3 We now turn to an examination o f
those t e x t s .
Ashtar t e x t s . The most im portant U g a r i t i c t e x t to give
inform ation about the mythic s to ry o f Ashtar is the one belonging

4
to the c a l l e d "Ba'al and Anath1' c y c le . A f t e r the death o f Baal,
G r e lo t , ''Is a ie 1 4 : 1 2 -1 5 ," pp. 24-27. Oldenburg, "Above

the S ta rs o f E l , 1’ pp. 199-200, presented some inform ation about
'A t t a r in South A rabia, but a r r iv e d a t the conclusion th a t the
'A t t a r Myth is not behind Isa 14. On the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of 'A t t a r
and i t s r e l a t i o n to ' A t t r o f the Ras-Shamra t e x t s , see D i t l e f
N ie ls e n , Ras Schamra Mytholoqie und b ib lis c h e Theoloqie AKM 21/4
(L e ip z ig : Deutsche Morgenlandische G e s e lls c h a f t, 1 93 6 ), pp. 53-59.
John Gray, "The Desert God ' A t t r in the L i t e r a t u r e and Religion o f
Canaan," JNES 8 (1 9 4 9 ):7 2 -8 3 ; The Legacy of Canaan, pp. 169-70.
^De Vaux, "Les T e xtes ," pp. 547-55; G r e l o t , " Is a ie 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ,"

pp. 1 9 -2 4 ; J. Gray, The Legacy, pp. 277-8; Gowan, p. 50.
A l b r i g h t , "The Old Testament," p. 30; Archaeology and the

R e l ig io n , pp. 84, 8 6 . Cf. a ls o G r e l o t , " Is a ie 1 4 : 1 2 -1 5 ," pp. 33-37.
4CTA 1:6.1 40-65; published i n i t i a l l y by Charles V iro lle a u d

("La l u t t e de Mot f i l s des dieux d ' A l e i n , f i l s de B a a l," Syria 12
[1 9 3 1 ] : 1 9 3 - 2 4 4 ) . The standard c r i t i c a l e d itio n was published by
Andree Herdner, Corpus des t a b l e t t e s en cuneiform a lp h ab e tiq u e s ,
MRS 10, 2 v o ls . (P a r is : Imprimerie N a tio n a le , L i b r a i r i e O r i e n t a l i s t e
Paul Geuthner, 1963), pp. 3 7 -4 4 . The present w r i t e r uses the
t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n by C. Gordon ( U g a r i t i c Handbook, AnOr 25 [Rome:
P o n tific iu m In s titu tu m , 1 94 7 ], pp. 1 3 7 -3 8 ), and the English
t r a n s la t i o n by Harold L. Ginsberg in ANER, pp. 139-40.
85
his s i s t e r Anath came back to E l 's dw elling and,
(40) She l i f t s up her voice and c rie s :

"Now l e t Asherah r e j o i c e and her sons,
Elath and the band o f her kinsmen;
For dead is Puissant Baal J
Perished the P r in c e , Lord o f E a rth ."
Loudly El doth c ry
To Lady Asherah o f the Sea:
(45) "Hark, Lady A[sherah o f the S]ea, ~
Give one o f thy s[ons] I ' l l make k in g ."
Quoth Lady Asherah o f the Sea:
"Why, l e t ' s make Y a d i ' Yalhan ( y d ‘ y lb n ) king."
Answered Kindly One El Benign:
(50) Too weakly . 4 "He c a n ' t race with Baal,
Throw j a v ' l i n w ith Dagon's Son G lory-Crown ! 11:3
Replied Lady Asherah of the Sea:
"W ell, l e t ' s make i t Ashtar the Ty ran t;
(55) Let Ashtar the T y ra n t be k in g ." —
Straightway Ashtar the Tyrant ,
Goes up to the Fastness of Zaphon
(And s its on Baal P uissant's throne.
(But) his f e e t reach not down to the f o o t s t o o l ,
(60) Nor his head reaches up to the to p .^
1 ' A1' iyn b ' l , c f . A l b r i g h t , Archaeology and the R e lig io n ,

p. 195, n. 11.
See CTA, p. 39, n. 6 , f o r commentaries on the m u tila tio n

o f th is l i n e , and b ib lio g ra p h y .
3 C. Gordon ( U g a r itic L i t e r a t u r e : A Comprehensive Translation

o f the P o etic and Prose Texts SPIB 98 [Rome: P o n tific iu m Institu tu m
B iblicum , 1947J, p. 44) has "one who knows how to govern"; see G relo t
( “ Is a i e 1 4 : 1 2 -1 5 ," p. 36, n. 2) f o r more comments on these terms.
4dq anm— "One fe e b le o f frame" (Gordon); " P e t i t encore"

(G re lo t).
^Ktmsm— Gordon has "when the p a rle y is fin is h e d . . . "

Cf. G re lo t ( " I s a i e 1 4 -1 2 -1 5 ," p. 36, n. 4 ).
® 'ttr ' r z — ". . . the t e r r i b l e " (Gordon); " 1 ' arrogant"

(G re lo t).
^Sr r t Spn— "the heights . . . " (Gordon); Pope (p . 103),

follo w s Ginsberg; G relot renders i t "les Sommets . . . " Cf. Langhe,
"Les T e x ts ," 2:240. Sapan was B a a l's holy mountain, and conversely he
was the god o f the mountain Sapan. C f. Kapelrud, B a a l, pp. 57-58.
g
apsh--see Pope, p. 72, f o r discussion o f t h i s term.
86
So Ashtar the Tyrant declares:

I ' l l not reign in Zaphon's Fastness ! 11
Down goes Ashtar the Tyrant,
Down from the throne of Baal Puissant,
(6 5 ) And reigns^ in E l 's E a r t h , 2 a l l o f i t .
When we compare th is t e x t w ith the Is a ia n ic passage we perceive th a t
some elements could be presented, in both passages, which have some
degree o f s i m i l a r i t y :
3 4
1. Ashtar is c a lle d a t y r a n t . Helel may also be r e fe r r e d
5
to w ith a s im ila r term (u’ i j ) .
2. Ashtar aspires to be king (" t o s i t on . . . th ro n e " ),
to have supremacy.^ Helel aspire s “to set his throne on high . " 7
Q
3. Ashtar in pursuing his a s p ir a tio n s "goes up to the f a s t -
9 10
ness o f Zaphon. Helel aspired to be enthroned "in the f a r n o r th ."
^Grelot tr a n s la te s wymlk " I I va regner. . . ," expressing

the in te n tio n of Ashtar.
2
G relo t p re fe rs "la t e r r e du dieu" ( r e f e r r i n g to Baal,
"Lord of the e arth" [ l i n e 1 5 ] ) .
■^For i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Ashtar w ith Venus, see N ie ls e n , Ras

Schamra M ytholoqie, p. 58; c f . A. Caquot, "Le Dieu ‘ A th ta r e t les
te x te s de Ras Shamra," S yria 35 (1 9 5 8 ):4 8 —51 ; J. Gray, The Legacy,
pp. 170-78; "The Desert God," pp. 73-83.
4 |t t r ' r z , CTA 1 : 6 . 1 . 5 4 - 5 6 , 62; ET in ANET3 , p. 140.
5Isa 1 4 : 4 - 6 , 12, 16-17. 5CTA 1 : 6 . 1 . 5 5 , 6 8 , 64. 7 Isa 14:13.
^ G relot ( " I s a i e 1 4 : 1 2 -1 5 ," p. 37) disagrees w ith Gordon and

Ginsberg in rendering the 1_ as a negative p a r t i c l e la^ ( i n A s h ta r's
statement: lamlk b s r r t spn) , and proposes i t to be the p a r t i c l e
o f a f f i r m a t i o n 1u (UH 18:10~52 and 1053); t h i s could be a f a i r p o s si
b i l i t y , despite the circumstances presented in lin e s 31-32.
g
S r r t spn— CTA 1 : 6 . 1 . 5 7 , 62. For i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Zaphan
g e o g ra p h ic a lly and in Canaanite l i t e r a t u r e , see C L E is s fe ld t, Baal
Zaphon, Zeus Kasios und der Durchzug der I s r a e l i t e n durchs Meer
(H a le : Max Niemeyer V e r la g , 1 932), pp. 1 -6 5 . E is s fe ld t id e n tifie d
Ba'al Saphon with Southern Casius. A lb r ig h t ("The Old Testament,"
p. 31, n. 8 8 ) and Dahood ( Psalms, 1:290) have stated t h a t the expression
7 T 3 s '’ r o -1.'’ is s e m a n tic a lly e q u iv a le n t to the U g a r i t i c S r r t Spn.
Mullen (p . 149) c a l l s our a t t e n t i o n to the i n t e r e s t i n g fa c t th a t
"no t r a d i t i o n w ith in Canaanite mythology associates the assembly
1 2
4. El appears three times in the t e x t we are examining.
In th is t e x t , as in the Ras-Shamra m a te ria l in g e n e r a l, he is the
supreme god o f the U g a r i t i c pantheon.^ The Is a i a n ic passage also

4
has the term El once.
But i f we have s i m i l a r i t i e s between these two t e x t s , we
fin d also s t r i k i n g d iffe r e n c e s :
1. Ashtar s t r i v e s — i t seems by legal means’’ — to replace Baal
on his^ throne which became vacant by his death. Helel is not
s t r i v i n g to replace a god who d ie d , but is t r y in g to supercede a l l
w ith Ba‘1 or his mountain, and 'El lik e w is e is never associated

w ith Sapan." C f. P. M. F. A bel, Ggoqraphie de la P a l e s t i n e , 2 v o ls .
( P a r is : J. Gabalda e t C ie , 1 9 3 3 -3 8 ), 1:3 85 -8 6 ; 2:260; de Langhe,
Les te x te s 2 :2 17 -4 4 .
' ^ 7 1 3 'i — Isa 14:13. This expression appears also

in Ps 4 8 :3 , and is considered as a reference to the U g a r it ic m a te ria l
c f . G aster, Thespis (1 9 5 0 ), p. 8 6 ; Dahood, Psalms 1:2 89 -9 0 . See
de Langhe, Les Textes 2 :2 3 9 -4 2 , f o r suggestions on the meaning of
the expression. We discuss t h i s in d e t a il in the section on the
b ib lic a l p a r a lle ls .
V o r possible uses o f El as a proper name in the B ib le , see

Cross, Canaanite Myth, pp. 44-46.
2Lines 16, 22, 37.
^Cf. Dussaud, Les Descouverts de Ras Shamra ( U g a r it ) e t

I'A n c ie n Testament (P a r is : Paul Geuthner, 1 9 4 1 ), pp. 91-97; Otto
E i s s f e l d t , El im u q a ritis c h e n Pantheon ( B e r l i n : Akademie Veralg,
1951); Pope, El_, pp. 1-1 5; Kapelrud, The Ras-Shamra D is c o v e rie s ,
pp. 56—62.
4
Isa 14:13. The name o f a god appears once more in the poem
(vs. 5 ) , which some scholars t h i n k , due to the p o e tic s tru c tu re and
the nature o f the passage, is not o r i g i n a l to the lament c f . Cobb,
p. 22; W ildberger, pp. 533-34, 544; but Yahweh is mentioned.
^See Kapelrud, B a a l, pp. 98-100; Pope, El_, pp. 27-32; Gray,

Legacy, pp. 154-69; Michael C. Astour, H e lle n o s e m itic a (Leiden:
E. J. B r i l l , 1 965), p. 270, n. 1; Gowan, p. 60.
®For B a a l's place in the pantheon, his c h a ra c te r and ta s k,

see Kapelrud, B a a l, pp. 8 6-93 .
88
other "s ta rs of El" and to be " l i k e the most high."^ Thus in
U g a rit the issue is the r u le rs h ip o f B aal, which is not given to

2
Ashtar, but in Is a ia h the issue is about the r u le r s h ip o f E l.
2. The goddesses Anath and Asherah are in te rm e d ia rie s
between Ashtar and E l ; and t h e i r pretensions w ith re ference to
Ashtar a re presented openly. Helel does not have any in te rm ed ia ry,
he t a l k s f o r h im s e lf, seemingly in a s e c re t way ( " i n his h e a r t ' ) . 9
3. Ashtar is not f i t to occupy the throne because "his
fe e t reach not down to the f o o t s t o o l , nor his head reaches up to
the to p . " 4 In the case o f Helel the reason is not e x p l i c i t l y
presented , 8 but i t seems th a t his a t t i t u d e o f s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y
and arrogance could be i d e n t i f i e d as a l i k e l y f a c t o r . 8
4. Ashtar comes down from the throne o f Baal and goes to
reign in E l ' s e a r t h . 7 Helel " is brought down to Sheol, to the depths

Q
of the p i t . " No ru le r s h ip is involved a f t e r his f a l l .
In his e f f o r t s to i d e n t i f y Ashtar with Phaeton, and sub-

g
sequently w ith H e l e l , G relot presents another fragment o f the
Îsa 14:14: ] l 1 V ;. R. Dussaud ( Les Decouverts de Ras

Shamra, p. 170) th in k s the word is a tte s te d in the Ras Shamra
m a t e r ia ls ; Gordon does not inc lude the term in his U g a r i t i c Handbook;
Pope (□ _ , pp. 55, 58) says th a t Elyon is not mentioned, but admits
th a t the e p i t h e t ’ 1y could “be a reminiscence o f Elyon in the e xtant
U g a ritic te x ts ." The term Elyon appears— joined to El — in the
Sujin i n s c r i p t i o n . Cf. S. R on ze v alle , "Fragments d ‘ i n s c r ip tio n s
arameennes des environs d 'A le p ," MUSJ 15 (1 9 3 1 ):2 3 5 - 6 0 . Gaster,
Thespis, p. 8 6 , advocates th a t " 'e ly o n in th is passage need not mean
' the most high' but merely'one o f the upper g o d s '."
^Cf. F r i t z S t o lz , p. 211.
9 Isa 1 4:13. 4l i n e s 3 1-32 . 8Isa 1 4 : .1 3 -1 5 .
^G relot ( " I s a i e 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ," p. 38) suggests t h a t the language

of the b i b l i c a l t e x t r e la te d to Helel would be in a good s it u a t io n
a t the moment o f the enthronement.
7Lines 35-37. 8 Isa 1 4:15. 9 Pp. 34-35.
89
Baal poems^— where El requests t h a t Kothar-wa-kha [ s i s ] b u ild a
palace f o r his f a v o r i t e c h ild re n Yamm and Nahar. Ashtar shows his
d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th a t d ecision and presents his complaints.
This shows A s h ta r's ambition, his impetuous n a tu re , and his
u n r e c e p t i v i t y to advice. This t e x t also shows a d iv in e s o c ie ty f u l l
o f r i v a l r y and in te r n a l d is p u te s. But the t e x t contains c r u c ia l

2
lacunae, e s p e c i a l l y where Ashtar was supposed to t a l k . His argu
ment concerning the r i v a l r y among the gods has small w eig h t, since
th is i s a common s it u a t io n in many mythical m a t e r ia ls . I t pervades
almost the whole o f U g a r itic mythology and i t would be d i f f i c u l t to
present only the te x ts r e la te d to Ashtar as having th a t i d e n t i f y i n g
c h a r a c te r i s t i c . ^
Another t e x t which has been used to i d e n t i f y the passage in
Is a ia h w ith the U g a r i t i c m a te ria l is the poem about the b i r t h of

4
Dawn and Dusk o r the b i r t h o f the gracious and b e a u t if u l gods.
v 5 ^ 6
This brings the term Sfcir (Dawn) amongside Sim (Sunset) as
^Gordon, UH, Text 1 2 9 :1 -2 4 ; ANET3, p. 129.
2Lines 18-19.
^G relot ( " I s a i e 1 4 : 1 2 - 1 5 ," pp. 33-35) admits the precarious

s i t u a t i o n o f t h i s argument drawn from the t e x t , and the general
c h a r a c te r o f the p a r a lle lis m he has t r i e d to demonstrate.
^ F i r s t published by Ch. V i r o ll e a u d , "La Naissance des dieux

g racieux e t beaux," Syria 14 ( 1 0 3 3 ) :1 28—51. See Herdner, CTA, p. 97
f o r b ib lio g r a p h y and other e d i t i o n s o f the t e x t . The main t r a n s
l a t i o n was done by Gordon, UL, pp. 58-62.
^See f o r the occurrences o f the term in a n c ie n t l i t e r a t u r e ,

and the th e s is th a t these two fi g u r e s were a s t r a l d e i t i e s , G aster,
T h e s p is , pp. 228-31.
^ C l i f f o r d (p. 165) th in k s th a t "they are a p p a re n tly the

hypostases o f Ashtar as Venus and "another in d ic a tio n o f the sin g le
s to ry u l t i m a t e l y behind both Is a ia h 14 and CTA 6 . 1 . "
90
a name f o r a god who is a son of E l , probably through his w ife
Asherah. Based on the in fo rm a tio n given in t h i s t e x t and o thers,
G relot has t r i e d to s o lve the problem of the genealogy o f Ashtar
in a way th a t would f i t it to the ones in the b i b l i c a l and greek
m a te ria lJ by advocating th a t Ashtar could be i d e n t i f i e d as son
o f the dawn. Although he sometimes places an o v e r - r e l i a n c e upon
the mythological in fo rm a tio n — from which he him se lf recognizes we
should not demand p e r fe c t coherence or im m u ta b ility in the m atter
o f genealogy - - t h e r e is no g re a t problem in accepting the ra c t
t h a t Ashtar came to be i d e n t i f i e d w ith Phaeton and, subsequently,
w ith Venus, the morning s t a r . However, the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the
f ig u r e found in Isa 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 — set in a sin gle c o n te xt f r e e o f so
many names and the complicated s it u a t io n so fre q u e n t in the U g a r itic
m a t e r i a l — w ith any one o f the fig u re s of the U g a r i t i c mythology— is a
task which has not y e t been s u c c e s s fu lly accomplished.
Some in d iv id u a l U g a r i t i c mythical expressions and the alleged
p a r a l l e l s in Isaiah 14. Terms o r expressions such as " H e l e l , " "the
stars o f E l , " "the mount o f assembly," and "above the heights of the
clouds" have been presented 2 as mythological references which make
the Isa ia n passage dependent upon the Phoenician model:
% . 40-42. 2 Ib id ., p. 40.
2 0e Vaux, "Les T e x te s ," pp. 547-50; A l b r i g h t , “The Old

Testament," pp. 30-31.
91
Isaiah Ras Shamra
"Helel Son o f the Dawn", "Dauqhters o f Shouting" (Gordon) ,

(-. - 7 3 7 ■> n ) "Daughters of Joyful noise" (Ginsberg)
( K t r t . b n t . h l 1 . s nnt ) 4
"The Stars of El'' "The s ta rs [ ] " (Gordon)^

(> K —1 2 D T D) (w lkbkbm .kn[-] )7
g
"The Mount o f Assembly" "Convocation o f Assembly" (Gordon)
( i y i a~ i n )8 "Assembled Body" ( G i n s b e r g ) 3 8
(ph r.m ^ll
J3
"Above the. heights o f t h e , ? "Rider o f the Clouds,
Clouds," ( n v ■> n a i ) ^ (r k b . cr p t ) 34
^Vs. 13. ^ U g a r itic L i t e r a t u r e , pp. 63, 64, 87, 8 8 .
3 ANET3 , p. 150.
4CTA 1 : 1 7 . 2 . 2 7 - 4 0 ; CTA 1 : 2 4 . 5 - 6 , 4 0 -4 2 . Cf. de Vaux, "Les

Te xtes ," p. 546. The term H ll (UH, 18, 598) is found in the U g a r i t i c
pantheon as the f a t h e r o f the goddess K t r t , and the term always appears
in the stereotyped formula K t r t . b n t . h l l . s n n t . On the meaning o f the
term, see G r e lo t, " I s a i e 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ," p. 22, n. 1; see also Ackerman
(pp. 4 1 3 -1 6 ), where he em phasizes--although w ith o u t c e r t a i n t y — F. M.
Cross' suggestion t h a t bn Sim (CTA 1 : 1 . 2 3 . 2 , 22) could be an e p it h e t
o f the gods of Dawn and Dusk and could bear some r e la t i o n to Isa
1 4:12 -1 5 .
^Vs. 13. Pope (El_, p. 103) t r a n s la t e s "the highest s t a r s , "

in which he is follow ed by G. Fohrer ( J e s a ja , 1 :1 7 2 ).
^ U g a ritic L i t e r a t u r e , p. 61.
^CTA 1 : 2 3 . 1 . 5 4 . T. H. Gaster ("A Canaanite R itu a l Drama,

the Spring F e s tiv a l a t U g a r i t , " JAOS 6 6 [ 1 9 4 6 ]:5 4 ) and Rene Largement
(La naissance de I 'A u r o r e . Poeme Mytholoqique de Ras Shamra— U g a r i t ,
AL80 2/11 [Gembloux: J. Duculot, 1 9 4 9 ], p. 43) have wlkbkbm.kn[mj,
"and to the f i x [ e d ] s t a r s . "
^Vs. 13. ^ U g a r itic L i t e r a t u r e , pp. 13, 14; c f . UH 18, 1629.
ÂNET3 , p. 130. "Assembled body" = "The assembly o f the

gods," n. 6 .
11 CTA 1 : 2 . 1 . 1 4 , 20, 31. See Pope, El_, pp. 68-69 f o r d is

cussion on the " 1 1 " o f t h i s t e x t .
U g a r i t i c L i t e r a t u r e , pp. 15, 18, 19; ANET3 , pp. 132, 133, 137.

Kapelrud ( B a a l, p. 61) p re fe rs " D r iv e r o f the Clouds," and Dahood
(Psalms, 2:136) "The Mounter o f the Clouds." rkb. l r p t is a p oetic
92
Despite the scholars' e f f o r t s to i d e n t i f y H e le l w ith the U g a r itic
god HI 1 J we do not f in d the term connected w ith any myth th a t could

2
be o ffe r e d as a p a r a l l e l to the passage in Is a ia h .
Concerning the "Stars of E l , 1'^ the a lle g e d U g a ritic p a r a l l e l
t e x t has a lacuna which does not allow us to know what the t e x t once
s a i d , although the expression "stars sons o f El" would f i t the
c o ntext o f the myth. G re lo t suggests Job 3 8 : 7 , where the "morning
s ta r s " are in p a r a l l e l to the "sons o f E lohim ," as another a llu s io n
to t h i s m yth;4 but because of the interchange in use in the OT^
o f El and Yahweh to i d e n t i f y the tru e God, and the use, by Daniel
o f expressions such as "host of heaven" and "host of the sta rs" in
expression which is on ly used in p a r a lle lis m s (see Kapelrud, B a a l,

p. 6 1 ).
14CTA 1 : 2 . 4 . 8 ; 1 : 3 .2 . 4 0 ; 1 : 3 . 3 . 3 5 ; 1 : 4 . 3 . 1 1 : 1 :4 .5 .1 2 2 ;
1 :5 .2 .7 ; etc .
^Ch. V ir o lle a u d , "Hymne phenicien au dieu Nikal e t aux

deesses K o£ar6t," S yria 17 (1 9 3 6 ):214; de Vaux, "Les Textes," p. 546;
c f . G r e lo t , " Is a ie 1 4 : 1 2 -1 5 ," pp. 21-24.
2
The meaning o f the term is discussed in chapter 3.
^For El in the Semitic languages and in the OT, as well as

f o r a good b ib lio g r a p h y , see F. M. Cross, TDOT (Grand Rapids,
MI: Eerdmans, 1974), 1 :2 4 2 -6 1 ; Canaanite M yth, pp. 3-75. We deal
w ith th is term in more d e t a i l in the exegesis o f the Is a ia n ic passage
in chapter 3.
4" I s a i e 1 4 : 1 2 -1 5 ," p. 21; C l i f f o r d ( The Cosmic Mountain, p.

161) says t h a t "they ( s t a r s of E l) are to be i d e n t i f i e d with the mem
bers of the d iv in e assembly." A lb r ig h t ( Yahweh and the Gods, p. 202,
n. 69) i d e n t i f i e s the "s ta rs o f El" as the circumpolar northern s ta rs
which never set. Cf. also Cross, Canaanite Myth, p. 45.
^Cf. Otto E i s s f e l d t , "El and Yahweh," JSS 1 (1 9 5 6 ):2 5 -3 7;

Cross, Canaanite Myth, pp. 44-75. For b ib lio g r a p h y on the d i s
cussion o f the meaning and o rig in o f the name Yahweh, see Cross,
Canaanite Myth, p . 60, n . 1.
6Dan 8:10.
93
an I s r a e l i t e c o n te x t, i t is not necessary to th in k th a t the Is a ia n ic
expression "the stars of El" is an a llu s io n to the Canaanite myth.
The expression "the mount of assembly," which demands a
"d iv in e c ouncil" or "assembly o f gods," seems to be a "common
r e l i g i o u s motive in the c u ltu r e s of Egypt. Mesopotamia, Canaan,
Phoenicia and Is r a e l ." ^ There is evidence in the OT f o r a heavenly-
assembly or council presided over by God and composed o f created

2
beings, but I s r a e l ' s concept o f a d iv in e assembly— although i t had
some s i m i l a r i t y w ith the one o f the surrounding c u ltu r e s — was
u tiliz e d in d i f f e r e n t ways.^
Several scholars have studied the U g a r i t i c m aterial r e la te d

4
to the "sacred mountain," or "mount o f assembly," and R. C l i f f o r d
has made his research on the ancient Near Eastern r e lig io u s element
'M u lle n , p. 113; f o r discussion o f the d iv in e assembly and

I s r a e l i t e thought, see H. Wheeler Robinson, "The Council o f Yahweh,"
JTS 45 (1 9 4 4 ):1 5 1 - 5 7 ; I n s p ir a t i o n and Revelation in the Old Testament
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1 9 4 6 ), pp. 167-90; G. E. W right, The Old-
Testament a gains t I t s Environment SBT 2 (Chicago: Henry Regnery
C o ., 1 9 5 0 ), pp. 30-31. F. M. Cross, "The Council o f Yahweh in Second
Is a i a h , " JNES 12 (1 9 5 3 ):2 7 4 —77; Geo. Widengren, "E a rly Hebrew Myths
and T h e ir I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , " in Myth, R i t u a l , and Kingship, ed. S. H.
Hooke (Oxford: U n iv e r s ity P ress, 1 958), pp. 159-64; Gerald Cooke,
"The Sons o f (t h e ) G od(s)," ZAW 76 ( 1 9 6 4 ):2 2 -4 7 . P. D. M i l l e r , J r . ,
The D iv in e W arrior in E a rly I s r a e l HSM 5 (Cambridge: Harvard
U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 973), pp. 12-23; M ullen, pp. 113-84.
2
See E. G. W right, Old Testament, pp. 32-33 ; Robinson, "The
Council o f Yahweh," pp. 151 -5 7 ; M ullen, pp. 186-97.
^The assembly in the B ib le was composed o f angels, created

beings; w h ile in the neighboring c u ltu re s i t was formed by gods.
C f. M i l l e r , Divine W a r r io r , p. 66; C l i f f o r d , pp. 139-81.
4
See Herbert Schmid, "Jahwe und d ie K u l t t r a d i t i o n e n von
Jerusalem ," ZAW, NS 26 ( 1 9 5 5 ): 181 ;- Hans J. Kraus, Psalmen, 2 v o ls .
BKAT 15 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1 9 6 1 ), pp. 342-45. Kraus
contends th a t Isa 1 4:13-14 serves to e s t a b lis h the i d e n t i t y o f
Saphon w ith the place o f assembly o f the god's pantheon; c f . M ulle n ,
pp. 117-200.
94
o f “the Cosmic Mountain"' in Canaan and the OT. His conclusions
were th a t "mountains played an important r o le in the r e lig io u s
thought o f the a n c ie n t Near East o f the f i r s t and second m ille n n ia "

2
(B .C .); "the holy mountains held t h e i r sacredness from s p e c ific
b e lie fs . The mountain could be the meeting place o f the d iv in e
assembly"; "under the presidency o f E l , the high god, decisions were
made about d iv in e power which a ffe c te d the order and running of the
cosmos and the l i f e o f the in d iv id u a l b e l i e v e r " ; "the c o n f l i c t
evide nt in l i f e was a r e f l e c t i o n o f primal events on the mountain."^
The mountains were cosmic in these and oth e r senses.
I t was a ls o found th a t "elements o f the Canaanite t r a d i t i o n s
o f the mountains o f El have influenced I s r a e l i t e t r a d i t i o n s of Sinai
. . . where Yahweh issues His decrees, although the d iv in e assembly

4
plays no ro le in the Exodus t r a d i t i o n . " On Sinai Yahweh has His
t e n t — a copy o f His heavenly one— which mediates His presence to
His people. One must emphasize, however, the i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t th a t
a f t e r the I s r a e l i t e s l e f t Baal Zaphon5 (Gebel AtSqah), they go south
to S i n a i . 5 Could i t be a d e lib e r a t e c o n tra s t chosen by Yahweh?
B a a l's mountain Zaphon is a place o f combat in which issues
^See his d e f i n i t i o n s in The Cosmic Mountain, pp. 3, 7, 33,

97, 190.
^ Ib id . , p. 190.
^ C l i f f o r d , p. 191. For lo c a tio n o f E l ' s d w e llin g , see Cross,

Canaanite Myth, pp. 36-39.
^ C l i f f o r d , p. 191; see also pp. 107, 123, 180-81.
5Exod 1 4 :2 .
5 I am indebted to Or. W illia m Shea f o r t h i s o b s erv a tio n .
95
of l i f e and death are decided,^ and Mount Zion becomes the new
2
Zaphon.
A f t e r examining the U g a r i t i c and I s r a e l i t e m a te ria l on the
“D ivin e Council" and "Mount o f Assembly," we fin d th a t both sources
present the "assembly o f the gods (o r d iv in e b e in g s )." In U g a rit
the assembly is formed by gods presided over by E l, the head of the
U g a r i t i c pantheon; in Is ra e l Yahweh presides over the council
formed by a n g e ls .
The elements o f the t r a d i t i o n s o f the U g a r it ic mount of El —
where the god dw ells and where the assembly meets, and issues that
a f f e c t the universe are decided— and B a a l's mountain, Zaphon (a
combat place where issues o f l i f e and death are d e c id e d ), have
influenced the phraseology the I s r a e l i t e s employ in t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s
of Zion. In U g a r it and Is r a e l e a r t h l y holy mountains are connected
with the holy mountains in the heavenly sphere. A major d iffe r e n c e
here, however, is th a t El is fr ig h te n e d by the attacks from lesser
gods, and Baal has p e r io d ic a l d e fe a t on t h e i r mountains, but Yahweh
is never a f r a i d o r defeated on His holy mountain w ith o u t His per
sonal agreement. I t thus becomes a symbol o f the secure place.
Summarizing we would say t h a t th e re are s i m i l a r i t i e s and
d iffe r e n c e s between the two sources o f m a te ria l on the m a tte r th a t
lead us to b e l i e v e , with Cross,^ t h a t the r e lig io n o f Is r a e l is not
C l i f f o r d , pp. 97, 137 -7 0 , 192.
21 b id . , pp. 131-40, 1 5 3 -6 0 , 192.
^Canaanite Myth, p. v i i i ; Cross c r i t i c i z e s Yehezkel Kaufmann

( The R e lig io n o f I s r a e l , tr a n s . Moshe G r e e n b e r g [Chicago: U n iv e r s ity
Press, 1960J , p. 2) f o r i n s i s t i n g th a t I s r a e l i t e r e l i g i o n "was
a b s o lu te ly d i f f e r e n t from anything the pagan world e ve r knew,"
saying th a t his a t t i t u d e " v i o la t e s fundamental p o s tu la te s of
s c i e n t i f i c h i s t o r i c a l method."
96
an " is o la te d phenomenon, r a d i c a l l y or w holly discontinuous with i t s
environm ent." Although we agree to some e xten t w ith Kaufmann th a t
"fo re ig n elements did not play a s u b s t a n t i a l , c r e a tiv e ro le in the
form ation o f the popular culture"^ o f I s r a e l , we cannot avoid the
f a c t t h a t th e re are in the Hebrew t r a d i t i o n s mythical phraseology
which is found in other t r a d i t i o n a l sources, as, f o r example,
U g a ritic . Whether they "are common elements in myths and customs
o f d i f f e r e n t peoples due to common circumstances or something basic

2
to human n a tu r e ," or “are to be explained as the r e s u l t o f d i f
fusion from an o r ig in a l source,"^ we do not t o t a l l y know. On the
o th e r hand, as Gowan says, "to e s t a b lis h areas o f c u lt u r a l c o n t in u it y
is not n e c e s s a rily to determine the meaning o f the symbols involved

4
f o r the people who used them.
B a a l's e p i t h e t , " r i d e r o f the clouds,"^ appears several times
in U g a r i t i c l i t e r a t u r e ^ and r e c a l l s to us the expression "heights o f
1 2
The Relig ion of I s r a e l , p. 3. Gowan, p. 53.
^ I b i d . ; Gowan p re fe rs the former view, although he sees an

e f f e c t i v e d i f f u s i o n w ith in the Middle East.
41b i d .
^Baal probably has t h i s e p i t h e t because in being a f e r t i l i t y

god, the ra in -g o d , he is commadned to go down to the e a rth and take
along wind, clouds, and storm. Says Kapelrud ( B a a l, p. 9 4 ) , "Rain,
storm and clouds were no a cc id e n ta l or occasional a t t r i b u t e s o f B aal.
They were parts o f his whole c h a ra c te r and to such an e xten t th a t he
had to take them w ith him even when he was obliged to descend in to
the e a r t h . The close connection o f the r a in w ith Baal could give i t
i t s p o e tic a l name: the ra in o f the Rider o f Clouds, rbb. rkb ' r p t ,
mentioned p a r a l l e l w ith the dew o f heaven and the f a t of earth [ t ] l .
smm. 5mn. a r § , f n t : I I : 3 9 f . "
^Fourteen times. See p. 9 2 , n . 14 f o r te x ts where the

expression occurs.
97
the clouds"' ( ny u i 32 ) o f Isa 14:14. However the Is a ia n ic
passage is t a lk in g about Helel ben Shahar, who undoubtedly is not

2
Baal. Cloud imagery is very o fte n used in the OT, including
passages where God ( d t Cp x ) is presented as one "who rides upon
the c lo uds,"^ "(who) is r i d i n g on a s w i f t c lo u d ," 4 "who makes the

5
clouds His c h a r io ts ." Ps 68:34 r e fe r s to the one who "rides in
the heavens, the ancient heavens,"*’ and Ps 18:11 presents, "He rode
on a cherub, and fle w , he came s w i f t l y upon the wings o f the
wind."^ The two verses which fo llo w show th a t his f l i g h t was
through his clouds.
G relot has observed t h a t " a y ne designe pas i c i (s e m b le -t -i 1)
The expression coold r e f e r only to the h e ig h t, or th a t the

f ig u r e wanted to ascend "upon the backs o f the c lo uds," i . e . , as
Baal and Yahweh (Ps 68:4; 1 0 4 : 3 ) . Cf. M. Dahood, "Hebrew-Ugaritic
Lexicography I , " Bib 44 ( 1 9 6 3 ):3 0 2 ; C. Fensham ("Winged Gods and
Goddesses in the U g a r itic T a b l e t s , " Or Ant 5 [1 9 6 6 ]:1 6 1 ) a ffirm s
t h a t the expression "has nothing to do with a f l y i n g Baal with wings,
but r a th e r w ith a c h a r io te e r who d rive s the clouds o f heaven."
2
The imagery is used more than one hundred times. Cf. Andre
F e u i l l e t , "Le F i l s de I'homme de Daniel e t la t r a d i t i o n b i b l iq u e , "
RB 60 ( 1 9 5 3 ):1 8 7 - 8 . See J. Luzarraga, Las T r a d itlo n e s de la Nube en
la B i b l i a y en el Judaismo P r i m i t i v o , An Bib 54 (Rome: B ib !ic a l
I n s t i t u t e Press, 1973), f o r e x ten s ive study on the cloud theme in
the B ib le .
^ m a a y a a i ~ i , Ps 6 8 : 4 ( 5 ) . John Hastings Patton ( Canaanite

P a r a l l e l s in the Book o f Psalms [B a ltim o re : Johns Hopkins Press, 1944],
p. 2 0 ); H. L. Ginsberg, "The U g a r i t i c Texts and Textual C r i t i c i s m , "
JBL (1 9 4 3 ):1 1 2 , n. 6; and A l b r i g h t , "The Old Testament," pp. 25-26;
follow ed by Kapelrud ( B a a l, p. 61) who thinks t h a t in Ps 68:4
Yahweh is described in p ic tu r e s taken from the Canaanite storm-god
Baal. Cf. also Dahood, Psalms 2:136.
Sp iy -p y a a a m n 1 , Isa 19:1.
5i a i D P , ps 104:3.
6a - p - ■> o 3 ■>o j a aa a .
3 :3 _r ; v ^p i r v ; a a a ■>.
98
les nuees en mouvement, portentes de la p lu ie fecondante, mais
p l u t o t la nue immobile ou se dissim ule le trefonds du c ie l (yarrkethe
Saphon! ) . 1,1 Thus the p o s s i b i l i t y of borrowing should not be pressed.
As we said above, cloud imagery is o fte n used in the OT,
and more than h a l f o f those instances associate clouds w ith the
m a n ife s ta tio n or in te r v e n tio n o f Yahweh. Luzzarraga concludes that
"the coming on" the clouds is an e x c lu s iv e ly d iv in e a t t r i b u t e

2
( Is a 1 9 :1 , Ps 104:3, e t c . ) . When the prophet uses the cloud
imagery in the Is a ia n t e x t , he seems to be aware o f the f a c t th a t
Helel in his pretensions wanted to usurp the d iv in e p re r o g a tiv e s ,
to be on a le v e l t h a t only God could occupy. Taking in to account
the nature o f the d e s c rip tio n and the contextual s e t t i n g , and the
common use o f cloud imagery, i t seems more lo g ic a l to th in k th a t even
though th e re could have been some s i m i l a r i t y in the use o f terms and
p ic tu re s due to c u l t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y or common elements in the ancient
Near Eastern a r e a , the Hebrew m a te ria l and p r i o r b i b l i c a l p a r a l l e l s
may well have been the source ( i f a source was necessary) f o r the
prophet's term inology or imagery.
B ib lic a l L ite ra tu re
Since the times o f the Church Fath e rs, some B ible I n t e r
p re te rs have i d e n t i f i e d the fig u r e o f the Isa ia n passage as Satan.
This i n t e r p r e t a t i o n has, in a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , been a ffe c te d by the
presence o f t h i s view in pseudepigraphical^ as w ell canonical
' " I s a i e 1 4 : 1 2 -1 5 ," p. 28, n. 4. 2Luzzarraga, p. 201.
2As , f o r example, 1 Enoch 8 6 .1 . See Morgenstern, "The

Mythological Back"r*n,md p p . 9 5-105, f o r more discussion on them.
99
lite ra tu re .^ Here those b i b l i c a l passages which are o ld e r than or
contemporary to the Isaian one are considered a possible-source
f o r some Church Fathers' concepts found on th is passage.
There is no doubt th a t the passage which resembles Isa 14
most (as has been perceived since the times o f the Church Fathers)
is Ezek 28; but since th a t t e x t is going to be studied along with
the Isaian passage in the next c h a p te r, i t does not need to be con
sidered here.
In his studies on the mythological background o f Ps 82,
Morgenstern a r r iv e d a t the conclusion th a t there were a t le a s t two

2
myths th a t "had been c u rre n t f o r a considerable period" o f time in
Is r a e lit e c irc le s . As evidence f o r t h i s , he suggests a r e la tio n s h ip
w ith passages such as Gen 6 : 1 - 4 , Ps 8 2 , Isa 14:12-15 and Ezek 28:
1 2 -1 9 .^ Let us consider b r i e f l y the f i r s t two passages.
Gen 6 : 1 - 4
This passage has been a m a tte r o f debate from the beginning

4
o f the C h ris tia n Era— i f not be fore . Scholars are f a r from
Luke 10:18; 2 Cor 1 1 :1 4 ; Rev 1 2 :7 -9 .

o
The myth o f the " f a l l e n ones" (Morgenstern, "Mythological
Background," pp. 8 6 -8 8 , 106-14) which had developed in two " d i f f e r e n t
and q u ite d iv e rg e n t versions": (a ) the sin o f the f a l l e n angels
consisted in " re fu s a l to obey God's command and do homage to Adam
because o f his having been created in God's image"; (b) the sin of
“r e b e l l i o n a g a in s t the D e ity and Satan's attempt to set his throne
above the clouds . . . and to supplant . . . the r u l e r o f the
universe" (pp. 1 0 7 -8 ). The oth e r myth, which Morgenstern thinks
Gen 6 : 1 - 3 r e la t e s to more c lo s e ly , was the one concerning the con
s o rt between angels who came from heaven w ith human women in the
times of Noah.
^See a lso M ullen, pp. 2 3 8 -4 4 , who adhered to the same idea.
4See Gustav E. Closen, Die Sunde der "Sohne G o tte s ," SPIB
(Rome: P o n t i f i c a l B i b l i c a l I n s t i t u t e , 1937).
100
reaching a consensus on the ‘i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f th is t e x t J
Morgenstern in his study has used the root 3 3 — Gen 6 : 4 ) ,
which also appears in Ps 82:7 and Isa 1 4 :1 2 , as the connecting point
between those passages. He thinks they were developed from the
myth of the f a l l e n angels. Such a connection with Gen 6 : 1 - 4 may
be po s sib le , but th a t s t i l l would not provide evidence f o r the o r ig in
o f the concept found in Isa 14 and Gen 6. Most o f Morgenstern' s
See, fo r comprehensive b ib lio g ra p h y on the passage, C.

Westerman, Genesis 2 :4 9 1 -9 3 , 500-17. Exegetes have advanced four
main i n t e r p r e t a t io n s concerning t h i s passage: (1 ) The Angel I n t e r
p r e t a t i o n , which sees the "Sons o f God" who sinned w ith the
"daughters o f man" as being angels. This view is the o ld e s t one and
was held by a great number o f Church Fathers and many contemporary
scholars today such as U. Cassuto, A Commentary on the Book o f Genesis,
2 v o l s . , tr a n s . Is r a e l Abrahams (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, Hebrew
U n i v e r s i t y , 1961), pp. 291-96; Zimmerli ( 1 Mose 1 - 1 1 , ZBK [Z u ric h :
Zwingle V erla g , 1 967], pp. 2 6 1 -6 6 ); G. von Rad ( Genesis, OTL
[ P h ila d e lp h ia : Westminster Press, 1 96 1 ], pp. 1 0 9 -1 2 ), e t c . For more
comments and b ib lio g r a p h y , see a ls o : Closen, Die Sunde der "So'hne
G otte s ," p. 1; Jesus Enciso, "Los 'H ijo s de Dios' en Gn 6 : 1 - 4 , " Est
Bib 3 ( 1 9 4 4 ) :189-227; F. Dexinger, Sturz der Gottersohne Oder Engel
vor der S i n t f l u t ? WBTh, 13 (Vienna: Herder & C o ., 1 96 6 ). (2 ) The
Mythology I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , which i n t e r p r e t s the phrase “ sons of God"
as r e f e r r i n g to "d iv in e beings." S t a r t in g with Gunkel, ( Genesis,
p. 5 1), t h i s view has been exposed by several d is tin g u is h e d scholars
such as: C h ild s , Myth and R e a l i t y , p. 49; G. Cooke, "The Sons of
( t h e ) G od(s)," pp. 22-47; W. H. Schmidt, "Mythos im A lte n
Testament," EvTh 27 (1 9 6 7 ):2 3 7 -5 4 ; 0. L o r e tz , Schopfunq und Mythos
S8S 32 ( S t u t t g a r t : Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1 9 6 8 ), pp. 32-48,
and o th e rs . (3 ) The Nobles ( r u l e r s ) I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , which advo
cates t h a t the "sons o f God1 were members o f the noble f a m i li e s who
married women o f humble social l e v e l , "The daughters o f men." Among
the defenders o f t h i s view we have M. Kline ("D iv in e Kingship and
Genesis 6 : 1 - 4 , " WTJ 24 [ 1 9 6 2 ]:1 8 7 - 2 0 4 ); f o r another suggested l i n k
o f th is passage w ith k in gship, see E. G. K r a e lin g , "The S ig n ific a n c e
and O rig in o f Gen 6 : 1 - 4 , " JNES 6 {1 9 4 7 ):1 9 3 -2 0 8 - (4 ) The Pious
and Wicked Mixed Marriage I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , which i n t e r p r e t s the
expression "Sons o f God," to mean the godly men descendants of
Seth and the "daughters o f men" are understood as the r e s t o f the
people, or s p e c i f i c a l l y the C a in ite s . Among the supporters of
th is view we fin d G. E. Closen, H. C. Leupold ( E xposition o f Genesis
[Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1 95 6 ], pp. 2 4 9 -6 0 ); J. Murray
( P r in c ip le s o f Conduct [Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1 9 5 7 ], pp.
2 4 3 -4 9 ); e tc !
101
argument is based on what e x t r a - b i b l i c a l w r i t e r s have said about the
passage in Genesis, and £hat l i t e r a t u r e was w r i t t e n many years a f t e r
the Is a i a h 's time.
Psalm 82
In his study Morgenstern a rriv e d a t the conclusion th a t Ps 82^
p ic tu re s the judgment procedure o f Yahweh in the assembly of the gods

2
or angels--members of the host o f heaven— upon the new y e a r 's day.
On t h i s occasion he pronounces t h e i r punishment o r f a t e , which was
the loss o f im m o rta lity . According to Morgenstern, the background
o f p a r t o f th is Psalm^ was o f Canaanite o r ig in and came from a myth—
The date o f the m a te r ia l of the Psalm is very much debated;

W. Schmidt ( Koniqtum G o tte s , p. 41) thinks i t is very a n c ie n t; J. S.
Ackerman (pp. 441-42) m aintains th a t th is Psalm o r ig in a t e d in the
pre-monarchial pe rio d ; Dahood supports the view. S. Mowinckel ( The
Psalms in I s r a e l ' s Worship, tr a n s . D. R. Ap-Thomas [Oxford: Basil
B la c k w e ll, 1 962], 1:221) assigns the Psalm to the l a t e r monarchy
p e rio d . 0. E is s f e l d t ( I n t r o d u c t i o n , p. I l l ) a s c rib e s i t to David's
time; A. Gonzales, “Le Psaume L X X XII," £T 13 ( 1 9 6 3 ):3 0 9 ; Morgenstern,
"Mythological Background," p. 121.
^ I b i d . , p. 114. C f. Mowinckel, Psalms, 1 :1 50 , 2:132.
^He advocates th a t vss. 2-4 do not belong to the o r i g i n a l

Canaanite poem, and vs. 5 was an a ddition to connect vss. 2 -4 to
vss. 6 -7 ; and vs. 8 was not an in te g r a l p a r t o f the o r ig in a l Psalm.
The redaction was made in o rd e r to adapt i t f o r in c o rp o ra tio n in to
the o f f i c i a l l i t u r g y o f the Jerusalem Temple and to remove the
s to ry o f the crime of the f a l l e n angels which was adverse to the
e t h i c a l standard o f the people a f t e r the e x i l e . The m a te ria l
(vss. 2 - 5a) about the denunciation o f the c o rru p t e a r t h l y judges
would be more a ppropriate to the s e t t in g . For a survey o f the i n t e r
p r e t a t io n o f th is Psalm, see E. G. W right, The Old Testament, pp.
3-41. Among those who defend the i n t e g r i t y o f the passage are T. 0.
Callaghan ("A Note on the Canaanite Background o f Psalm 8 2 ," C3Q 15
[1953J.-311-14) who also uses U g a r i t i c p a r a l l e l s and s ta te s th a t
vss. 2 -4 belong to the o r i g i n a l poem and increases our respect f o r
the transm ission o f the consonantal t e x t . C f. a lso i b i d . , "Echoes
of Canaanite L i t e r a t u r e in the Psalms," VT 4 (1 9 5 4 ):1 7 3 - 7 4 ; Gonzalez,
"Lc Psaume 8 2 ," pp. 293-309; and R. J. Tournay ("Les Psaumes Com
p le x e s ," RB 56 [ 1 9 4 9 ] : 5 0 - 5 3 ) , who thinks the passage i s w ell pre
served (a ls o Kraus, Psalmen, 2:509) and th a t M orgenstern1s exegesis
102
which had developed i t s e l f in several versions^— which talke d about
the f a l l o f c e r t a i n angels from heaven because o f disobedience or
re b e llio n . He goes on to say th a t i t is impossible not to i d e n t i f y
th is o ld e r version of the myth with th a t o f the f a l l o f Helel ben

2
Shahar in Isa 14:12 -1 4 . He contends th a t the phrase nm
"in 2 " 7 n f o r the reading n ■> ~i tin in vs. 7 “would be
m e t r i c a l l y p e r f e c t , and would unquestionably be f a r more vigorous
and e f f e c t i v e than the present reading.^ Thus to a c e r t a in e x te n t,

4
Morgenstern1s contention i s th a t Ps 82 and Isa 14:12 -1 5 are p a r a l l e l .
is very exaggerated. The most thorough study on Psalm 82 is

Ackerman's d is s e r t a t i o n on the exegesis o f those e ig h t verses; he
c o r r e c t l y defends the i n t e g r i t y o f the passage.
M. Tsevat (pp. 123 -3 4 ) makes an i n t e r e s t i n g i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f
th is Psalm, saying th a t "the Psalm o ffe r s no te x t u a l or l i n g u i s t i c
d i f f i c u l t i e s ” (p . 126), and “Psalm 82 shares w ith Deut 32 the myth o f
the 'a l lo t m e n t ' o f the n a tio n s , whose number He determined by the
number o f the sons o f 'G o d /E l' . . . (see Deut 3 2 : 8 - 9 ; c f . Tsevat,
pp. 132 -3 3 ) . . . Ps 82 must be seen as a h i s t o r i c a l Psalm, h i s t o r i c
in the sense t h a t whatever i t s d a te , the thought expressed in i t
represents a watershed in the h is to r y o f id e a s . The poem presents
two views of the gods, an e a r l i e r one and a l a t e r one, the former
and p r e v a i l in g one y ie l d i n g d ra m a tic a lly to the new and true one.
. . . I t centers on a v is io n of the d iv in e c o u n c il , the v is io n a ry
response to the judgment made in th a t c o u n c il, and judgment and
response to g e th e r herald the end o f paganism" (p . 1 34 ). See also
T s e v a t's statement on " a c t u a l i t y " and " n o n a c t u a lit y ," p. 125.
Vp. 95-114. The v e rs io n s , he says, were o r i g i n a l l y inde

pendent.
^ I b i d . , p. 108. He views Ezek 2 8 :1 1 -1 6 as r e f e r r i n g to the

same myth.
■^See Tsevat (p. 131) f o r c r i t i c i s m o f M orgenstern' s in t e r p r e

ta tio n . He a ffir m s th a t “the psalm te x t h a rd ly bears the weight of
th is (M orgenstern' s) exegesis. . . . I f Ps 8 in i t s mythology makes
re fe re n c e to another myth the name o f whose c h i e f p ro ta g o n is t (be i t
Helel ben Sahar or another) was g e n e ra lly known, th is name could
h a rd ly remain unmentioned in our Psalm passage because i t s bearer is
to serve as an example ( c f . Isa 6 5 : 1 5 ); anonymous examples are not
l i k e l y to be exemplars." Mullen (pp. 241-42) also c r i t i c i z e s Morgen
stern ‘ s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and proposes an a l t e r n a t i v e suggestion such as
having "shining ones" f o r m m and "Adam" f o r m s , as a reference
to the r e v o l t o f the f i r s t man against God.
Ât l e a s t four i n t e r p r e t a t io n s have been proposed concerning
103
Morgenstern has been c r i t i c i z e d f o r t h i s view because o f
the way he tears the "composition to pieces on tenuous evidence
in order to re b u ild i t according to his own notions."^ He has

2
in view the u n s a tis fa c to r y l i t e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Psalm 82,
which was drawn, using W rig h t's words, from "the large amount o f
evidence in the 0T f o r the heavenly assembly or c o u n c il, presided
the beings condemned to death in the Psalm: (1 ) they are I s r a e l i t e

r u le r s and judges; ( 2 ) they are the r u le r s and judges of the n a tio n s ;
( 3 ) they are gods, members o f the d iv in e assembly; (4 ) they a re a
combination o f the second and t h i r d combinations presented above.
For a discussion o f the i n t e r p r e t a t io n s presented, see Ackerman,
pp. 1 -7 8 ; Hans W. Jungling , Per Tod der G o t t e r , SBS 38 ( S t u t t g a r t :
Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1 969), pp. 11-37; and M ullen, pp. 2 28-38.
The fo u r th i n t e r p r e t a t io n does not destroy the u n ity of the t e x t as
does Morgenstern1s view, n e ith e r does i t a pply the passage t o t a l l y
on the e a r t h l y or human realm. M u lle n 's conclusions are th a t vs. 7
is the clim ax o f the psalm" and may r e f l e c t a myth o f the r e v o l t o f
the gods in heaven," although he be lie v e s t h a t " th is r e v o l t is not
the reason f o r t h e i r condemnation," but "the myth of the r e b e l l i o u s
gods is used here, however, to emphasize the f a t e o f the gods who
f a i l e d to c a r r y out t h e i r appointed fu n c tio n s " (p . 238).
^G. E. W right, The Old Testament, p. 32; c f . also O 'C allaghan,

"A N ote," pp. 311-14; Tournay, pp. 50-53; Louis Jacquet, Les Psaumes
e t le coeur de 1 ‘ homme, 3 v ols. (Gembloux: Duculot, 1 97 5 -7 9),
2 :2 8 9 -9 9 .
2
Such as, f o r example, W r ig h t's , pp. 34-41; he uses several
r e s o rts such as the occurrence o f syncretism and the f i g u r a t i v e
use o f the language to j u s t i f y his views. Here would be in ord e r
H. W. Robinson's "The C o u n c il," p. 151, warning:
"One o f the c h ie f p e r r i l s in the exegesis o f ancient w r i t i n g s
is t h a t we should take f i g u r a t i v e l y t h a t which in o r ig in was
meant q u ite r e a l i s t i c a l l y . I t is easy to fo r g e t th a t the
whole outlook o f the a n cie n t w r i t e r was in important respects
very d i f f e r e n t from our own. He could say and mean something
which i t would be impossible f o r us to say and mean in any
l i t e r a l sense, j u s t because o f the mass o f knowledge, or o f
half-know ledge, which enters in to the modern Weitanschauunq
and s harply separates i t from th a t o f the a ncie nt world. To
r e a l i z e t h i s , in i t s many r a m i f i c a t i o n s , requires laborious
pa tien ce and constant watchfulness. Even the professed
student w i l l often take the short cut o f c a l l i n g the a n c ie n t
usage a f ig u r e o f speech. That can be p e r il o u s , not only
because i t can rob us o f the deeper h i s t o r i c a l meaning, but
104
over by God and composed o f d iv in e a tte n d e n ts , he rald s , and admin
is tra to rs ."^ In a d d itio n Morgenstern added to the context o f vss.
1, 6-7 passages such as 1 Kgs 22:19 -2 3 (= 2 Chr 1 8 : 1 8 -2 1 ); Job

9
1 :6 -1 2 and 2 : l - 7 a , e tc .^ We tend to view Ps 82 as o f f e r i n g p a r a l l e l
elements to Isa 1 4:12 -1 5 .^ Isa 14:13 t a lk s about the "mount of
assembly" as a place where the Most High s i t s enthroned. Ps 82:1
speaks about God taking His place in the "Divine C o u n c il." Isa
1 4:12-15 speaks about someone who liv e d in heaven and t r i e d to
usurp God's p re ro g a tiv e s , but who is said to have been thrown to
the e a rth and then to the depths o f the p i t , or grave. This means
th a t fi g u r e would, sooner or l a t e r , meet death. Ps 8 2 :6 -7 speaks
because i t opens the way to q u ite a r b i t r a r y uses o f the word

or words in question."
Cf. W. H. Schmidt ( Konigtum, pp. 4 0 - 4 3 ) , who says a f t e r his i n t e r
p r e ta tio n o f the psalm, " S o ilt e n diese zugestandenermassen unsicheren
Vermutungen z u t r e f f e n , " p. 42.
^The Old Testament, pp. 32-33. See also Robinson, "The

C o u n c il," pp. 151-57; Morgenstern, "The Mythological Background,"
pp. 40-43; M ullen, pp. 113-20. The d iv in e council is designated
in the 0T by the terms, m 7 x n o (Job 1 5 : 8 ) ; 2 ■>3 2 P - 2 i 2 (Ps
8 9 : 8 ) ; m n 1 i l o (J e r 2 3 : 1 8 , c f . vs. 2 2 ); o v 3 i P > rr ? (Ps 8 9 : 6 ) ;
P x ~ n 2 y (Ps 8 2 : 1 ) . The members o f the Council are c a l l e d ,
z j ' T T P k - ■> j 2 (Gen 6 : 2 , 4; Job 1 :6 , 2 : 1 ) ; □ T T P X 1 J 3 (Deut 3 2 : 8 ) ;
2 ■> P x ^ 3 2 (Ps 2 9 : 1 ) ; l i ^ V ’’ i n (Ps 8 2 : 6 ) ; 2 ■» n P « “ P 2
(Ps 9 7 : 7 ) . For the use o f i n as meaning "assembly" or "council" in
Amos 8 :1 4 and other b i b l i c a l passages, as well as in a n c ie n t Near
Eastern l i t e r a t u r e , see Frank J. Neuberg, "An Unrecognized Meaning
of Hebrew Dor," JNE5 9 (1 9 5 0 ):2 1 5 - 1 7 ; P. R. Ackroyd, "The Meaning
of Hebrew 2 i 2 Considered," JSS 13 ( 1 9 6 8 ):3 -1 0 . See also 1 Kgs
2 2 :1 9 -2 3 ; 2 Chr 1 8:18 -2 1 ; IsS” 5 : l - 8 , 2 4 :2 1 -2 2 . As scholars have
pointed o u t, the terminology de sig n a tin g the assembly and the members
o f the d iv in e council in U g a r i t i c and Hebrew are mentioned in s i m i l a r
terms, showing a common t r a d i t i o n . For comments on those terms in
both l i t e r a t u r e s , see W right, p. 33; Cross, "The C o u n c il," pp. 274-77;
M i l l e r , pp. 1 2-23, 66-74.
7
M u lle n 's (pp. 226 -4 4 ) i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Ps 82 which suggests
th a t "the beings condemned to d ie (vs. 7) are gods ( 7 1 ’’ 7 V 1 : :
2 ' 1 n 7 x ; ) , the members o f Yahweh's c o u n c il, and not human r u le r s or
judges" is a t t r a c t i v e and less h u r tf u l to the t e x t than Morgenstern' s .
Ând Ezek 28.
105
about some members o f the Divine C o u n c ilJ who because o f some

2 J 4
fa u lt would die l i k e men, or become m orta l.
In d iv id u a l Elements
As f a r as the in d iv id u a l elements and terms o f the Isaian
passage are concerned, we f in d b i b l i c a l p a r a l l e l s f o r s e v e r a l.
We have a lready mentioned the cloud imagery, which is v ery often
used in the OT;^ the "s ta rs o f God ( E l ) " "are to be i d e n t i f i e d
w ith the members o f the d iv in e assembly,"^ which are present in
passages such as Job 1 : 6 , 2 : 1 , 3 8 :7 ; Ps 2 9 :1 , 8 2 :1 , 6 - 7 ; e t c . The
imagery of "bringing down" or "going down to the grave" and the
"depths o f the p i t , " found in vs. 15, occurs in Ps 8 8 : 4 - 6 , 7 and
Ezek 26:20; the expression n t - - 1 n D i 1 occurs also in Ezek
V o r the fu n c tio n o f the assembly or d iv in e council in

Mesopotamian, U g a r i t i c , and I s r a e l i t e thought, see M i l l e r , pp.
1 2-23, 66-73; M ullen, pp. 175-209, 226-44.
2
Mesopotamian, U g a r i t i c , and I s r a e l i t e d e p ic tio n s o f the
heavenly assembly present the leader o f the council as the one who
pronounces the judgment upon gods and men. See r e f . n. 1 above.
^0r " l i k e Adam," M ullen, p. 230.

4
Yahweh is judge o f human beings as w ell as o f d iv in e beings;
see Job 4 :1 7 -1 8 ; Isa 2 4 :2 1 . Cf. M ulle n , pp. 226-44 (e s p. p. 2 3 6 ).
who presents he lp fu l p a r a l l e l s from U g a r i t i c and Mesopotamia— on the
punishment o f the gods because o f t h e i r f a i l u r e to e x e r t j u s t i c e in
b e h a lf o f the oppressed ones— in r e l a t i o n to the Hebrew thought; he
supports Morgenstern' s view in the aspect o f the heavenly assembly.
^See above pp. 9 6 -9 8 . ^ C l i f f o r d , p. 161, n. 84.
7 We do not know f o r sure the date th is psalm was w r itte n

(Briggs [ Psalms, 2 : 2 4 4 ] , based on the content and fo llo w in g ancient
commentators, explains t h i s psalm as a "n a tio n a l lament during the
extreme d is tr e s s o f the e x i l e " ; c f . also Jacquet, pp. 670, 6 7 4 ),
but the imagery was c u r re n t in the I s r a e l i t e m ilie u .
106
32:23.^ Concerning vss. 13ab and 14b, the hybris a t t i t u d e was a
common one in the a ncie nt Near East, and Is ra e l was no exception
to t h i s . ^
An element o f the Isaian passage which has been much d is
cussed is ] i 3 'i T i d ~P . ^ The term 1 1 3 S occurs almost 200
times in the OT, and in most cases is used to in d ic a te oneo f the
c a rd in a l points o f the compass. The expression ? 'iS'S
appears f i v e times in the OT: Ps 4 8 :3 , Ezek 38:6, 15, 3 9 :2 , and in

4
our passage. In the th re e passages o f Ezek where the f i n a l
v ic t o r y o f Yahweh over the nations is de sc ribe d, an invasion
agains t the people o f God is carried out by Gog— the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
o f whom is not known— whose kingdom is located in the "uttermost
pasts o f Saphon" ( 7 T 3 ^ ). In these passages the prophet
does not mention anything which would i d e n t i f y the kingdom o f Gog
with Mt. Casius; and in 39:2 i t is said t h a t Yahweh would"drive
(Gog) forw ard, and brin g him up ( n 7 V ) from the utterm ost parts of
' ' a ." I f the references were to a mountain, the verb would be
"bring down" ( t "P ). ^
^See a ls o Lam 3 :5 5 , where a synonym o f the term n D - ','1

( n i "> n n n ) is used w ith equivalent meaning.
2
See Gowan (pp. 75-92) where e x t r a - b i b l i c a l and b i b l i c a l
examples are discussed.
^The modern English tr a n s la tio n s render "the f a r north"

(RSV); "the utmost heights o f the sacred mountain" ( N IV ) ; " f a r th e s t
sides o f the north" (NKJV); "recesses o f the north" (NASV).
4E i s s f e l d t ( Baal Zaphan, pp. 1 1 -1 7 ) has advocated the view

th a t the b i b l i c a l ] t s y o f passages such as Ps 4 8 :3 , Isa 14:13,
Ezek 3 2:30 , e t c . , has the meaning given to ?pn of the U g a r i t i c t e x t s ,
and r e f e r s to Mount Casius. Cf. also Gray ( Legacy, p p .287-88) who
sees in these passages echoes o f the Canaanite mythology. De Langhe
( Les te x te s de Ras Shamra, pp. 231-44) r e je c t s E i s s f e l d t 's propo
s itio n .
^Cf. de Lange, Les Textes, 2 :2 3 3 -4 .
107
In comparing the Ezekiel passages with Isa 14:13 , we per
ceive th a t in the l a t t e r the expression p 3 ‘i could have
two possible meanings: (1 ) "In the uttermost p arts o f Saphon" (o r
"In the extreme n o r th " ) , (2 ) "On the utmost heights o f Saphon" (o r
“on the sumnit o f Saphon"). I t is tru e th a t p a r a l l e l expressions
in the passage fa v o r the v e r t i c a l sensed and the a n t i t h e s i s

2
] T 3 'i ’ i i ' 1 — ~i i n ■> r i D i ’' makes i 1 harder to r e j e c t i t .
Although the terminology is the same in Isaiah and E z e k i e l, the
meaning of the expression d i f f e r s between them.
In Ps 4 8 : 1 - 3 ,^ we read:
Great is the Lord and g r e a t l y to be praised

In the c i t y of our God.
His holy mountain, b e a u t ifu l in e le v a t i o n ,
Is the jo y o f a l l the e a r t h .
Mount Zion, in the f a r north (1 t 3 ' i - , n 3 i ' 1)

the c i t y o f the g re a t king.
W ithin her c it a d e ls God
Has shown him se lf a sure defense.
C l i f f o r d (pp. 161 -6 2 , n. 85) views 7 1 3 ' i not as p a r a l l e l

to the Mount o f Assembly, but to n y ^ n n n “ > v ; and c a l l i n g
Job 26:7 to his h e lp , says t h a t "Zaphon‘ s meaning seems to be
p r a c t i c a l l y ’ heaven1. . . . I t is easy to imagine the development
of the meaning o f Zaphon, under I s r a e l i t e impulse, from ’ mountain
(d w e llin g o f God)’ to "heavens (d w e llin g of God)’ ." See also
H. L. Ginsberg, "Reflexes o f Sargon in Isaiah a f t e r 715 B .C .,"
JAOS 8 8 ( 1 9 6 8 ) : 5 1 . J. J. M. Roberts ("Sapon in Job 2 6 :7 ," Sib
56 [1 9 7 5 ]:5 5 4 - 5 7 ) c r i t i c i z e s C l i f f o r d and takes Zaphon as p a r a l l e l
to "Mount o f Assembly." C f. also M ullen, p. 148, n. 64, and
Da hood, Psalms 1 :2 90 , who supports Roberts.
2
For the o r ig in and meaning o f ’ H D V , see de Langhe,
Les T e x ts , 2 :240; Morgenstern, "The Mythological Background,”
pp. 7 9-80; Dahood, Psalms, 1 :2 8 9 -9 0 .
^The date f o r the composition of th is Psalm is much de

bated among the scholars, and ranges from the time o f Senacherib
to the immediate pre-Maccabean p e rio d . See Morgenstern, "Psalm
4 8," HUCA 16 ( 1 9 4 1 ) : 1 - 5 ; 2 3 f f . , f o r discussion o f the m a tte r.
108
In one o f the most e xtensive a r t i c l e s on Ps 48^ Morgenstern
discusses Jewish ideas about the cosmic n o rth ; his conclusions can
be summarized in his own words:
From a l l th is evidence i t is c le a r th a t from about the end

o f the s ix th century B.C. on th e re was a p o s itiv e tendency in
Jewish c i r c l e s to i d e n t i f y various sacred mountains o f Jewish
t r a d i t i o n , and p a r t i c u l a r l y the Temple Mount, w ith the mytho
lo g ic a l Safon in p r e c is e ly the same manner as a thousand years
e a r l i e r the people o f U g a r it in t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e i d e n t i f i e d
t h e i r sacred mountain, Casios, w ith Safon, as the people o f
southeastern Syria and northern P a le s tin e seem also to have
i d e n t i f i e d Hermon with Safon, and in somewhat the same manner
as the Babylonians seem to have envisaged Safon in t h e i r seven-
staged tem ple-towers.
A c tu a lly i t would appear t h a t th is i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the
Temple Mount w ith Safon would be e a s ie r and more ready to hand
than the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f almost any o th e r sacred mountain
wi th Safon.2
As de Langhe says,^ the poet does not want to say t h a t the
holy Mount Zion can be found or is located in the " f a r t h e s t north"
or th a t i t is very high, but presents Zion as the tru e mount o f God,
in co n tra st w ith Zaphon, the Sem itic Olympus, which the pagans
believed to be the mountain o f the gods. "Mount Zion is to Yahwism
what Mount Zaphon (present-day Mount Cassius) is to Canaanite
r e l i g i o n ; namely, the dw e llin g o f God and the most hallowed spot of

1
the l a r d , " observes Oahood. Isa 2 :2 -5 and Mic 4:1 show th a t the
idea o f Zion as the highest mountain was not unknown to the
prophets. Gaster has a ffirm ed t h a t "the Hebrew expression
(] ^ nD T 1) is . . . employed in e x a c tly the same way [as
1"Mythological Background," pp. 1-95.
^ I b i d . , p. 85. \e s Textes, 2 :242.
^Psalms, 1:2 89 -9 0 . Some have suggested th a t the Psalm

could be r e f e r r i n g to the theme o f Zion being the "navel o f the
e a r t h . " See G aster, Thespis ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p. 183, fo r b ib lio g ra p h y cn
the m a tte r.
109
in Ps 4 8 :2 ] in Is a ia h 14:13-14."'* Although the terms employed are
the same, and both have some mythic c o lo r in g , i t is not c o r r e c t to

2
use the phrase "in e x a c tly the same way" as Gaster does. Is a ia h
gives i t a d i f f e r e n t dimension, and th is aspect is studied in
d e t a i l in chapter 3.
Although some l i n g u i s t i c p a r a l l e l s can be found between Isa
14 and these o th e r passages, and they may contain some mythological
c o lo rin g , the way and dimension in which 7 m i ^m is used by
Isa ia h is d i f f e r e n t .
Cone!usions
1. The i n v e s tig a tio n in to e x t r a - b i b l i c a l l i t e r a t u r e from
Mesopotamian, H i t t i t e , Greek, and U g a r i t i c areas has revealed
th a t there is no such a thing as a myth o f Helel ben Shahar which
r e f l e c t s the Isa ia n account in i t s t o t a l i t y .
2. On the o th e r hand i t seems c le a r th a t in expressing
his message in the lament against t h a t curious being, the a u th o r
o f the passage made use o f the imagery o f Venus, the morning S ta r
which shows i t s e l f in c e r t a in periods o f the dawn but vanishes
by the time the sun r i s e s . A knowledge o f the behavior of Venus
is well a tte s te d in some c u ltu re s o f the a n cie n t w orld, and i t has
been taken up in to the expression o f t h e i r myths: Greek (P h a eto n );
U g a rit ( A t t a r ) .
3. Some elements present in the Isa ia n lament ("mount o f
assembly," "utmost heights o f the n o r th ," e t c . ) are also found in
'Thespis ( 1 9 5 0 ) , p. 8 6 . C f. also Kraus, Psalmen, 1 :3 43 .
2Thespis (1 9 5 0 ), p. 8 6 .
110
other an cie n t Near Eastern l i t e r a t u r e s — e s p e c i a l l y in U g a r i t — but
then are found in the b i b l i c a l l i t e r a t u r e in a context fre e from
the p o l y t h e i s t i c nature o f the e x t r a - b i b l i c a l m a t e r i a l . I t seems
tha t the s i m i l a r i t i e s in the use of the terms and pic tu res are due
to the c u l t u r a l c o n tin u ity o r common elements in the ancient Near
Eastern a re a ; but the b i b l i c a l prophet used the imagery and elements
known in his tim es— b i b l i c a l or e x t r a - b i b l i c a l — and applied them in
the context and purposes he thought would b e t t e r express God's
given message.
4. I t seems th a t the event described in Isa 14 would
transcend the h i s t o r i c a l realm and has some im p lic a tio n s r e la t e d to
one o f the heavenly council members.
5. Ezek 28 is the passage th a t most resembles the Is a i a n ic
passage. The comparison o f the two passages is made in d e t a i l in
the next c hapter.
Ezekiel 28
I t was a t the close o f the nin e te en th century th a t scholars
s ta rte d to suggest th a t m a te r ia l of Ezek 28 had been borrowed

1 2
(1 ) from Gen 3, (2 ) from a Babylonian source, or v3) from a
Phoenician myth.^
B e r t h o le t , Das Buch H e s e k ie l, pp. 147; Kraetzschmar,

p. 217; see above, p. 4 0 . , n. 3, fo r a d d itio n a l exponents o f t h i s
view.
C. H. Toy, "The Babylonian Element in E z e k ie l," JBL 1

( 1 8 8 1 ):6 2 -6 4 ; Idem, E zekiel (SBOT) 1 2 , p. 154; Gunkel, G enesis,
pp. 3 4-35; Cooke, E z e k i e l „ p. 315. The a d a p ta tio n o f the legend o f
an a n c ie n t myth explains the s i m i l a r i t y and d iffe re n c e s in the
account o f Ezekiel and Genesis which come from the same source.
Cf. Procksch, Geschichtsbetrachtunq, pp. 1 61 -5 4 ; bevan, pp. 500-05;
Skinner, E z e k i e l , p. 257.
^Matthews, p. 105; Yaron, pp. 5 1-53 ; Fohrer ( Ezechiel , p.
Ill
Gunkel^ holds th a t i t s t r a d i t i o n s are not o r i g i n a l l y
I s r a e l i t e , but since i t r e la t e s to t r a d i t i o n s common to the whole
Near E as t, d i r e c t borrowing should not be assumed.

2
Concerning the f i r s t o ra c le (vss. 1 - 1 0 ) , scholars have
focused t h e i r observations— r e la te d to possible borrowing d e r iv a tio n
or r e l a t i o n s h i p to mythical m a t e r i a l — e s p e c i a l l y on vss. 2 and 3 .^
Vs. 2 t a l k s about the prin c e o f Tyre who said he was ■? k and sat
in the h e a r t o f the seas. Vs. 3 presents the prince as being w iser
than
^3« *? ft
I t has been long recognized that the Semitic word > ft is
found in almost a l l the S em itic languages as the generic term f o r

4
"god." I t occurs commonly as a theophorous element in proper names.
Many scholars had suggested the existence o f El as the proper name
of a s p e c i f i c d e i t y , 3 but i t was the d is c o v e rie s o f the U g a r itic
mythological t e x ts th a t confirmed th a t view beyond any doubt.® In
162) suggested th a t the myth o f the Garden o f Elohim was o r i g i n a l l y

from Mesopotamia, and l a t e r was i d e n t i f i e d w ith Eden in I s r a e l i t e
t r a d i t i o n ; he adds th a t E zek ie l could p o s s ib ly have enriched the
Canaanite-Phoenician myth w ith Babylonian m o tifs or v ic e -v e rs a .
See also P u l l e y , pp. 1 3 -1 5 , f o r some r e f u t a t i o n s o f the idea th a t
the E zek ie l passage o r ig in a t e d from any s p e c i f i c pagan myth.
Cf. also McKenzie, “Mythological Allusions . . . , 11 pp. 322-23.
^G enesis, p. 32.
2
See pp. 220-31 f o r discussion o f the two d i s t i n c t o racles
contained in Ezek 2 8 :1 -1 9 .
^See Pope, pp. 1 2 -1 3 ; McKenzie, "Mythological A llu s io n s ,"

p. 325; Yaron, p. 54; C l i f f o r d , pp. 168-73.
4 5
See Pope, El_, pp. 1 -8 . Ib id ., pp. 3 -8 .
®See E i s s f e l d t , El im Uqaritischen Pantheon, pp. 7 -1 0 ; c f .

also Pope, El_, pp. 5-8.
112
the Canaanite te x ts El is also the personal name f o r the head o f
the U g a r i t i c pantheonJ
In the OT we find x used— besides the use in proper names--
about 226 tim es. I t could r e f e r to the God of Is r a e l as well as
a heathen god.^ Pope, fo llo w in g Cassuto, says chat “ in prose
when > x r e fe r s to the God o f Is r a e l i t is u s u a lly g ra m a tic a lly
determined by the a r t i c l e , the possessive s u f f i x , a g e n itiv e o r an
a t t r i b u t i v e , or another d iv in e name, ' 1 but "in poetry . . . x
i s used w ithout the a r t i c l e or other adjunct in the function o f a
proper name. 4 Although the a r t i c l e is omitted in poe try ,^ and i t
i s d i f f i c u l t to apply Cassuto's grammatical ru le t h e r e , i t seems
t h a t we can more or less determine most o f the references which are
a p p lie d to the God of I s r a e l , and the few which could a llu d e to a
heathen god.**
7 8
Concerning Ezek 2 8:2a , Cassuto be lie v e s th a t El (in
^ E is s f e l d t , El im U g aritischen Pantheon, pp. 29-53; ” E1 and

Yahweh," pp. 25-30; Pope, El_, p. 6 ; c f . also F. M. Cross, "Yahweh
and the God o f the P a tr ia rc h s ," HTR 55 (1 9 6 2 ):2 3 4 .
2
Marie-Joseph Lagrange, Etudes sur les r e lig io n s semitiques
(P a ris : V. L e c o ffre , 1 905), p. 71, n. 2; see also Pope, ET_, pp. 8 -9 .
^See E i s s f e l d t , "El and Yahweh," pp. 2 6-30 , fo r use o f El

as proper name in the OT; a lso Pope, El_, P- 12, who a f f ir m s , "In
view o f the f a c t that i t is now assured t h a t ij_ was a n c i e n t l y , a t
U g a r i t and elsewhere, the proper name o f a s p e c ific and very
im portant d e i t y , as well as an a p p e l l a t i v e , i t seems a lt o g e th e r
l i k e l y th a t in the O.T. in cases where i t is a synonym o f the God
o f Is r a e l ' i l is to be taken as a proper name."
4 E1_, p. 9. 5 C f. GKC, p. 15; 126h, p. 405.
^Pope, El_, p. 9.
Êzek 2 8:2, 9 are the only two te x ts in th a t book where God

is independently defined as > x.
^ ’’ 11 nome divino El n e l l ' antico I s r a e l e , " SMSR 8 (1 9 3 2 ):
113
’ :x > ) is an a p p e l l a t i v e , but admits th a t he is in c lin e d to take
i t as a reference to the Phoenician god E l. In the immediately
fo llo w in g phrase -> nn 2P 3 ', n'? x 3 T n , Cassuto takes 3 n k
as a generical designation o f d i v i n i t y ; but obviously he has problems
with vs. 9 where we f in d ^ J K 3"1 being used in the sense o f
o f vs. 2.
Pope c a l l s our a t t e n t i o n to t h i s "discrepant use o f and
but advocates th a t the expression 3 "7 3 "maxes i t
apparent th a t the a llu s io n is to the abode o f El as depicted in the

2
U g a ritic te x ts ." Zim m erli, in commenting on Pope's double meaning
of the t e x t , emphasizes th a t the t e x t re q u ire s th a t ^ >? must be
understood as an a p p e l l a t i v e f o r two reasons: (1 ) the author repeats
the expression in vs. 9 using □'>rr'7K; ( 2 ) the a n t i t h e s i s
in the l i t e r a r y content supposes these words being used as
135; see also The Goddess Anath, tra n s . Is ra e l Abrahams (Jerusalem:

Magnes Press, Hebrew U n i v e r s i t y , 1 97 1 ), pp. 45, 86, where Cassuto
a ffirm s th a t the passage r e fe r s to the Phoenician E l.
1E l , p. 12. He adds th a t "the use o f ^ tt is perhaps

i n t e n t i o n a l l y ambiguous," but presents the reference to the "Seat o f
3 1 in the h e a rt o f the seas" as a suggestion f o r taking El as
the Phoenician god; and his argument is th a t the gods dwell on the
Mount o f Assembly and not in the h e art o f the seas, thus the t e x t
r e fe rs to a s p e c i f i c god whose abode is in watery e n viro n s . (C f.
also Gray, Legacy, p. 1 1 4 .) We s tro n g ly disagree w ith Pope on
several grounds: (1 ) the prince o f Tyre says t h a t he s i t s "on the
throne o f a god in the h e art o f the seas" not meaning t h a t the god,
whom the p re te n tio u s f i g u r e t r i e s to em ulate, dwells in the "heart
o f the seas," but t h a t the emulator s i t s in the h e art o f the seas.
Tyre was in the h e art o f the seas, and the t e x t could r e f e r to
t h a t , as Pope h im s e lf admits. (C f. a lso Van D i j k , p. 96; Zim m erli,
Ezechiel 2 :7 7 -7 8 ; (2 ) Pope i d e n t i f i e s the power o f vss. 1-10 as
the same as the one o f vss. 12-19, w ith which we cannot agree; see
reasons on pages 250-52 below.
Êzechiel 2 :78.
114
a p p e lla tiv e s . Zimmerli^ also c a l l s our a t t e n t i o n to Isa 45:22
K ^: s '3 ) and 46:9 (> ^ d ) in connecti on wi th 4 1 :4 ,
4 2 :6 , 4 3:11 , where Yahweh and El are used interchangeably as God

2 3
the C re ato r. E is s fe ld t takes Ezek 28 and Isa 14:13 as r e f e r r i n g
to the god El — independent and d i f f e r e n t from Yahweh— on the basis
th a t the two passages are concerned w ith the behavior o f non-
I s r a e l i t e s and r e f e r to something which occurred outside the sphere
of Yahweh. In 2 Chr 3 5 :2 1 , however, we findNecho who was a pagan,
using c ■> n 2 x . Thus i f we have ^ k a n d n '> n '? x used interchangeably
in Is a ia h , in the mouths o f pagan kings l i k e Necho and the king o f
Babylon, why cannot in Ezek 28:2 be taken in the a p p e l l a t i v e
sense since we fin d the interchange in vs. 9? Thus there are reasons
to agree w ith Van D i j k who says th a t "the re is no reason to presume

4
in Ezek 28:2 an a ll u s i o n to Canaanite mythology."
I S i t on the Throne o f a God in the

Heart of the Seas (□ ~» 3 2 2 2 )
In 1932 Cassuto^ a lre a d y suggested th a t the phrase could
convey re ference to the Phoenician E l. He was followed by Pope
who asserted th a t "the gods do not dwell in the heart o f the seas,
Êzechiel 2 :7 8 ; c f . also Oldenburg, The C o n f l i c t , p. 15.
^See also Isa 31:3; Hos 11:9.
3"E1 and Yahweh," p. 28. Cf. also Yaron, pp. 48, 54, who
i n t e r p r e t s vs. 2 as a reference to the Phoenician god El.
4E z e k i e l, p. 97. Cf. a lso McKenzie, "Mythological A llu s io n s ,"

p. 325.
^"11 nome d i v i n o , " p. 135; c f . also The Goddess A nath,

pp. 57, 145.
115
but on the Mount o f Assembly. The a llu s io n (Ezek 28:2b) thus cannot
be to the general abode o f the gods, but to the s p e c ific abode o f a
god who does dwell in watery environs. And who could th is be but
the U g a r i t i c El ?:l^ But Pope h im se lf admits i t could also apply to
the " i n s u la r p o s itio n of new Tyre" and would n a t u r a l l y r e f e r to "the
king o f Tyre in g lo r y re sid in g in the i s l a n d - f o r t r e s s as a god on

2
his th ro n e ."
3 4
The argument o f Pope and C l i f f o r d th a t the a llu s io n to
the term "? x and shows th a t t h i s expression derives from
Phoenician mythology is weakened by the points discussed about
« above and below. C l i f f o r d thinks th a t although the
p rim ary meaning o f the phrase seems to be the isla n d o f Tyre, i t
o r i g i n a l l y designated the abode o f E l .^ The U g a r i t i c texts pre
sented to support t h i s claim say th a t E l 's messengers to
'im 1i 1 i mabbikT nahargigi

q irb a 'a p iq i tihamatgmi^
Toward El a t the sources^ o f the two R iv e rs ,

In the midst o f the pools o f the^ Double-Deep.
1E1, p. 98.
^Van D i j k , p. 97. As Van D i j k points o u t, n 'tn o

may be t r a n s la te d as "the seat o f a god," o r “a d iv in e s e a t." C f.
a ls o Z im m erli, Ezechiel 2 :7 7 -7 8 .
Ê1, pp. 98-99. 4The Cosmic Mountain, pp. 168-71.
^ Ib id . C l i f f o r d presents the " r e v o l t in the heavens, the

s tre s s o p wisdom which is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f E l , the anomalous use o f
' i l " as arguments to support his view. See a lso Mullen, p. 15,
who presents s i m i l a r arguments.
6CTA 3 . 5 . 1 3 - 1 6 ; 4 . 4 . 2 0 - 2 4 ; 6 . 1 . 3 2 - 3 6 ; 2 . 3 ( 7 ) . 4 - 5 ; 1 7 .6 .4 6 - 4 9 .
Ôn the meaning o f q i r b a , see James A. Montgomery, "Notes on

the Mythological Epic Texts from Ras-Shamra," JAOS 53 (1 9 3 3 ): 1 11; and
W. F. A l b r i g h t , "The Ancient Near East and the R e lig ion of I s r a e l , "
JBL 59 (1 9 4 0 ):1 0 6 , who renders the whole clause "to El who causes
the r i v e r s to flow in the midst o f the fo u n tain s o f the two d e e p s .11
Q
Mullen (p. 13) renders i t "to the midst o f tne streams."
116
C l i f f o r d summarizes his observations concerning the expression by
saying th a t ^ appears to be the Hebrew e q u iv a le n t o f
U g a r i t i c qrb ‘ qrb thmtm.'*^ Although th a t might be c o r r e c t, it
seems improbable, as is noted by Zimmerli who thinks th a t "h e a rt

2
o f the seas" in Ezekiel r e fe r s to E l 's d w e llin g .
*7 K3.~T
Already in the n ineteenth century scholars s ta rte d question
ing whether the D a n (i)e l o f the Book o f Ezekiel could not be another
3 4
person than the prophet by th a t name. I t seems th a t R. Dussaud
was the f i r s t to suggest— a f t e r the Ras-Shamra d is c o v e rie s — t h a t
the Daniel (> X 3 " r ) o f the U g a r i t i c Aqhat epic^ should be i d e n t i f i e d
w ith the righteous and wise Daniel o f Ezek 1 4:14, 20; 2 8:3. Many
scholars have since follow ed th a t pro p o s a l.^ The main arguments in
P. 170. C l i f f o r d points out c o r r e c t l y th a t "both Hebrew

and U g a r i t i c use organs o f the middle o f the body f o r 'in the midst
o f ' , e . g . , beten, le b , k a b id , qirbu" (p . 170, n. 91).
2
Ezechiel 2 :7 8. See Ezek 2 7 : 4 , 25, 26, where the expression
r e fe r s to the isla n d s it u a t i o n o f Tyre.
^See C. A. H e in r ic h , Commentar iiber den Propheten Ezechiel

(Erlangen: C. Heyder, 1 8 4 3 ), p. 207; L. Z'uns, "Bibel k r it is c h e s
( E z e c h i e l ) , " ZDMG 27 ( 1 8 7 3 ):6 7 6 - 8 1 , who suggests th a t the th re e
personages were n o n - I s r a e l i t e s .
4
"Breves remarques sur les t a b l e t t e s de Ras Shamra," S yria
12 (1931 ): 7 7 .
5CTA, 17-19.
Âs f o r example, W. F. A l b r i g h t , "The Seal of E lia k im and the

L a te s t P r e e x i l i c H is to r y o f Judah, w ith Some Observations on E z e k i e l, "
JBL 5 (1 9 3 2 ):9 9 -1 0 0 ; M. Noth, "Noah, D a n ie l, and Hiob in Ezechiel XIV,"
VT 1 (1 9 5 1 ):2 5 3 ; Jean Steinmann, Le Prophet Ezechiel e t le s debuts de
P ' e x i l (P a r is : Les e d itio n s Du C e r f , 1 9 5 3 ), pp. 8 1 -8 2 , 145; Pope, E l,
p. 99; Zim m erli, E zekiel , 1 :3 1 4 -1 5 , 2 :7 9 - 8 0 ; van D i j k , pp. 99-10 0 ;
E ic h ro d t, E z e k i e l , pp. 188-89.
favor of Darnel o f E z e k ie l's book being the person in the U g a r i t i c
Aqht te x t a re:
1. The s p e llin g o f the word in the Aqht te x t ( dn ‘ 1 ) ^
and in Ezek ( > x j t ) are the same, w hile in the book o f Daniel i t
2
is d i f f e r e n t ); thus he may not be the b i b l i c a l prophet.
However, as A lb r ig h t says,^ the name D a n ilu /D a n 'e l was
well a tte s te d in a n t i q u i t y , and in d i f f e r e n t s p e llin g s . The name
o f King Nebuchadnezzar is a lso s p e lle d v a r io u s ly in the book of

4
Daniel and in the book o f Jeremiah. Thus a d iffe r e n c e in s p e llin g
is not a very strong proof th a t the Daniel o f Ezekiel was a person
d i f f e r e n t from the prophet D a n ie l.^
2. The f a c t t h a t Daniel is mentioned with Noah and Job,
who were not considered I s r a e l i t e s , c o n te x tu a lly suggests th a t he
also was a n o n - I s r a e l i t e . ^ The a llu s io n to Daniel in Ezek 28:3 in
] CTA 1 7 . 1 . 7 , 10, 13, 15, e tc .
S e e H. L. E l l i s o n , E z e k ie l: The Man and His Message

(Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1 9 5 6 ), p. 59; J. B. T a y lo r , E z e k i e l ,
TOTC (London: I n t e r - V a r s i t y Press, 1 96 9 ), pp. 129, 196.
^"The Chaldean I n s c r ip tio n s in Proto-A rabic S c r i p t , " BASOR

128 (1 9 5 2 ):4 1 , n. 7; and BASOR 130 ( 1 9 5 3 ) : 2 6 , n. 1. J. C. L.
Gibson ("Myth, Legend and F o lk lo re in the U g a r it ic Keret and Aqhat
T e x ts ," VTSup 28 L I 9 7 5 ]: 6 7 , n. 18) admits the f a c t t h a t "Ezekiel
simply uses the t r a d i t i o n a l s p e l l i n g o f the name w ith o u t the
in te r n a l Mater L e c t io n is ."
4
S f . P. Joiion, "Trois noms de personages b ib liq u e s a la

lumiere des te x te s d 'U g a r i t (Ras-Shamra) n ~ in , ~i D '2 ~ v
Bib 19 (1 9 3 8 ):2 8 3 -8 5 .
S e e A l b r i g h t , "The Seal o f E lia k im ," p. 99; Z im m erli,

E z e k i e l , 1 :1 4 - 1 5 , who says "the mention o f t h r t e p r e - I s r a e l i t e , or
even n o n - I s r a e l i t e , heroes makes c le a r th a t Ezekiel was here speaki
in a universal way o f the d iv in e righteousness." Cf. E ic h ro d t,
E z e k i e l , pp. 188-90.
118
connection w ith the King o f Tyre also suggests th a t he was w ell

1 2
known in S yro-P ho enicia. Dressier r e je c t s such an i d e n t i f i c a
tio n and says th a t "one needs no p a r t i c u l a r l y f e r t i l e imagination
to view an I s r a e l i t e Daniel flanked by a p r e - I s r a e l i t e and a non-
I s r a e l i t e to a r r iv e a t an e q u ally s a t i s f y i n g th e o lo g ic a l con
s tru c tio n ."
In re p ly in g to D r e s s ie r , 8. M a r g a l i t 2 noted th a t " i f the
prophet were in te r e s te d in a paradigm o f I s r a e l i t e righteousness
the choices would s u r e ly have Abraham and Moses a t very le a s t
( c f . Jer 1 5 : 1 ) . The choice o f Noah and Job demonstrates s u re ly
th a t what the prophet is a f t e r — a t l e a s t in chap. 14— are para
digms o f n o n - I s r a e l i t e righteousness ( c f . Gen 6 :9 ; Job 1:8 ;
4 2 :7 ff.)." I t seems t h a t the arguments presented on both sides
above are on ly t e n t a t i v e and n e u tr a l, although as M a r g a lit has
noted, the a l t e r n a t i v e represented by the s ix th - c e n tu r y contemporary
o f the prophet is d e cid e d ly less a t t r a c t i v e .
3. The middle p o s itio n of the name points to a "we 11-

4
known fig u r e o f a ncie nt tim e ," fo r i f Noah and Job— two men from
^Cf. John Day, "The Daniel o f U g a r i t and Ezekiel and the

Hero o f the Book o f D a n i e l , " VT 30 (1 9 8 0 ):1 7 5 ; see A l b r i g h t , “The
T r a d itio n a l Home," pp. 2 6 -2 7 , f o r p o s i t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the
Syrian D a n i e l ’ s home.
2H. H. P. D r e s s ie r , "The I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the U g a r i t i c

DNIL with the Daniel o f E z e k ie l," VT 29 (1 9 7 9 ):1 5 7 . J. Day (p . 175)
r e p lie s to D re s s ie r a f f i r m i n g th a t he"igncres the f a c t th a t Noah is
not only a p r e - I s r a e l i t e , but also a n o n - I s r a e l i t e , so th a t t h i s is
most n a t u r a l l y the case also with Daniel and anyway, the only
I s r a e l i t e Daniel who might be regarded as a possible cand id a te ,
the hero o f the book o f D a n ie l, is a lr e a d y ruled out on chrono
lo g ic a l grounds.”
^ " In t e r p r e t in g the Story o f A qht," VT 30 (1 9 80 ):3 6 2.
^Zim m erli, E z e k i e l, 1:315. J. Day, p. 175.
119
a n t i q u i t y — fla n k D a n ie l, i t im plies th a t he was an a n cie n t person
and not E z e k i e l's co n te m p o ra ry . K e il* thinks we have a climax
order in th is passage: “Noah saved his fa m ily along w ith nim-
s e l f ; Daniel was able to save his fr ie n d s (Dan 2 :17, 1 8 ); but Job,

2
w ith his righteousness, was not even able to save his c h i ld r e n . "
I t could thus be suggested th a t the passage presents
diminuendo in amplitude concerning the deliv e ran c e theme: Noah
was the agent f o r the s a lv a tio n o f a l l o f those who accepted his
c a ll to e n te r the a r k ; Daniel was the agent f o r the s a lv a tio n fo r
the wise men o f Babylon (Dan 2 ) ; Job d e liv e r s him self o n ly . A ll
the points presented, however, are not strong enough to prove
e i t h e r o f the two views about the Daniel o f E z e k ie l.
4. Another argument a sserts th a t the personage o f the book
o f Daniel was too young by the time Ezekiel wrote his book, and thus
i t was impossible f o r him to have hadthe broad re p u ta tio n which
E zekiel assigns to him by th a t time."* I t would be more p la u s ib le
to b e lie v e t h a t the t e x t r e fe rs to a more ancient D a n ie l. This

4
argument should n o t, as pointed out by D re s s ie r, be ru led out.
* E z e k i e l , 1:186.
^F. W. J. Schroder, “The Book o f the Prophet E z e k i e l, "

CHSL (New York: Charles S c rib n e r's Sons, 1915), 13:15 1 , does not
accept K e i l ' s pro p o s itio n but does not make him self c l e a r on the
suggestion— which D re ss ie r (p. 156) c a l l s "order o f e le v a tio n " —
he g iv es .
Âs f o r example, Zim m erli, E zekiel 1:314; J. Day, p. 175,

who points out th a t "the framework . . . suggests a f i g u r e o f
p a t r ia r c h a l times . . . or hoary a n t i q u i t y , " fo r Job as well as
f o r D a n ie l. Cf. a lso Jack, pp. 22-23 ; E. W. Heaton, The 3ook of
Daniel TBC (London: SCM Press, 1 95 6 ), p. 25.
4Pp. 157-58, he emphasizes t h a t i f any o f the fo llo w in g

p o s s i b i l i t i e s concerning the passage occurred:
120
5. Some scholars a f f i r m th a t since Ezek 28 has to do w ith
o ra cle s against Tyre, i t would be n a tu ra l th a t the hero mentioned
in vs. 3 comes o r i g i n a l l y from the Syrian re gio n, or was "close to
Phoenician t r a d i t i o n . " ^
But we have to remember th a t the hero o f the Book o f Daniel
became the c h ie f o f the wise men in Babylon about 600 B.C. When
2
E z e k i e l, who liv e d among the e x i l e s not f a r from Babylon, was per
forming his prophetic m in is t r y (591 B.C. f o r Ezek 8:1 s e c t i o n ) , ^
Daniel was a lre a d y famous and could have deserved th is contemporary
re fe re n c e from E z e k ie l.
6. Discussions on the c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f E z e k i e l's hero
have also been examined.4 These in c lu d e : (1 ) righteousness,
(2 ) d e liv e r a n c e ,^ and (3 ) wisdom.^
a. " I f the date f o r the composition of Ezekiel is the t h i r d

century B .C ."
b. " I f a l a t e r redactor in s e rte d the references to D a niel"
c. " I f the passage is an ( p o s t - e x i l i c ) a llu s io n to the Daniel
o f the E x i l e , who was a l t e r to appear as the hero o f the Book of
D a n iel" ( c f . H. G. May, " E z e k ie l" LDB (1 9 6 2 ), 6:218
d. " I f E z e k i e l's authorship and the u n ity o f the book is
m aintained" ( c f . Howie, p. 100, who b e lie v e s the book waspublished
approxim ately by 570-567 B . C . ) ,
i t would be possible to accept the b i b l i c a l Daniel as being the one
r e fe r r e d to by E z e k ie l.
^Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1:315; E ic n r o d t, Ezekiel , pp. 18S, 391;

J . Day, p. 175; Ch. V i r o ll e a u d , La Legend Phenicienne de P a n e l,
( P a r is : Paul Geuthner, 1 9 3 6 ), p. 121.
2
Zim m erli, E z e k i e l , 1 :1 3 , 16.
^See Richard A. Parker and Waldo H. Dubberstein, Babylonian

Chronology 626 B .C .-A .D . 7 5 , BUS 19 (Providence: Boston U n i v e r s i t y
P ress, 1956), p. 26.
4See V i r o ll e a u d , La Legende Phenicienne de P an e l, pp. 111-15,

121-23. de Langhe, Les te x te s de Ras-Shamra 2 :151-56.
5Ezek 1 4 :1 4 -2 0 . 6Ezek 2 8:3.
121
1. Righteousness. I t has been recognized th a t the word
Sdq never appears, in r e l a t i o n to D a n ie l, in the Aqht poetn;^ and
de spite some scholars' a f f ir m a t io n th a t D a n ie l's function as a

2 3
judge would make him ''rig h te o u s , ' 1 as de Langhe s ta te d , “les actes
de j u s t i c e . . . ne s u f f i s e n t pas a f a i r e de Daniel un type de
'ju s te ' . " 4
2. D e liv e ra n c e . Since the issue in Ezek 14:12-20 is the
one o f 'D e l i v e r a n c e ', and because i t is s p e c ifie d th a t n e i t h e r
those men's sons nor daughters would be d e liv e re d by t h e i r rig h te o u s
ness, the e x i l i c Daniel would not f i t the character since he was

5
not known to have any c h ild r e n , w h ile the Phoenician Daniel would
fit the p ic tu r e b e t t e r , f o r as in the case o f Noah and Job, the
U g a r i t i c Daniel “passed through the midst o f d is a s te r to d e liv e ran c e
^ V ir o lle a u d , La Legende Phenicienne de Panel, p. 121;

de Langhe, Les Textes de Ras-Shamra, p. 151.
~CTA 17 :v. 4 -3 ; arid CTA 1 9 .1 .1 9 -2 5 .
\ e v e r s , p. 115; S t a lk e r , p. 133; J. Day (p. 175) makes a

strong case in fa v o r o f th is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , saying th a t
" I t is c le a r th a t D a n ie l's righteousness was not o n ly e t h i c a l
but embraced what we should c a l l p i e t y . That th is is tr u e o f
the U g a r i t i c Daniel is in d ic a te d by the constant re fe re n c e to
him as mt. r p ' i "man o f Rp'u ( E l ) , ' which one may j u s t l y compare
with the expression in Hebrew '75 ’e l 6 h?m, 'man o f G od'."
4"Les Textes de Ras-Shamra," p. 153; c f . also Joiion, "Trois

noms de personages," p. 285; D r e s s ie r , p. 154. J. Gray ( The Legacy,
p. 107) s ta te s th a t
"Dn'el was no more noted f o r his j u s t i c e than any o th e r a ncie nt
king in the Near E as t, and indeed in the Krt te x t th e re is an
almost id e n t i c a l d e f i n i t i o n o f the j u d i c i a l powers o f the king.
E z e k ie l's impression o f Dn'el as p re-em inently righteous (E zekiel
x i v , 14, 20) and wise (ib id e m , x x v i i , 3) is probably due to the
etymology o f the name r a th e r than to anything in the U g a r i t i c
te x t."
^Noah saved his c h ild re n (Gen 5 :1 8 , e t c . ) ; Job received

new ones (Job 1 :1 8 - 1 9 , 4 2 : 1 3 -1 5 ). See S p ie g e l, pp. 319, 328-29;
J. Day, p. 179. For references and commentary on ideas on Daniel
being a eunuch, and o th e r legends, see S p ie g e l, p. 309, n. 7.
122
and his c h ild was, in the same way, involved in the d e liv e ra n c e ." ^
But, as D re ss ie r p o s i t i v e l y points o u t, "the t e x t does not r e f e r
unambiguously to Aqht's r e s u r r e c tio n ," and he was not able to

2
d e l i v e r his own son. On the o th e r hand the e x i l i c Daniel was an
instrument o f d e liv e ra n c e — although not of his son or daughter— of
the wise men o f Babylon . 3

4
3. Wisdom. Eichrodt asserts t h a t "when Daniel is named
in i t (Ezek 2 8 :3 ) as a prov erbia l m a n ife s ta tio n of wisdom, then
some fig u r e o f the past known throughout the whole Syrian region
must be r e fe r r e d to . This excludes the Daniel o f the OT book
bearing th a t name."
Commenting on Ezek 1 4 :1 4 , 20, E ichrodt holds t h a t the Daniel
o f Ezekiel should be i d e n t i f i e d w ith the U g a r i t i c f i g u r e . ® But
in r e a l i t y the word hkm ('w is dom ') does not occur a t a l l in con
nection w ith the Aqht text® or w ith Danel. The hero is never por
trayed as a sage who predicts fu tu r e e v e n ts , nor u t t e r s sayings,
etc . D re ss ie r a sserts th a t he "cannot be considered a 'wise man'
^ e e J. Day (pp. 179-80) who advocates— fo llo w in g Gordon

( UL, p. 85; Before the Bible [New York: Harper & Row, 1 96 2 ],
p. 169); G. R. D r i v e r , ( Canaanite Myths and Legends, OTST 3
[Edinburgh: T. & T. C la rk , 1 9 5 8 ], p. 8 ); T. H[ Gaster ( Thespis
[ 1 9 6 6 ] , p. 3 2 0 ); J. C. L. Gibson ( Canaanite Myths and Legends
[Edinburgh: T. & T. C la r k , 1 9 7 8 ], p. 2 7 )— th a t "the l o s t ending
o f the Aqht t e x t went on to t e l l o f Aqhat's r e s u r r e c tio n ."
2 P. 155. 3udniel 2.
4 E z e k ie 1 , p. 391. 5Ib id ., p. 189.
®Cf. Y i r o ll e a u d , La Legend Phenicienne de D a n e l, p. 121;

de Langhe, Les Textes de Ras-Shamra, 2 :153.
123
1 2
or ‘ sage’ in the te c hnica l sense o f the word"; J. Day responds
on the subject by s t a t in g t h a t , although the e xtent Aqht epic does
not e x p l i c i t l y r e f e r to Daniel as a wise man, i t does r e f e r to him
as such i m p l i c i t l y . To make his p o in t Day shows how 1 Kgs 3
i l l u s t r a t e s the connection between " j u s t judgment and wisdom," and
points out t h a t the U g a r i t i c Daniel was noted f o r j u s t judgment.
Besides t h a t , Day advances the p o in t th a t the phrase "no secret is
hidden from you" (Ezek 28:3) suggests t h a t D a n ie l's wisdom is
s im i l a r to the one r e fe r r e d to by H. P. M u lle r^ as "mantic or magical-
mantic wisdom."
Despite his e f f o r t s to make t h i s p o i n t , Day recognizes
th a t "a number o f M u l l e r 's attempts to discern magical-m antic wisdom

4
in the U g a r i t i c Daniel are not p a r t i c u l a r l y convincing." Besides
t h i s he bases his th e s is on oth e r U g a r i t i c or Canaanite te x ts
which may have spoken more e x p l i c i t l y o f D a n ie l's wisdom. A ft e r
a l l , we have to say th a t the Legend o f Aqht is not singled out fo r
any s p e c if ic connotation o f wisdom. On the oth e r hand, the issue in

5
the book o f Daniel is wisdom. The main issue in Ezek 14 is
^ D re s s ie r, pp. 153-54; c f . a lso Jouon, "Trois noms de

Personages," p. 285; M a r g a li t , p. 362.
2 Po. 180-81.
3 |,Magisch-Mantische W eisheit und d ie G e s ta lt D a n ie ls ,"

UF 1 (1 9 6 9 ):7 9 -9 4 .
^Day, p. 181.
5Dan 2 :2 1 , 23, 30, e t c . ; c f . also H. G. May, "The King in

the Garden o f Eden," p. 167.
124
1 2
Id o la try ; in U g a rit the hero is a good pagan p o ly th e is t.
Several scholars have advanced the idea th a t i t is probable
th a t an ancient wise hero c a lle d Daniel served as a prototype f o r
the hero o f the Book o f D a n ie l,^ but i t seems here th a t so f a r th is
p ro p o s itio n has not been proved.
In conclusion, we may say th a t the arguments in fa v o r o f the
U g a r i t i c Daniel are more o f a ne utra l na ture . In ge n era l, arguments
in fa v o r o f the b i b l i c a l Daniel are stronger and f i t b e t t e r in i n t e r
p r e tin g th is passage.
The second o ra c le (vss. 11-19) has produced more discussion
concerning the sources o f the m a te ria l as w ell as the p o s s i b i l i t y
o f i t s mythical nature.
Mesopotamia
The suggestion— which arose a t the end o f the nineteenth
c e n tu ry 4— th a t the m a te ria l found in Ezek 28:11-19 has Babylonian
o r i g i n has not been s a t i s f a c t o r i l y s u b s ta n tia te d . Toy,^ S kinner,^
^See e s p e c ia lly vss. 1 - 1 2 .
^See D re s s ie r, pp. 158-61; c f . Zim m erli, Ezekiel 2:670;

Gordon, UL, pp. 85-103; J. Day, pp. 1 77-79, advocates th a t the
Phoenician Daniel was a worshiper o f E l , whom he i d e n t i f i e s w ith
Yahweh, and sees the presence o f the Baal and oth e r d e i t i e s in the
Aqht te x ts as not an insuperable obstacle in defending his p o in t.
^See Jack, p. 23; F e u i l l e t , p. 185, n. 1; Heaton, pp. 24-27;

May, "The King in the Garden," pp. 168-69; J. B a rr, “D a n ie l," PCB
(Hong Kong: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 197 7 ), § 518 F. p. 591;
A. Lacocque, The Book o f D a n i e l , tra n s . David P e lla n e r ( A t l a n t a :
John Knox Press, 1 979), p. 3; J. Day, pp. 181-84.
4See above pp. 4 0-41 . Ê zekiel (SBOT 1 2 ) , p. 154.
Ê z e k i e l , p. 257, who says th a t "The mountain of the gods

is now known to have been a prominent idea o f the Babylonian
r e l i g i o n , " and th a t E zekiel got th a t knowledge "during his sojourn
in Babylon."
125
- 1 2 3
Holscher, G. A. Cooke, and Fcnrer proposed a Babylonian o r ig in
but did not e la b o ra te or give any reason f o r t h e i r view.
In his p u b lic a tio n s George Widengren has presented some
d e s c r ip tiv e a llu s io n s to images and heroes from the Mesopotamian
mythic m a te ria l which resemble some elements o f Ezek 28. Among
them we have, f o r example, a "hero, whose body is shining splendor,
who in the f o r e s t o f f r a g r a n t cedar is cheered with jo y , standing
in the Sanctuary o f Apsu, the adorned, p u r i f i e d with the s p a rk lin g
lu s tra tio n s . ” 4 A garden or grove which is associated w ith a temple
or sanctuary and cared f o r by a gardener is also shown to be customary

5 6
in Mesopotamian c u l t u r e . But as McKenzie a s s e rts , "These are
1q. 142.
E z e k i e l , p. 315; Cooke a ffir m s th a t "c e rta in fe a tu r e s o f the

s to ry as given here, the mountain o f God, the stones o f f i r e , the
gemmed robe, can ha rd ly be o f Hebrew o r i g i n ; they come r a t h e r from
Babylonia." Cf. Fohrer, E z e c h ie l, p. 162.
Ê z e c h ie l, p. 162; see above p. 43, and also "Mythological

A llu s io n s ," p. 323, f o r c r i t i c i s m o f Fohrer.
4The King and the Tree o f L i f e in Ancient Near Eastern

R e l ig io n , UllA 1951/4 (Uppsala: Lundequistka Bokhandeln, 1 9 5 1 ),
p. 8 . Widengren thinks th a a t the LXX f o r Ezek 28:13 is more
r e l i a b l e , and since the stones mentioned were in the b r e a s tp la te of
the High P r ie s t (Exod 3 9 : 1 0 - 1 3 ) , the Urim and Thummim were included;
and these, he th in k s , "pla y the same r o le as the ta b le t s o f d e s tin y
in being the instrum ent by which the w i l l o f the d e it y is communi
cated to the le a d e r o f the people. . . . " ( The Ascension o f the
Apostle and the Heavenly Book, KUA 1950/7 (Uppsala: Lundequistska
Bokhandeln, 1 9 5 0 ), pp. 27, 94-96. C f. McKenzie, "Mythological
A llu s io n s ," p. 323, f o r c r i t i c i s m o f Widegren's view. McKenzie
a ffir m s [TS 15 (1 9 5 4 ):5 5 2 , n. 51] t h a t "Widegren [Mesopotamian
Elements in Manicheism UUA 1946/3 (Uppsala: Lundequistska
Bokhandeln, 1 94 6 ), pp. 16-30] has pointed out some elements o f
Mesopotamian mythology in Manicheism which are q u ite l i k e the
sto ry o f E z e k i e l, " which I could not a t a l l d e t e c t . ) .
^Widengren, The King and the T r e e , pp. 9 -11.
^"Mythological A llu s io n s ," p. 323.
126
d e s c r ip tiv e a ll u s i o n s ," and the d iffe re n c e s are enormous. There is
no f a u l t or expulsion in Wider.gren's p a t t e r n , the hero is a god.
Gowan points out^ the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t those gardens were
"a ss im ila te d to a mythological paradise such as Dilmun the abode of
the gods," but he observes th a t those references could be r e f e r r i n g
to a re a l gardener in each case. Besides the f a i r l y prominent pa rt

2
sacred gardens o r groves play in the Gilgamesh Epic, a garden o f
the gods is described in i t as being adorned w ith precious stones.^
In a d d i t i o n , "the Cedar mountain, abode o f the gods, throne seat o f

4
Ir n in i," is also mentioned.
The element, "the mountain of god," which appears twice in

5
Ezek 28, seems to be "c en tral to the experience o f the Mesopo
tamians."^ The cosmic mountain or Weltberq concept^ has been

Q
r e je c te d by modern s cholars.
Pp. 79-80. C f. also G. A. Barton, The Royal In s c r ip tio n s

o f Sumer and Akkad (New Haven: Yale U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1929),
p. 313; ANET, p. 110.
2
C f. Gowan, p. 80.
Â. L. Oppenheim, "Mesopotamian Mythology I I , " Or 17 (1 9 48 ):

47. The t e x t is in very fragmented c o n d itio n , but the remnant words
t e l l us about a garden adorned with precious stones, which reminds
us o f Ezek 2 8:13 . Oppenheim suggests t h a t i t "seems to have been
the scene o f an episode d e a lin g probably w ith another attempt o f G i l
gamesh to obtain a means o f escaping d e a th ," p. 48. Cf. also ANET,
p. 89.
4 ANET, p. 82. 5 Yss. 14, 16. C liffo rd , pp. 9-10.
^This concept, which flo u ris h e d a t the end o f the nineteenth

c e n tu ry , conceived the world as a great mountain w ith heaven a t the
peak and the underworld a t the base. C f. P e te r C. A. Jensen, Die
Kosmoloqie der Babylonier (Strasbourg: K. J . Trubner, 1 89 0 ), pp.
195-201; Bruno Meissner, Babylonien und Assyrien (H e id e lb erg : Carl
W in te r, 1 9 2 5 ), pp. 107-11; T h o rk ild Jacobsen, "Sumerian Mythology:
A Review A r t i c l e , " JNES 5 (1 9 4 6 ):1 4 3 -4 8 ; C l i f f o r d , pp. 9-33.
O
See C l i f f o r d , pp. 1 0 -3 3 , 190, e t c . f c r discussion and
b ib lio g ra p h y . Cf. also B. A l f r i n k , Der Versammlungsberg im
Aussersten Norden ( I s a 1 4 ) , " Bib 14 (1 9 3 3 ):4 1 -4 4 .
127
The fig u re s c a lle d Kajribu1 are found in Mesopotamian mate-
ria l, where they are represented “as guardians o f the tr e e o f l i f e , "
“supporters o f the d iv in e throne," and as " fig u re s fla n k in g royal

3
th ro n e s ." Since the b i b l i c a l m a te ria l contains some s i m i l a r con
cep ts, along w ith some d i f f e r e n t ones in r e l a t i o n to the Mesopotamian
view o f the f i g u r e , we should not press the case f o r a borrowing by
the b i b l i c a l w r i t e r from the Assyro-Babylonian t r a d i t i o n .

4 5
The legendary King Adapa has been equated with “man" and
the f i g u r e is presented in the myth as a "model o f man."** Gowan
suggests t h a t Adapa "seems to have been a king who was conceived of
as a re a l Adam; a prototype so tiia t h is f a t e is the fa te o f a l l men."^
^For the onomastic o f the term 'C h e ru b ', see J. T r in q u e t,

“Kerub, Kerubim," DBS (1 9 5 7 ), 5 :1 6 1 -6 4 ; P. Dhorme and A. V in c e n t,
"Les Cherubins," RB 35 (1 9 2 6 ):3 2 8 -3 9 , 481 -9 5 ; R. H. P f e i f f e r ,
“Cherubin," JBL 41 (1 9 2 ):2 4 9 -5 0 .
2 T. H. G a s te r, "Angel," IDB ( 1 9 6 2 ) , 1 :1 3 1 -3 2 , thinks "the

Cherub may be i d e n t i f i e d w ith the winged genius who i s , indeed c a lle d
Karibu ( o r K u rib u ), 'i n t e r c e s s o r 1. 1' Some scholars (see Yaron, p. 32)
suggest th a t is "an inversion o f l e t t e r s from the word
'to r i d e ' ."
2See G aster, "Angel," p. 131; c f . T r in q u e t, pp. 165-69;

A l b r i g h t , "What Mere the Cherubim," M 1 ( 1 9 3 8 ) : 2 - 3 ; P. Dnorme,
and P. V in c e n t, "Les Cherubins," pp. 482-90.
^For sources and a t r a n s la t i o n o f the n a r r a t iv e reconstructed

from the e xtan t fragments o f the Adapa myth, see ANET^, pp. 101-3.
C
E. E beling, Tod und Leben nach den Vorstellunqen der
Babylonier ( B e r l i n : W alter de G r u y te r , 193 1 ), 1 :2 7, n7 a.
®Cf. ANET, p. 301, te x t A, 5 - 6 . See a lso n. la on p. 101,

where i t says th a t "model" is to be taken in the same sense of
"something to be fo llo w e d ."
^P. 85. A f t e r the d is co v e rie s o f the te x ts containing

the Adapa myth, some scholars claimed t h a t c le a r p a r a l l e l s between
the Babylonian m a te ria l and the s to ry of Adam could be seen (see
discussion by A. T. C la y, The O rigin o f B i b l i c a l T r a d i t i o n s , YOS.R, 12
[New Haven, CT: Yale U n iv e r s ity P ress, 1923J , pp. 1 0 8 -1 6 ). However,
oth e r scholars raised t h e i r voices saying th a t no p a r a l l e l e x is te d
128
Gowan also discusses Gilgamesh’ s c h a r a c te r is tic s which would
make him something of a prototype f o r humanity in the Babylonian
sense, but he recognizes g re a t d iffe r e n c e s between E z e k i e l ’ s g reat
king and the Babylonian f i g u r e . ^ His observations have some v a l i d i t y
i f we can e s ta b lis h with c e r t a i n t y t h a t Ezekiel is r e a l l y t a lk in g
about the f i r s t man and not someone e ls e .

2
Despite the g re at d iffe r e n c e s between the Babylonian
account o f Adapa and Gilgamesh and the Ezekiel f i g u r e 's account,
we have to agree with Gowan and others th a t "most elements from
between these two personages. Heidel ( The Babylonian Genesis,

p. 1 2 4 ), f o r example, a ffir m s t h a t "the Adapa legend and the b i b l i c a l
s to r y are fundamentally as f a r a p a r t as the antipodes." Cf. also
B. R. F o s te r, "Wisdom and the Gods in Ancient Mesopotamia," Or 43
( 1 9 7 4 ) :3 5 2-53 ; P. X e l l a , “L 11 inganno' di Ea nel mito di Adapa,"
OrAnt 12 (1 9 7 3 ):2 6 5 . W. H. Shea, “Adam in Ancient Mesopotamian
T r a d i t i o n , " AUSS 15 (1 9 7 7 ):2 7 -4 1 , has attempted to show t h a t — in
s p i t e o f d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s — the p a r a l l e l s between those two s to r ie s
are a r e a l i t y , and " i t is possible to view these two separate
sources as independent witnesses to a common event" (p. 4 1 ) , w ith
a p o s s i b i l i t y th a t a " fu n c tio n a l s h i f t " could have occurred in
some d i r e c t i o n . Giving a kind o f response to Shea’ s a r t i c l e ,
N i e l s - E r i k Andreasen ("Adam and Adapa: Two Anthropological
C h a ra c te rs ," AUSS 19 [ 1 9 8 1 ]:1 7 9 - 9 4 ) t r i e s to show th a t although the
p a r a l l e l s between Adam and Adapa indeed e x i s t "they are s e rio u s ly
blunted by the e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t contexts in which they occur”
(p . 1 9 2 ). He suggests t h a t "in Adam and Adapa we have the repre
s e n ta tio n o f two d i f f e r e n t a nthropological c h ara c te rs, . . . two
d i s t i n c t c h a r a c te r iz a tio n s o f human nature" (p. 192). The p a r a l l e l s
suggest " th a t these two c h a r a c te r iz a tio n s have a common o r i g i n ,
whereas the contrasts between them may in d ic a te th a t two branches
o f Near Eastern c i v i l i z a t i o n took c l e a r l y d is tin g u is h a b le sides
in the dialogue over human n a tu re . Yet these lin e s are not so
d i f f e r e n t th a t the r e s u l t i n g two c h a r a c te r iz a tio n s o f man are unable
to dialogue" (p . 194).
1 Gowan, pp. 8 5 -8 6 , 8 8 . The main d iffe re n c e s l i s t e d are:

( 1 ) the Old Testament fi g u r e i s p e r f e c t , which cannot be said of
Adapa and Gilgamesh; (2 ) the Babylonian fig u re s s tr iv e d f o r immor
t a l i t y , but in the Ezekiel f i g u r e ' s case i t seems th a t since he was
recompensed by death, we can deduce th a t u n t i l he sinned he would be
im m o rta l.
2
See Gowan, p. 90.
129
which Ezek 28:1-19 was composed appear to have been w ell known
to the peoples o f the Ancient Near East."^
Greece
2 3
T. Gaster has suggested the myth o f Prometheus as a
p a ra lle l to the Ezekiel passage. Trying to make his p o in t, he con
t r a s t s Prometheus' c h a r a c t e r is t i c s such as "without e v i l , " "teacher
o f a r ts and sciences to mankind," “f i e r y c h a r a c te r ," "savage
insolence and overbearing boldness," with s im i l a r t r a i t s in the
hero o f E z e k ie l's d i r g e . However, the myth is so embroiled in
p o l y t h e i s t i c fe a tures which are absent from E z e k i e l's s to ry , th a t
i t would be u n f a ir to say th a t the two pieces o f l i t e r a t u r e are
p a r a l l e l or th a t the b i b l i c a l sto ry derived from the Greek myth.
Furthermore, the c h a r a c t e r is t i c s presented were so common in the
a f f a i r s o f the gods in a n cie n t mythology as well among humans in
t h e i r a t t i t u d e s o f h y b r is , th a t i t is d i f f i c u l t to say th a t they
have o r i g i n a l l y come from the same source and developed in t h e i r
own p a r t i c u l a r ways.
^ b i d . , pp. 8 8 , 90. See Davies, p. 90, f o r discussion

o f the view th a t i t is "possible to approach the problem o f
mythology in the 0T a p a r t from the fa c ts o f borrowed and tra n s
formed mythology. I t i s possible to th in k o f a mythology indigenous
in the 0T in terms o f the p e r s o n a lity and a c t i v i t y o f Yahweh, the
God o f I s r a e l . "
Myth, Legend, and Custom, pp. 622-23.
3 C f. Hesiod ( 8 th Cent. B . C . ) , Theoqony, 507-616 ( t r a n s .

H. G. Evelyn White, LCL, pp. 1 1 6 -2 5 ). C f. G aster, Myth, Legend,
and Custom, p. 714, f o r references to o th e r a n cie n t sources which
mention the myth.
130
Uqari t
1 2 3
Scholars l i k e J. Gray, K. Vine, F. C. Fensham, and Peter
4
van Z i j l have expressed some words o f caution concerning the in d is
crim in a te and hasty use o f the U g a r i t i c t e x t s . A f t e r examining the
com plexities o f the U g a r i t i c t e x t s , A. Ferch r i g h t l y points out th a t
i t is a methodological ne ce s sity to examine s in g le p a r a l l e l

terms and m otifs in the t o t a l context in which they occur.
To study p a r a l l e l s in i s o la t i o n is to open o neself to the
danger o f misreading elements o f one c u ltu r e in terms o f
another and o f suppression o f adverse evidence in the
in t e r e s t s o f a t h e o r y . 5
With these admonitions in mind and van Z i j l ' s advice "to
return to the te x ts again and again,"® l e t us examine the U g a r i t i c
m a te ria l to see the r e l a t i o n those te x ts have, i f any, to the te x t
of Ezek 2 8 :1 0 -1 9 .
The Legacy o f Canaan, p. 9; Gray a ffir m s th a t "The tendency

s t i l l u n fo r tu n a te ly p e rs is ts to use the Ras Shamra te x ts as a kind
o f l i t e r a r y lucky-bag out o f which a l l sorts o f odds and ends may
be drawn."
^"The Establishment o f Baal a t U g a r it" (Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n ,

U n iv e r s ity o f Michigan, 196 5 ), p. 251, where Vine even questions the
existence o f the Baal c y c le .
^"Winged Gods and Goddesses," p. 158. Fensham warns us th a t

"we must bear in mind t h a t r e li g i o u s conceptions were not id e n tic a l
a l l over the Canaanite w o rld ," and t h a t "a c e r t a in concept must be
in te r p r e t e d in terms o f the time in which i t appears."
4 Baal_, AOAT, 10 (Butzon & Bercker Kevelaer; Neukirchen-

Vluyn; Neukirchener V e rla g , 1 9 7 2 ), pp. 1 -2 . Van Z i j l t a l k s about
scholars' "Mistaken assumption th a t r e li g i o u s conceptions were the
same throughout the Canaanite w o rld ," the " ris k s o f asso c iatin g
concepts from d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s , " and advises the student o f the
te x ts "to re tu rn to the te x ts again and again and to examine them
thoroughly f o r h im s e lf."
®The Son o f Man in Daniel Seven (B e rrie n Springs, MI:

Andrews U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1979), p. 61.
6 B a a l, p. 1.
131
1 2
I t has been said th a t the n P ' t mentioned among the
precious stones in the Ezekiel passage is "rem iniscent o f the abn
brq 9 of B a a l's abode , 4 which is tr a n s la te d by Obermann^ as "stone
o f splendor"; by Gordon** as " li g h t n i n g ; and by Ginsberg 7 by "a
th u n d e rb o lt.“
Verse 14 t a lk s about "stones o f f i r e " (o x ” 1 n « ) , which
since the beginning o f t h is century has been proposed to be emended

q g
to > ^ j n , but as Zimmerli says, the double appearance in
vss. 14 and 16 c o n tra d ic ts t h a t class o f v a r ia t io n s in t e x t .
E i c h r o d t ^ suggests ( a f t e r r e l a t i n g the Ezekiel passage to Isa 14:13
and Ps 4 8 :2 ) th a t " i t is le g it im a t e to i n t e r p r e t the f i r e - s t o n e s
(w ith o r w ithout emending the 'stones' in to ’ sons') as the s t a r s ,
^Pope, El_, p. 99.
Vs. 13. The term n p ~ i u is used three times in the OT

(Exod 2 8:17; 39:10; Ezek 28:13) and is tr a n s la te d by " b e ry l" (N IV ),
"emerald" (RSV), "carbuncle" (ASV, KJV), e t c .
9See R. C. Fensham, "Thunder-Stones in U g a r i t i c , " JNES 18

( 1 9 5 9 ) :273, f o r e a r l y t e n t a t i v e s in t r a n s l a t i n g t h is expression.
4CTA 1 : 3 . 3 . 2 3 ; see also Pope, El_, p. 99, n. 77, f o r use of

the expression in an Akkadian prayer and discussion concerning
whether the two words should be taken s e p a r a te ly or as in c onstruct
re la tio n .
^"Sentence Negation in U g a r i t , " JBL 65 (1 9 4 6 ):2 3 9 .
6 UL, p. 19. 7ANET3, p. 136.
^Kraetzschmar, E z e c h i e l , p. 217; c f . also R. Dussaud, "Les

Pheniciens au Negeb e t en A r a b ie ," RHR 108 (19331:40; Dussaud sees
in the term "the sons o f El" "une expression phenicienne courante
qu'on re trouv e dans les t a b l e t t e s de Ras-Shamra." Cf. a ls o N ie ls e n ,
Ras Schamra, p. 113, n. 2; C l i f f o r d , p. 173.
9 E z e c h ie l, 2:6 85 . 1 0 E z e k i e l , p. 393.
132
1 2
i.e ., the s ta r-g o d s ." Cassuto suggests th a t th is expression seems
to have a s im ila r connotation to the U g a r i t i c b rq , and th a t “they
are stones o f heaven in which is stored the f i r e th a t becomes
v i s i b l e to us in the form o f lig h tn in g s (Ezek 1:13) • J K . T ' j dt
P “t3 K l f l "’ - - 'a n d out o f the f i r e went f o r t h l i g h t n i n g ' . " ^

4
Pope contends f o r the a u t h e n t i c i t y o f the term 1 i
He suggests th a t "sm elting is involved in the production of
• y « “ 'l 2 3 « a n d r e c a l l s the d e s c r ip tio n o f the marvelous constructio n
of B a a l's mythical abode on Mount Saapan" and adds th a t his explan
a tio n is not incompatible w ith Cassuto's "p la u s ib le explanation"^
because "the f a c t t h a t U g a r i t i c myth deals w ith 8 a a l ' s house, w hile
the a lle g o r y o f Ezek 28 conccerns the general abode o f the gods is
no re a l impediment to the c o r r e l a t i o n o f the two."^ Fensham7 thinks
th a t any emendation is unnecessary, and th a t Cassuto's “ stones of

Q
l i g h tn in g " must be taken as th u n d e r-s to n e s . Pope's " e s p e c ia lly
^See also Widengren, " E a r ly Hebrew Myths," p. 167.

2
Genesis, pp. 79-80; The Goddess Anath, p. 128; Cassuto
comments: "The theme o f the 'stones o f f i r e ' in the ancient
Is ra e lite poetry was one o f the elements in which is s t i l l to be
discerned the l i n k w ith g e n t i l e r e li g i o u s concepts; consequently
the Torah wished to n u l l i f y i t , and, in accordance w ith i t s usual
p r a c t ic e , passed i t over in s il e n c e . "
^See Obermann, " S e n te n c e ," p . 239, n. 15, f o r the c h a ra c te r

o f abn brq in the U g a r i t i c b u ild in g saga.
4 E1_, pp. 99-10 2 . ^Genesis, 1:100, 101.
^ I b i d . , p. 102; see E ic h ro d t, E z e k i e l , p. 393, who reacts

a g a in s t t h i s view.
7 "Thunder-Stones," pp. 273-74.
^The book o f Enoch ( 1 8 . 6 - 9 ; 23-25) ta lk s about seven

mountains o f m a g n ifice n t stones located a t the end o f the firmament
o f heaven, and one o f them was supporting the throne o f God; i t
133
s tr ik in g " ^ associations o f vss. 12-19 with U g a r i t i c mythological

2
motives are y e t to be shown.
The Gilgamesh Epic describes the grove o f the gods with
trees o f precious stones^ but does not supply us w ith m a te ria l th a t
would resemble the d e s c r ip tio n in E z e k ie l. We have to admit th a t
the expression is very obscure, and despite the e f f o r t s
to r e l a t e the expression to the U g a r it ic abn b rq , they have not
been s u c c e s s fu l.
The existence o f the concept o f a sacred mountain— the

4
co u n te rp art o f the b i b l i c a l mountain o f God — in the U g a r i t i c
r- g
m a te ria l is very r e a l . 3 The t r a d i t i o n s surrounding Zaphon o f Baal
seem to have adhered to various sacred mountains a l l along the
Levant.^ But because i t was a common m o tif in the d i f f e r e n t ancient
also describes a "burning f i r e t h a t continues by day and night and

which feeds [w ith E ichrodt ( E zekiel , p. 394); Charles (APOT I ,
p. 204) has "persecutes," but says th a t the word is c o rru p t] a l l
the lum inarie s o f heaven." E ic h ro d t, E z e k i e l , p. 394, suggests th a t
"here we may be meeting the same t r a d i t i o n as th a t which Ezekiel
fo llo w e d ."
1 E]_, p. 99.
^Cf. also McKenzie, "Mythological A llu s io n s ," pp. 324-25.
ÂNET3, p. 89; c f . also APT?, pp. 169-70; H e id e l, The

Gilgamesh E p ic , p. 6 8 .
4
Pope, El_, pp. 9 7 -9 8 , be lie v e s th a t the mountain o f God is
i d e n t i c a l w ith the palace o f B a a l, located on the mountain o f gods,
Mount Sapon; but since t h i s concept is common in the 0T, Ezekiel
"c o u ld ," as says McKenzie ("M ythological A llu s io n s ," p. 3 2 4 ), "a llu d e
to the mountain o f Elohim as he does here i f he had never heard o f
the palace o f Baal."
^Cf. C l i f f o r d , The Cosmic Mountain.
6 Cf. E i s s f e l d t , Baal Zaphon, pp. 5 -30.
^ C l i f f o r d , pp. 180-81; c f . also M ullen, pp. 158-65.
134
Near Eastern c o u n tr ie s , we could hardly say th a t Ezekiel borrowed
the expression s p e c i f i c a l l y from the Phoenician m a t e r i a l . W. H.
Schmidt^ says t h a t Ezek 28:1-19 is a mixture o f d i f f e r e n t mythical
m a t e r ia ls . We would say th a t the prophet could have made use of
knowledge about the m a tte r which was c i r c u l a t i n g in his days in
the whole Near E ast, and i t was included in the message God wanted
him to give.
B i b l i c a l O rigin and P a r a l l e l Hypotheses
Several b i b l i c a l passages have been pointed out as sources
or p a r a l l e l s f o r the images and m otifs found in Ezek 2 8 :1 -1 9 :
( 1 ) Gen 2 -3 ; (2 ) Gen 6 : 1 - 4 ; (3 ) Ps 82.
The Genesis Paradise Story

and E zekiel 28
I t was m ainly a t the end o f the nineteenth century th a t
scholars s ta rte d saying c a t e g o r i c a l l y th a t the m a te ria l o f our

2
passage was borrowed from Gen 2 -3 , or from a f u l l e r Babylonian
n a r r a t iv e out of which the one in Genesis also was drawn . 3

4
Among the presented s i m i l a r i t i e s or common fe a tu re s
between Gen 2-3 and Ezek 28, we have: (1 ) Eden; (2) the Garden of
God; (3 ) "primeval p e r fe c tio n and b l i s s " ; (4 ) a f a l l and expulsion
^Konigtum G o tte s , p. 35.
3 A. B e r t h o le t , Das Buch H e s e k ie l, pp. 147-48.
3 C. H. Toy, Ezekiel (SBOT 1 2 ) , p. 154.
4See McKenzie, "The L i t e r a r y C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , " p. 552;

Cassuto, Genesis, 1 :7 5 -7 6 ; Habel, pp. 522-23.
135
of a being from a good place; (5 ) the mention o f a guardian
cherub. ^
Because o f the s im i l a r term inology i t might be held th a t

2
we are d e a lin g here with an "im a g in a tiv e h a n d lin g ," or an "older
and more m ythological recension"^ o f the Paradise s to ry . But as
McKenzie observed, we fin d "some even more remarkable divergences'
between these two passages:
In E zekiel the garden is f u l l of precious stones; there are no

t r e e s ; the being is c lo th e d ; he is endowed w ith marvelous
a t t r i b u t e s ; he does not keep and t i l l the garden, which is
located on the mountain o f God; there i s noserpent; and, most
im portant o f a l l , there i s no woman. 4
Another s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t the r e je c t i o n of the
being in E zek ie l is f i n a l , and "hence no symbol o f r e c o n c i l ia t i o n
grace is to be expected. Rather, he was to be 'exposed' before
kings (v s . 1 7 ) . " ’’
Cassuto*’ has discussed a t length what are considered the
main d i f f e r e n c e s between these two passages.
Cassuto, Genesis, 1 :7 5 , adds

" p a r t i c u l a r phrases l i k e , on the day when you were created
(Ezek. x x v i i i 1 3 ), from the day you were created ( i b i d . 1 5 ),
which resemble the expression in our sec tio n (Gen. i i 4 ): when
they were c re a te d , which is p a r a l l e l t o , In the day th a t the Lord
God made (and f u r t h e r on, v 2: in the day when they were
c r e a t e d ) ; or l i k e , in the midst o f the stones o f f i r e (o f the
garden o f Eden) you walked (Ezek. x x v i i i 1 4 ) , which r e c a lls
the words in Genesis ( i i i 8 ) , walking in the garden; or l i k e ,
and I turned you to ASHES ["'.?« 'e p h e r] upon the e arth (Ezek.
x x v i i i 1 8 ) , which reminds us o f the v e rs e , f o r you are DUST
[ - , 3 ^ ‘ aphar] and to dust you s h a ll re tu rn (Gen. i i i 1 9 ) ."
Cf. als o C. Westermann, Genesis,1 :3 35 ; and Habel, p. 22, who
presents a comparative l i s t o f fe a tu re s o f the two passages, which
seems to have been made w ith some presuppositions in mind.
? 3
Kraetzschmar, p. 217. Gunkel, Genesis, p. 34.
^ " L i t e r a r y C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , " p. 552.
5 H abel, pp. 520, 522. 6 Genesis, 1:7 5.
136
The t r u t h is th a t when we c a r e f u l l y examine the points
presented above as s i m i l a r i t i e s between the two passages, we per
ceive th a t they do not prove t h a t the two authors are t a l k i n g
about the same event, in the same spot in time. The fo llo w in g
are the s i m i l a r i t i e s to consider:
1. Eden, the Garden o f God. Cassuto^ has c a lle d our
a t t e n t i o n to the f a c t th a t in Ezek 28 the garden is c a lle d "garden
of God" 1 3 ), while in Gen 2 the record says th a t the
Lord planted the garden fo r the sake o f man; in Genesis the garden
is located in the E ast, but in our passage i t is in the "Mountain
of God." Basing his remarks on passages such as Ps 3 6 :8 -1 0 ; 92:
1 2-14; Ezek 3 1 : 2 - 3 , 8 ; Isa 1 4 : 8 - 1 4 , e t c . , Yaron^ says th a t "the
garden o f Eden and the House o f God are in te rch a n g e a b le ," and th a t
“th e re is no c le a r d i v id i n g - 1 i n e between the mountain o f God and the
House o f the Lord. Indeed, we can conclude from Isa 14:13 th a t
th e re is no d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between Heaven, Eden, the side o f the
North, and the tem ple."^ C ontinu ing, he says th a t the i d e n t i t y o f
Eden and the temple (th e house o f God) "explains the presence o f
the b r e a s t - p la t e and the 's h i e l d i n g cherub' whose n a tu ra l place
is the temple, E z e k i e l's garden o f God." Yaron a c c u r a te ly observes
t h a t "here we have the key to the understanding o f the second h a l f

4
o f Ezek 28:18: 'thou hast d e f i l e d thy sanctuary'" th is j u s t i f i e s
^ I b i d . , p. 76.
p
"The Dirge over the King of T y re ," p. 40.
^ I b i d . , pp. 43-44.
4
I b i d . , p . 45; Yaron reads = sanctuary w ith some
v e rs io n s ; see BHK, "apparatus."
137
the passage j u s t quoted in the context which has to do w ith the
"Garden o f God." Thus the expression "Eden, the garden o f God,"
does not n e c e s s a rily have to be i d e n t i f i e d w ith the Garden of Eden
of Gen 2 -3 .
2. "Primeval p e r fe c t io n and b l i s s . " This expression in
i t s e l f , a p a rt from the c o n te x t , could be a p p lie d to the home of
Adam and Eve in the newly created e a r t h , as w ell as to oth e r places
where God or the gods d w e ll. P e r fe c tio n , wisdom, and p e r fe c t
beauty could be a pplied to our f i r s t parents as w ell as to any o the r
created being in realms o th e r than t h i s e a rth .
3. A fa ll and expulsion o f a being from the good p la c e .
The p ic tu r e which comes to mind in ta lk in g about being "blameless
in your ways from the day you were created . . . till i n i q u i t y was
found in you . . . and you sinned,"^ and " I drove you in disgrace
2
from" is th a t o f the f a l l o f our f i r s t parents a t the beginning
and t h e i r expulsion from the Garden o f Eden.
On the o th e r hand th e re are a l t e r n a t i v e views. One of
those has helG, since the days o f the Church F a th e r s , 2 th a t Satan
fe ll in sin before Adam and Eve d id . He was c a s t from heaven to
e a r t h , and he was the one who caused them to f a l l and be expelled
from the garden. This m a tte r is discussed below in chapter 3.
At t h i s point i t needs o n ly to be mentioned t h a t the f a l l and
expulsion of the being in the Ezekiel passage may or may not be a
p o in t adequate to demonstrate th a t the prophet obtained his m a te ria l
from Gen 2-3 or a more a n c ie n t recension o f the s to r y .
^ z e k 2 8:15 -1 6 . 2 NIV.
2Based on passages such as Gen 3; job 1 -2 ; Isa 2 4 :2 1 -2 2 ;

John 8 :4 4 ; 2 Cor 11:3; Rev 1 2 : 7 - 9 , 20:2.
138
4. The Cherub. Based on two d i f f e r e n t t e x t s , the “Cherub"
can be i d e n t i f i e d in two d i f f e r e n t ways: (1 ) I f we accept the MT as
the most r e l i a b l e and o r ig in a l te x tj the Cherub d w e lle r o f the
Garden o f God is the subject of the d irg e (2 ) I f we f o l l o w the
LXX the Cherub would be portrayed as the guardian or companion of

3 4
the garden's d w e lle r , fu lfillin g the same r o le as in Genesis.
Concerning the occurrence o f the term in vs. 14, l i n g u i s
t i c a l l y speaking, i t could be taken e i t h e r way since d iffe r e n c e s
among these views are based on v o c a liz a t io n (which the o r i g i n a l text
did not have); on the use o f commas and how we d iv id e the phrases
( t h e r e were none in the o r ig in a l t e x t ) ; and on the use o f an
e x tr a ', which— as the Dead Sea s c r o l l s have demonstrated— would
be a dangerous basis upon which to say f o r sure whether the extra
' belongs to the o r i g i n a l te x t or n o t. Concerning the a t t e s t a t i o n
of the word in vs. 16, i t could also be i n te r p r e t e d in e i t h e r way,
since the word f o r “cast out" or “expel" could be v o c a liz e d as i t
is in the MT: 7 or The former i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would
^See discussion o f the t e x t in the exegesis o f the passage

in chapter 3.
Among those who hold th is view are Cassuto ( G enesis,

1 : 8 ) ; N. H. T u r - S i n a i, Halashon V e h a s e fe r, 2 v o ls . (Jerusalem:
Magnes Press, 1 949), pp. 113-14; Widengren ( The Ascension o f the
A p o s tle , pp. 9 4 - 9 7 ); Van D ijk (pp. 9 2 - 1 2 2 ); Feinberg (pp. 160-65);
e tc .
^The a l t e r a t i o n would be very sm all: instead o f the

(vs. 14) o f the MT, we would read h k (LXX); HT’ s i 1 n n i i fo r'
■ p n n s o f the LXX. Cf. d e ta ile d discussion in Yaron, pp. 30-31.
Âmong those who hold th is view , we have: Kraetzschmar,

p. 217; Cooke, E z e k i e l , pp. 313-17; Fohrer, E z e c h ie l, p. 16; Pope,
El_, p. 98; McKenzie, "Mythological A ll u s io n s , " p. 324; Kroeze, p.
23; Zim m erli, E z e k i e l , 2:672; E ic h r o d t, E z e k i e l , p. 393; Yaron,
"The Dirge over the King o f Ty re," pp. 3 0 -3 1 ; Habel, p. 518.
139
mean th a t God was the one a cting a g a in s t the being, w hile the l a t t e r
case would have the Cherub a cting as the executor o f the sentence
upon the k in g . 1
Thus the m otifs which seemed to i d e n t i f y the Ezekiel
m a te ria l w ith the Paradise s to ry o f Gen 2-3 have not proved to pro-
2
vide very strong reasons fo r doing so. Besides t h i s we have
several remarkable divergences between these passages which cannot
be e a s i l y dismissed'. Although these passages describe d i f f e r e n t
events, I admit the language o f Genesis could have influenced
the p ro p h e t's d e s c r ip tio n .
Gen S :1-4
4
In h is a r t i c l e on Ps 82, Morgenstern has— based on his
examination o f b i b l i c a l and e x t r a - b i b l i c a l t e x t s — a rr iv e d a t the
conclusion t h a t Gen 6 : 1 - 4 ,^ Ps 8 2 , Isa 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 , and Ezek 28:11-19
have an i d e n t i c a l mythical background, from the myth o f the " f a l l e n
an g els ."^ Morgenstern lin k s Ps 82 and Isa 14:12-15 e s p e c ia lly
through the term > 3 3 ( □ ' ' > 3 3 n - Gen 6 : 4 ) which indeed appears
in the c it e d passages, but is not present in Ezek 28.^ Oespite the
^See Kroeze, p. 23.
Âgainst McKenzie, "Mythological A llu s io n s ," p. 327.
3 E z s k i e l , p. 163; c f . also Cassuto, Genesis, 1 :7 6 -8 1 ,

e s p e c i a l l y p. 81.
^"Mythological Background," pp. 76-95.

5
See above, p. 96, n. 2 f o r discussion o f the i n t e r p r e
ta tio n o f t h i s passage.
^"Mythological Background," pp. 111-14.
^See i b i d . , pp. 107-14; and M u lle n , pp. 2 38-44, who shares

the same view.
140
p o s s i b i l i t y th a t the same myth could be behind a l l these passages,^
i t cannot be said t h a t the Ezekiel passage has i t s sources, or has
a d ire c t p a r a lle l, in Gen 6 :1 -4 . Because those who a ffir m the
e xistence o f p a r a l l e li s m o r connection between Gen 6 :1 -4 and Ezek
28:11-19 do not e la b o r a te on the m a tte r s a t i s f a c t o r i l y , i t does
not warrant f u r t h e r discussion here.
Psalm 82
Several scholars have— in one way o r another— re la te d

p
Ezek 28 to Ps 82. There is no doubt th a t phrases such as " I am
god, I s i t in the seat o f the gods," "y et you are but a man, and
not god . . . , “ “you consider y o u r s e lf as wise as a god," "you
s h a ll d ie the death o f the uncircumsised," "and you sinned," " I
turned you to ashes upon the e a r t h " 3 seem to show th a t they have
something in common w ith phrases in Ps 8 2 : 1 , 6 , 7, such as: "God
has taken his place in the d iv in e c o u n c il; in the midst o f the gods
he holds judgment," "you are gods, sons o f the most high, a l l o f you;
n e v e rth e le s s , you s h a ll d ie l i k e men, and f a l l l i k e any p r in c e ."
Although i t is very doubtful t h a t th a t would be the case

w ith Gen 6 : 1 - 4 , which i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is f a r from having a consensus
among the scholars.
3 H. H upfeld, Die Psalmen, 3 v o ls . (Gotha: Verlag von F. A.

P erthes, 1860), 2 :3 0 5 -0 6 . C. A. and E. G. Briggs, The Book o f Psalms,
2 v o ls . ICC (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1906-07, 2 :2 1 4 -1 6 ,
b e lie v e th a t both passages t a l k about an assembly of the "wicked
governors o f the nations . . . c a lle d gods because as r u l e r s and
judges they r e f l e c t the d iv in e majesty o f law and order in govern
ment." See Morgenstern, "Mythological Background," pp. 111-14;
M ulle n , pp. 226 -4 4 , concerning the debated date o f Ps 82; also
Morgenstern, "Mythological Background,” pp. 119-21; Dahood, Psalms,
2:269; Kraus, Psalmen, 2:5 70 ; Ackerman, pp. 441-57.
3Ezek 2 8 : 2 , 6 , 10, 16, 18.
141
Most modern commentators on Psalms admit th a t i f not the
whole, at le a s t vss. 1, 6 , 7 of Ps 82 r e la te s to the m a tte r o f God's
heavenly c o u n c il, or His angelic h o s t J This c a r r ie s in i t s e l f
the idea of angels who, because o f t h e i r commission of some s in ,
In the most e la b o ra te stuoy on Ps 82, J. S. Ackerman has

shown th a t s t a r t i n g w ith the LXX and S yriac tr a n s la tio n s (pp. 5-16)
attempts have been made to show th a t Ps 82 has to do w ith God giving
judgment to the gods in His c o u n c il. Jerome sees th a t the Psalm is
r e la te d to other passages in the OT where God is pre sid in g over His
council in the heavens (pp. 34-36) and adds th a t those condemned
could be the pagan gods, p o l i t i c a l leaders o f I s r a e l , or I s r a e l i t e
judges (p. 3 5). During Reformation times there were th re e general
c ateg o rie s: the condemned are ( 1 ) r u l e r s and judges in I s r a e l ; (2 )
r u le r s and judges o f the nations, or (3 ) the members o f God's council
(pp. 3 7 -7 8 ). AcKerman discusses these three i n t e r p r e t a t io n s and
t h e i r main defenders from the Reformation t i l l the n in e te e n th century,
when H. Hupfeld ( Die Psalmen, 3 : 4 0 8 - 1 5 ) , made a d e t a ile d study on Ps
82 and in te r p r e te d the "condemned as subordinate angels o f the Lord"
(pp. 5 5 f f . ) . Gunkel ( Die Psalmen, p. 360) in te r p r e t s Ps 82 as pre
senting God's judgment upon His a n g e lic host. For S. Mowinckel
( Psalmenstudien I I I : K ultprophetie und Prophetische Psalmen [Amster-
dimi P. Schippers, 1 9 6 1 ], pp. 1 -1 0 5 ) Ps 82 comes from p r e - e x i 1ic
times and the condemned gods were both the gods o f the n a tio n s and
Yahweh's heavenly host; the o ', n > K are d iv in e beings who have
opposed Yahweh's w i l l ; and th is Psalm was a weapon used to re in fo r c e
monotheism. Morgenstern ("M ythological Background," pp. 29-126)
s p l i t s the Psalm, saying th a t vss. 2 -4 belonged to m a te ria l connected
w ith Jewish judges, w h ile vss. 1, 6-7 belongs to a d i f f e r e n t Psalm
and re fe rr e d to f a l l e n gods or a ngels ; and, as we have said be fore ,
he believes t h a t a common, cu rren t myth was behind passages such as
Ps 82, Isa 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 , Ezek 2 8 :1 2 -1 9 , e t c . Ackerman h im s e lf (pp. 301-
34) has examined a n c ie n t Near Eastern l i t e r a t u r e and shown th a t the
various gods were a l l o t t e d " in h e r it a n c e s " — p a r t i c u l a r l y c i t y - s t a t e
o r country— concerning which they were responsible to the d iv in e
c o u n c il, and th a t i t was t h e i r duty to communicate and to adm inister
decisions o f the d i v in e council concerning t h e i r c i t y - s t a t e s .
Besides t h a t , one o f the s t i p u l a t io n s o f agreement between the patron
d e i t y and the human r u l e r whom he s elected was th a t the r u l e r was
to care f o r and p r o t e c t the poor, dispossessed, and de fe n se le ss —
e s p e c ia lly the widow and the orphan. Based on th a t and on a sub
s t a n t i a l exegesis o f Ps 82, Ackerman has r i g h t l y defended the view
th a t Ps 8 2 :2 -4 is r e la t e d to vss. 1 , 5 c -8 , or to the gods o f the
heavenly c o u n c il, and not to I s r a e l i t e judges and r u le r s o n ly . Vss.
6 , 7 from the clim ax o f the l a w s u it , in which the gods a re condemned,
and t h e i r f a t e is probably s im i l a r to "the (= bn Sim?) who
were cast out o f heaven fo llo w in g an attempt to rebel a g a in s t Yahweh—
Elyon's r u l e . " (See Ackerman's d i s s e r t a t i o n summary, item 8 ).
Elyon is probably an ancient e p i t h e t of E l, which became an e p ith e t
of Yahweh in the I s r a e l i t e t r a d i t i o n .
142
were condemned by GodJ As f a r as the Ezekiel passage is concerned,

2
we also fin d scholars who f i r m l y b e lie v e th a t the mythical back
ground o f th is t e x t is concerned with the f a l l e n a n g e l( s ) . But
r i g h t now we are more in te r e s te d to know whether we fin d p a r a l l e l
m o tifs in the two passages, and i f the o ld e r one served as a
source f o r the l a t e r . The proposed background o f the passages is
addressed below in chapter 3.
Ps 82:1 ta lk s about God taking His place in the d iv in e
c o u n c il.^ I t is a pronouncement o f judgment w ith in the assembly
its e lf. Mullen stresses the s i m i l a r i t y o f Ezek 2 8 :2 , 9: "You are
a man, and not God"; o f a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r a l l e l to Ps 82:7: "where

4
the gods are sentenced to death ' l i k e a man'." Gunkel points
out t h a t th a t comparison is not a p p lic a b le because Ezekiel never
admits th a t the prince o f Tyre a c t u a l l y is a god,^ "but in Ps 82
the condemned beings are c a lle d D 1 n ^ x w ith o u t a p o l o g y . I t
seems th a t Gunkel is r i g h t in saying t h a t , f o r the being in Ezek
28:1-10 was to be destroyed a t the hands o f " fo r e ig n e r s ," human
beings, w hile in Ps 82, the beings were to d ie l i k e men.^ But on
^See previous note; Mullen, p. 238.

2
See above pp. 4 8 -4 9 ; Morgenstern, "Mythological Background,"
pp. 111 -1 4 , e t c . ; M ullen, p. 238.
■^Concerning the judgment o f the Council in Ps 82 see

Ackerman, pp. 298-320; M u lle n , pp. 226-44.
4 I b i d . , pp. 241-42. Mullen also th in k s t h a t the mythological

background o f the sto ry r e fe r r e d to in Ps 82 and Ezek 28 is placed
in "an h i s t o r i c a l framework in Dan 1 1 :2 1 -4 5 ." We discuss our view
of the r e l a t i o n o f th is passage to Ezek 2 8:2 -1 0 in chapter 3.
^Die Psalmen, p. 361. Âckerman, p. 60.
^Mullen (pp. 230, 243) prefers to t r a n s l a t e "lik e

Adam" and not " l i k e men," a suggestion th a t is very a t t r a c t i v e .
143
the o th e r s id e , Gunkel r i g h t l y points out th a t in vs. 14 the te x t
is t a l k i n g about a d iv in e b e in g J Indeed i t seems th a t Ezek 28:12-
19 describes a session o f the d iv in e council in which a heavenly

2
being is being condemned. As has been noted above, the environment
o f vss. 14-18 seems to be a heavenly one.
Thus while i t is c le a r th a t in Ps 82 the condemned ones
are c a lle d gods by way o f c o n tra s t we have in Ezek 28:
2-10 a case o f h y b ris.^ The idea o f a d iv in e council can be seen
behind the two passages (Ps 32; Ezek 2 8 : 1 2 -1 9 ); someone belonging
to a d iv in e council has committed a major s in 4 and, consequently,
has been condemned to death.^
In conclusion i t may be said th a t although there are d i s
s im ila ritie s in the nature and a t t i t u d e o f the beings in Ps 82 and
the Prince o f Tyre o f Ezek 2 8 :1 -1 0 , there are some s i m i l a r i t i e s in
the n a tu r e , a t t i t u d e , and d e s tin y o f the beings in the P salm ist's
and E z e k i e l's m aterial in a d d itio n to s i m i l a r i t i e s in the s e ttin g
o f both accounts. A common t r a d i t i o n may w ell l i e behind them.
Conclusions
1. Our research in to hypotheses concerning the alleged
o rig in s of and p a r a l l e l s to the Ezekiel passage discussed reveals
th a t there i s , to s t a r t w i t h , lack of c e r t a i n t y in the way scholars
Ôie Psalmen, p. 361. ^Pp. 136-39.
^See Gowan, p. 4, where he defines t h i s term as "div ine

encroachment"; see also pp. 69-71.
4In Ps 82 fo r judging u n ju s tly and in Ezek 28 because o f

p r i d e , v io le n c e , and c o rru p tio n o f wisdom.
5Ps 8 2 :6 -7 ; Ezek 2 8:1 8 -1 9 . The time of the death is not

s p e c ifie d in e i t h e r o f the passages.
144
r e la t e the two oracles (vss. 2-10 and vss. 12-19) concerning the
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the fig u r e o f the Prince o f Tyre and the King o f
Tyre, and in t h e i r r e la t i o n to each o th e r . Because of t h i s f a c t
we have t o s e p a ra te , to a c e r t a in e x t e n t , these two te x ts in the
search f o r possible o rig in s and p a r a l l e l m a te r ia ls .
2. Concerning the f i r s t o r a c le i t has been found th a t
although the passage deals w ith a case o f hy b ris — which was q u ite
common in a ncie nt Near Eastern c u l t u r e s — a study o f phrases or
m otifs has in d ic a te d th a t expressions such as " I am god" ( M X "? « ) ,
" I s i t on the throne o f God in the h e a rt o f the seas," and “You
are w iser than Daniel" ( I ’ X M ) cannot support the view t h a t the
author is here r e f e r r i n g to U g a r i t i c m a te ria ls or d i r e c t l y borrowing
from o th e r a n cie n t myths. The r e s t o f the content o f the o ra c le
makes use o f words and expressions which are common to b i b l i c a l
l i t e r a t u r e elsewhere. In summary i t may be said th a t although
most of the terms and expressions used are common in the b i b l i c a l
t e x t , i t cannot be said th a t the a u th o r obtained his ideas from
any s p e c i f i c m a t e r i a l .
3. As f a r as the second o ra c le is concerned, our in q u ir y
has shown th a t there are s i m i l a r i t i e s between the Ezekiel m a te ria l
and the Mesopotamian and U g a r i t i c a lle g e d p a r a l l e l s , but they are
of the n a tu re o f " d e s c r ip tiv e a l l u s i o n s . " The d iffe r e n c e s between
them are e x te n s iv e . We cannot deny th a t some elements such as "the
mountain o f God," the "Cherub" ( K a r ib u ) , e t c . , are found in
Mesopotamian m a te r ia ls . But they a lso appear in the b i b l i c a l
l i t e r a t u r e expressed in a Yahwistic c o n te x t. When we compare the
Ezekiel account in i t s t o t a l i t y w ith those o f e x t r a - b i b l i c a l
145
l i t e r a t u r e , we a r r i v e a t the conclusion th a t nothing can be found
from which we. could w ith c e r t a i n t y say the author derived his
m a te ria l.
4. Concerning the b i b l i c a l m a t e r i a l , research has led us to
conclude t h a t the Ezekiel passage seems not to have been derived
from the Paradise s to ry — w ith the f i r s t man as the main p ro ta g o n is t—
as many scholars b e lie v e . The being, the environment, and the
events experienced in vss. 12-19 are very d i f f e r e n t from those
r e la te d to the f i r s t man as recorded in Genesis. The occurrences
r e fle c te d in t h i s o ra cle seem, in some aspects, to r e l a t e i t to
events which happened beyond the e a r t h ly realm; i t resembles events
th a t occurred cn the d iv in e council le v e l as presented in Ps 82.
I t seems t h a t both Isa 14:12 -1 5 and Ezek 28:12-19 r e f l e c t the story
of the f a l l e n angels, which is f e l t , although not n e c e s s a r ily
expressed, in e x p l i c i t terms in many b i b l i c a l passages.
From the discussion o f th is chapter i t may be concluded
th a t although the existence o f some elements and imagery common
w ith those in the l i t e r a t u r e from I s r a e l ' s neighbors may be present
here, the same elements are found— almost in t h e i r t o t a l i t y — in
the OT. As a consequence i t would be a s afer procedure to perform
the f i n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the t e x t in b i b l i c a l c ontext where we
can e x e rt more c o n t r o l .
That being the case, t h i s study turns next to an examination
of the Is a ia h and the Ezekiel passages by themselves in t h e i r own
c o n te xt, in r e l a t i o n to each o t h e r , and in the co n te xt o f the re s t
of the OT. In so doing, an e f f o r t is made to i n t e r p r e t these te x ts
in a way t h a t i d e n t i f i e s t h e i r main fig u re s more c l e a r l y .
CHAPTER I I I
THE TAUNT AGAINST THE KING OF BABYLON AND THE
PRINCE AND KING OF TYRE
Isaiah 1 4 : 4 b -21
L im its o f the Poem
The l i m i t s o f the peri cope in which our passage is located
a r e , according to the MT, vss. 3-23 The poetic passage is
composed mainly o f 3:2 qinah rhythm, w ith an introduction and con-

2
e lu sio n in prose. The formula "when (th e Lord) has given (you)
r e s t" ^ serves also as a connection. Concerning the content i t seems
t h a t a new theme is introduced in vss. 3, 4a, about which nothing

4
is e s p e c i a l l y spoken o f be fore . The q u a l i t y of the poetry and
The d irg e concerning the king o f Babylon in Isa 14 belongs

to the K *5 Q which comprehend chaps. 1 3 :1 -1 4 :2 3 . Cf. Leon J.
L ie b r e ic h , "The Compilation o f the Book o f I s a ia h ," JQR 47 (1 9 5 6 -5 7 ):
118 -1 9 ; Erlandsson, pp. 109-27; W ild b e rg er, p. 537.
^W. S. P rin s lo o , " Is a ia h 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 — H u m ilia tio n , Hubris,

H u m ilia t io n ," ZAW 93 (1 9 8 1 ):4 3 3 .
3m : rr □ m 2 m m . The more o fte n used formul as are

sinn s m and m n n n m m , but the one in our passage
has the same fu n c tio n ; see W ildberger, pp. 112-13, 536-37.
^Robert Lowth ( Is a ia h : A New T ra n s la tio n and Notes [London:

Thomas Tegg 4 Son, i 8 3 7 ] , pp. 216, 218) s ta te s th a t i t is "an ode of
supreme and s in g u la r excellence . . . ," "For beauty o f d i s p o s i t i o n ,
s tre n g th o f c o lo r in g , greatness of sentim ent, b r e v i t y , p e rs p e c u ity ,
and force o f expression, i t stands among a l l the monuments o f a n t i q u i t y
u n riv a lle d ." 0. E i s s f e l d t ( The Old Testament, An In tr o d u c tio n , tra n s .
P e te r R. Ackroyd [New York: Harper 4 Row, 1965J , p. 197) s ta te s i t to
be "the most powerful prophetic dirg e which we possess in the Old
146
i t s use o f the qinah^ meter make the passage very d i s t i n c t from i t s
background. Although, as says Cobb, "we fin d i t (the t e x t ) marked
o f f form i t s context w ith only a narrow penumbra on e i t h e r s id e ,"

3 4
it seems th a t from vs. 24 on we have a d i f f e r e n t m a tte r. Concerning
vss. 1-3 there is more disagreement among scholars, who are d iv id e d

5
among those who b e lie v e those verses are the prophet's product
and others who say they were w r i t t e n by a l a t e r hand.^ The case
f o r e d i t o r i a l a c t i v i t y has been argued w ith v ig o r ; the d iffe r e n c e in
Testament . . . and indeed one o f the most precious o f a l l OT poems.

. . ." 0. Kaiser ( Is a ia h 13-39 OTL [ P h ila d e lp h ia : The Westminster
Press, 1974], p. 29) adds t h a t i t " is one o f the most powerful poems
not only o f the OT, but o f the whole w o rld ."
1-See on the qin a ii C. Budde, "Poetry (Hebrew)," DB (1 9 0 5 -1 2 )

2 :5 ; idem, "Das Hebraische K la g e lie d ," pp. 1-52; Eduard S iev e rs ,
Metrische Studien I : Studien zu r Hebraischen M e trik (L e ip z ig : B. G.
Teubner, 1901); W ildbe rger, p. 537.
2 W. H. Cobb, "The Ode in Is a ia h X IV ," JBL 15 (1 8 9 6 ):1 8 .

3
There are several d i f f e r e n t views concerning the end o f the
poem: Wildberger (p . 537) who th in k s the poem ends w ith vs. 20;
M arti ( Das Buch J e s a ja , KHC [Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr (P. S ieh s c k),
1 90 0 ], p. 122 ); H. L. Ginsberg ( The Book o f Is a ia h , A New T r a n s la tio n
[P h ila d e lp h ia : Jewish Pub. S o c ie ty o f America, 1 973], p. 4 4 );
A. Dupont Sommer ("Note exegetique sur Is a ie 1 4 :1 6 -2 1 ," RHR 134 [1948]
7 2 - 8 0 ) ; and G. B. Gray ( I s a i a h , p. 232) argue f o r vs. 21 as the end
o f the ode. W. H. Cobb (pp. 24-25 ) closes the poem w ith vs. 22;
E. J. Kissane ( The Book o f I s a i a h , 2 v o ls . [D u b lin : Browne and
Nolan, 1 94 1 ], 1:167) ends i t w ith vs. 23; e tc .
4Most o f the scholars b e lie v e vss. 24-27 r e f e r to the f a l l of

an Assyrian King, probably Sennacherib; c f . Cobb, p. 18; E. Henderson,
pp. 127, 138.
c
C f. Henderson, p. 127; A. Dillm ann, Der Prophet Jesaia
( L e ip z ig : S. H i r z e l , 189 0 ), pp. 125, 133; and M a r t i , p. 122, who
a t t r i b u t e s vss. I - 4 a to the author o f 1 3 :2 -2 2 .
^Cf. T. K. Cheyne, The Prophecies o f I s a i a h , 1:288; Duhm,

p. 116; G. H. Box, The Book o f Is a ia h (Londo~n~: Isaac Pitman, 1 908),
p. 73; Skinner, I s a i a h , p. 112; Procksch, Jesaia I , p. 193;
W ildberger, p. 537.
148
manner o f speaking and s t y le is s e l f - e v i d e n t . Both 1 4 : l - 4 a and
22:23 appear to presuppose and use 1 4 :4 b -21 in i t s c o n t e x t J

2
H. Barth notes several strong points in the passage which show
t h a t 1 4 : 1 - 4a and 22-23 form a kind o f in c lu s io th a t he holds was
shaped by the e d i t i n g arrangement o f the complex o f 1 3 :1 -1 4 :2 7 .

3 4
Duhm came up w ith the argument and Cobb fu rth e re d the
idea th a t the s p i r i t o f vss. 1-3 agrees with p o s t - e x i l i c l i t e r a t u r e ,
e s p e c i a l l y the book o f Zechariah, and th a t the Isaiah passage must
be dependent on the w r i t i n g o f the p o s t - e x i l i c prophet, where the
expressions come in more n a t u r a l l y . Thus, although th e re is d i s
agreement about by whom and when vss. l - 3 ( 4 a ) were w r i t t e n , scholars
are unanimous as f a r as the beginning o f the song is concenred.
The word "> K— besides the points presented above— shows th a t the
lament has s ta r te d . Concerning the point a t which the poem should
end, we w i l l return to t h i s a f t e r discussing the stanzas d e lim ite d
in the passage.
P o etic S tru c tu re and Form
I t was only a l i t t l e more than two c e n tu rie s ago th a t t h i s
powerful song s ta rte d to be seen as i t should be, in the rhythmic
form in which— with g r e a t p r o b a b i l i t y - - i t was o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n .
^H. Barth, p. 126.
Âs f o r example (a g a in s t them) which r e f e r s back

to the mentioned p l u r a l i s t i c independent item o f vss. 20b, 21. The
expression n m t n j n n n (and shall r u le over t h e i r oppressors,
vs. 2 ) , and the e x p l i c i t or i m p l i c i t d is tin g u is h in g mark o f s la v e ry
o f the subject in vss. 2 - 6 is in conformity w ith the subjugation in
vss. 4b—21.
3 P. 116. 4 Pp. 1 8-20 .
149
In the eighteenth c e n tu r y } R. Lowth, the f a t h e r o f modern a n aly s is
o f a ncie nt Hebrew p o e try , attempted to arrange the order o f the
poem in his study o f i t .

2
H. Ewald went a step f u r t h e r , d iv id in g the poem in to f i v e
stanzas and c o n tr ib u tin g some comments on the rhythm o f the poetry.
•J. Ley and G. B ic k e ll made f u r t h e r advances,^ but i t was C. Budde
wno, in doing a study o f the s tr u c tu re o f the Hebrew poetry in the
book o f Lamentations, discovered the use o f what came to be c a lle d

4
qinah meter, which is well represented in Isa 14.
In qinah meter every l i n e or p o e tic verse has fiv e accents.
The verses or l i n e s are "uniform ly composed in verses o f two members,
the length of the f i r s t o f which stands to t h a t o f the second in the
proportion of 3 : 2 , g iv in g r is e to a p e c u lia r limping rhythm, in
which the second member as i t were dies away and e x p ire s ." '*
Lowth equated the genre o f the Is a ia h ode to the one found
in Lamentations o f Jeremiah;** Ewald was o f the opinion th a t Ezek 19
served as a p a tte r n to the w r i t e r o f t h i s poem;^ Budde believed in
^R. Lowth, Lectures on the Sacred Poetry o f the Hebrews,

1:217; idem., I s a i a h : A New T r a n s l a t i o n , pp. x x i i i , 26-27.
^H. Ewald, pp. 158-62.
^See G. B i c k e l l , "Aus einem B r ie fe des Herrn P rof. G. B i c k e l l , "

ZDMG 33 ( 1 8 7 9 ) :7 0 1 -0 6 ; C. Budde, "Das Hebraische K la g e lie d ," pp. 12-17.
4 Budde, "Das Hebraische K la g e lie d ," pp. 1 -5 2.
^Cf. C. Budde, "Poetry (Hebrew)," DB ( 1 9 1 1 ) , 4 :5 . Norman

Gottwald ("P o e try [Hebrew]," IDB [ 1 9 6 2 ] , 3:834) i l l u s t r a t e s the
breaking short o f the second colon as being " l i k e a catch in the
t h r o a t . " G. Von Rad, Old Testament Theology, 2 v o ls . tra n s . D. M. G.
S ta lk e r (New York: Harper and Row, 1 9 6 2 -6 5 ), 2 :3 8 , warning a gains t
the tendency to view the qinah as a uniform genre, says th a t "the
l a t e r prophets a c t u a l l y turned i t (th e d ir g e ) upside down and
parodied i t . "
**Lowth, I s a i a h , p. 224. Êwald, p. 162.
150
the p o s s i b i l i t y th a t the l a t e r author o f Isa 14 had borrowed the
a r t form from the book of Lam entationsJ
I f on one side i t is agreed among the scholars th a t the dirge
was w r itte n in the qinah meter s t y l e , the s it u a t io n is not the same
concerning the s trophical d iv is io n o f the poem. S. Drechsler fin d s
two main lin e s in the song, vss. 4 b - 11. 12-21, each with three
2
stanzas o f r e g u la r a lt e r n a t i n g rhythms ( 3 : 2 : 3 ; 4 : 2 : 4 ) : vss. 4 b-6 ,
7 - 8 , 9-1 1; 1 2 -1 5 , 16-17, 18-21. Ewald divided the poem in to f i v e
s tanzas, each having seven longer or s h o rte r l i n e s , with the excep
t io n o f the l a s t which— he says— f i t s the a r t form o f the lament and
has f i v e l i n e s ; thus the d iv is io n vss. 4 b -8 , 9 -1 1 , 1 2-15, 16-19,
2 0 -2 1 .3 Duhm,4 M e i e r , 3 Q u e l l , 3 e t c . , 7 also see f i v e stanzas or
p a rts in the poem.Wildberger avoids the term "stanza11 (s tro p h e )

O
and suggests "section" (A b s c h n itte n ).
I t seems, then, th a t we can s a f e ly a f f ir m th a t vss. 4 b-8 ,
8 - 1 1 , and 12-15 c o n s titu te the th re e f i r s t d iv is io n s or strophes o f
the poem and, as Ewald says, "They d iv id e themselves according to
ûdde, "Das Hebraische K la g e lie d ," p. 15.
^Quoted in i b i d . , p. 12. 3Ewald,pp. 158-62.
4Pp. 116-22; vss. 4 b-8 , 9 -1 1 , 12-15 , 16-19 a , 19b-21.
3Cf. Budde, "Das Hebraische K la g e lie d ," p. 12. M e ie r ’ s

d iv is i o n is as fo llo w s: vss. 3 - 6 , 7 - 1 0 , 11-12, 13-17, 1 8-23 .
3Pp. 146-56. Q u e ll ’ s d i v is i o n i s : vss. 4 b-8 , 9 -1 1 , 1 2-15 ,

1 6 - 20b; 2 0 c -21; the l a s t section is not considered a stanza.
7See a lso M a r t i , pp. 123-27; Lohmann, Die anonymen

P ro p h e tie n , pp. 19-20.
^ W ildberger, pp. 540-41.
151
the three great d i v is i o n s — e a r t h , lower w orld, and heavenJ
Let us now examine in more d e t a i l these c l e a r l y determined
three f i r s t d iv is io n s o f the poem and, l a t e r , the r e s t o f the poem.
Strophe I — Vss. 4b-8
n n m n nn oa ■a 3 3 1 3 1 1 ■>K 4b
□ • > " ? o n □ 2 to o •>y o n la n m m to o 5
m o ', n ’?o h d q 11373 m o 7 133 6
io n O n q u a 3 1 3 1X3 m i
m o in is ? i k n “ 3 no p f.1 in i 7
I u i ) m x - P 7 I D 'S 0 "• 0 1 1 0 ~03 8
.113 1 m v ^ ~ x i 13 3 1 r «0
The f i r s t bicolon o f the stanza seems to have an undisturbed
qinah meter. The f i r s t word (" P K ) , which appears also in vs. 12,
2
is the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o s s i l o f the lament. The second bicolon has
an e x tra stress in the f i r s t colon. Stark^ had a lre a d y suggested

4
the s t r i k i n g out o f m m and read " in s as 1 3 0; Guthe favored
reading 1 3 S T . W ildberger accepts these suggestions and says th a t
since the poem does not make use o f God's name, the m n 1 in vs. 5
must be a secondary i n t e r f e r e n c e .^ However, since 1Q Isa brings the
tetragramaton in vs. 5, and we do not have any manuscript which
Ewald, p. 162. C f. G. A. Smith, The Book o f I s a i a h , (New

York: A. C. Armstrong, 1 9 0 8 ), p. 409. For the development o f the
h is to r y o f the study o f the s tro p h ic s tru c tu re o f Hebrew P o etry,
see Ch. F. K r a f t , The S trophic S tru c tu re o f Hebrew (Chicago:
U n iv e r s ity Press, 1938). P rin slo o (p . 434) has, by means o f a
s y n ta tic a l a n aly s is o f vss. 1 2-15 , demonstrated how those verses
c o n s t itu te a " n e a tly fin is h e d c i r c u l a r s tru c tu re (ABA)," which
strengthens the view t h a t vss. 12-15 are the t h i r d stanza o f the
poem.
2
See W ildberger, p. 539.
S ta e rk , Das assyrische W e ltr e ic h , p. 227.
4See H. Jahnow, Das Hebraische L e ic h e n lie d , p. 239.
^Wildberger, p. 534.
152
omits i t , E. S i e v e r s ' 1 suggestion th a t we should keep m n *> w ith
the stress ly in g upon i t and the verb as an anacrusis is s t i l l v a lid .
The t h i r d and fo u rth bicola o f th is strophe f i t p e r f e c t l y in
the meter used in the poem, since the l a s t stresses o f both bicola
are formed by two words in construct s ta te : 2 n Pa.
The f i f t h and s ix t h b ic o la have p r o c l i t i c s joined to the fo llo w in g
words by the maqqeph, y - i x i T P a and a 1 3 i t and run smoothly.
The l a s t bicolon o f the stanza is a re g u la r f i v e - s t r e s s one, except

2 3
th a t the pause f a l l s a f t e r the second stress w ith "a r h e t o r i c a l "
pause a f t e r the t h i r d .
Strophe I I — Vss. 9-11
-]«n ax-.p) n m nnno ^ xa 9

vix 1n n y ” 3 a a 1 x ej a 1> m y
a n 3 •'D 'p n > 3 m i x o a a a'1 pn
-p p x t a a x n u v a >a 10
nP y a a 1 a 1 > « i n a a n o n a n « _ aa
1 ■
>P a a m arr 1 2 a xa P a s o m rr n
av?an v o a a a a a a v t -1 v a n n
In the f i r s t two b ic o la the poet uses the p a r t i c l e ~i P in two
d i f f e r e n t ways: as an e n c l i t i c 1 P “ n t 3 ~i (9a) and as c a rry in g a
fu ll stress in i t s e l f ( 9 b ) . That is a choice the w r i t e r can u t i l i z e
in w r itin g p o e try . In the f i r s t colon o f the t h i r d bicolon we fin d
only two words, c m x o a n a ^ p n , and here occurs Budde's case 4 2 , 4
where instead o f three words two weighty ones are used. The next
^Metrische Studien I : Studien zur Hebraischen M e trik

(L e ip z ig : B. G. Teubner, 1 901), p. 439.
n
Budde's Case #3 (the main accent f a l l s in the second and
not in the t h i r d word, and the f i r s t member o f the bicolon is smaller
than the second o n e ); “Das Hebraische K la g e lie d ," p. 7.
3Cobb, p. 21.
Ônly two words in each member, and because one is longer

and more powerful i t predominates and c a r r ie s one p o in t; "Das
Hebraische K l a g e l i e d , ” p. 7.
153
bicolon i s , as shown in the MT, too s h o rt. Duhm and Cheyne" pe r
ceived the lacuna but did not suggest any word to f i l l it. Cobb'*
suggested ' p i ' ; - , before P a , saying th a t " i t would form an assonance
w ith "P ^ K , as in vs. 16." M a r t i 4 suggested n n n t f a "with gla d
ness"; and 3HS n : n 5 or n n rr . However, as says P rin s lo o , " it
is r i s k y to emend the t e x t on the strength o f the metre. The metre
o f 12b could be e i t h e r a d i s t i n c t i v e v a r i a t i o n , or could even pass
as 2:3 m e t r e . T h e l a s t three b ic o la o f t h i s second strophe do
not o f f e r any m e tr ic a l problem.
Strophe I I I — Vss. 12-15
n p j p x 12
a n r v ; y a xy ny t a :
i i ’7 V X D ' > D ‘»n m ax nnxi 13
■•xoaamx 7 x - ' | 23iai> >yaa
p s s T ia v a a y t a ~a n a a y x i
I rtaax av ’ n a a ' V ; ny y x 14
m a _ ', n a - p ~ ? x - m n y i x y y x i x 15
The second bicolon is too short in i t s f i r s t colon i f we want
to preserve the 3 :2 meter. The BHS, fo llo w in g a host o f scholars
from the end o f the n ineteenth century o n ,'7 suggests f i l l i n g the
gap with 1 ^ x as we found in the f i r s t bicolon (1 2 a ) . Although the
V 118.
The Book o f the Prophet Isa ia h (New York: Dodd, Mead,

and Co., 1898), p. 62.
3P. 22. 4P. 124.
^See, e . g . , 1 3 :9 , 17; 47:14 f o r use o f n 3 n. C f. Lohmann,

Die anonymen P ro p h e tie n , p . 20.
^ "Is a ia h 1 4 :12 -1 5 — H u m ilia t io n ," p. 434.
^Cheyne, Prophecies o f I s a i a h , p. 9; idem, The Book o f the

Prophet I s a i a h , p. 63; Duhm, p. 119; M a r t i , p. 124; S ta erk , Das
assyrische W e l t r e ic h , p. 227.
154
suggestions o f Cobb and the BHS are a t t r a c t i v e s and t h e i r proposed
emmendations do not change the sense o f the phrase but only c o rrec t
the m eter, we do not fin d the apparent lac k in g word supplied in any
MS, in c lu d in g IQ Is 3 . The author could have w r it t e n t h i s 2:2 bicolon
as an in tr o d u c tio n to the d i r e c t address th a t fo llo w s , or i n t e n t i o n a l l y
produced the three f i r s t stanzas w ith one odd fcicolon as a p a tte rn .^
I do not see any o th e r m etrical i r r e g u l a r i t y in th is t h i r d d iv is io n
o f the poem.
Strophes IV and V--V ss. 1 6 - 2 1 ( 2 2 ) ^
u j i i r p trr-* a an v k i 16
n i u t ’ QD y t s n t 1 1 i d ' J1 x n mri
Din m v i ^ 1 3 3 17
3 i-i] 18 nmnnriD-ro m n x
T n m S'* X 1U D 1 1DDD :> D
2 y ri j tsdd i m po nD^-i n hn«i 19
' u ' ^ dx 'I'K i t’ v tin 1 r;a a yi ny
u tiD p : n n K ' r n n _ x ,? 2 0 d d i d pd 3d
n n n ]D y n n y i s i x - ■>3
C ’y m y n T d p v p
a m n x 11 y t nnso i ’ddp n n n 21
y ^ y P n n ~ '> D 3 t x p d i vpx p i i D P -1' ! :
nixi'i mni 3x3 tnoy 1 napi
m m "3X3 i D j i n1 n t k an ay p d d p n n m 22
The word n t n (16b) is p r o c l i t i c and forms one stress with the
word T xn th a t fo llo w s . I f we have in t h i s poem, as i t stands, those
f a i r l y good— m e t r i c a l l y speaking— d iv is io n s a t f i r s t , the same is not
tru e concerning the fo llo w in g two; f o r beginning w ith the fo u rth bicolon
(v s . 17b) there is a disturbance in the sense and rhythm o f the poem.
Stanza I , vss. 4-8— 6 b ic o la w r i t t e n in q in a h , the l a s t one

reversed in 2:3
Stanza I I , vss. 9-11— 6 b ic o la w r i t t e n in qinah w ith the
middle one reversed in 2:3
Stanza I I I , vss. 12-15— 6 b ic o la w r it t e n in q in a h , w ith the
second one reversed or shortened to 2 :2 .
2
Because o f the apparent disturbance e x i s t e n t a t the end o f
the fo u rth stanza and beginning o f the f i f t h stanza, which makes i t
d i f f i c u l t to d e l i m i t them w ith c e r t a i n t y , we put them together and
arranged the b ic o la a r b i t r a r i l y .
155
Sudde c a l l s a tte n tio n to the Athnah in the word o 2 3 in
vs. 13 and a ffirm s th a t T n a n U D 3 ay a ’ D ia 'iD
should be the f i f t h bicolon o f the strophe; he cuts o f n n 1 : in
vs. 17 because, he says, no e q u iv a le n t is found in the Greek and
Syriac tran s atio n s and suggests th a t the genuine conclusion o f vs.
17 (o r fo u rth bicolon of the strophe) should be the form

i 2 ,
a a'< a y z n x ." Cobb agrees th a t Budde s suggestion re stores vss.
17 and 18 to r e g u l a r i t y but asks i f “t h i s is not secured a t a too
high p r i c e " ; he proposes the dropping o f rr n 3 and the reading o f i t
over in to the next verse. G r a tz , P e rle s , and K i t t e l 3 suggest the
reading n 1 .? ^ :p -p ? « £ ' which supplies the
p re p o s itio n 7 to the f i r s t word, and adds a new word (which
in turn is formed by the n from n n ■> a plus ^ 3 from the beginning
of vs. IS by supplying an x o f the noun x > 3 ). The f i f t h bicolon
of the stanza would then beformed by the next f i v e words in vs. 18:
11P3 323 a m '> 3 2 3 . As f a r as i n *> 2 a "J ^ x is con
cerned, Wildberger thinks i t could be a gloss.
Dupont-Sommer3 thinks th a t i t seems impossible to consider
the colon Q ^ n 'l 3 ’? 3 “ '?3 "All the kings o f the nations" as the
complement of the l a s t colon o f vs. 17 and says th a t those words belong
^"Das Hebraische K la g e lie d ," p. 13; c f . also Dupont-Sommer,

"Note e xegetique," p. 74.
. 22; c f . also M a r t i , p. 126.
3Cf. M a r t i , p. 126.
4"Den Gefangenen o ff n e t e e r n ic h t das Haus des Gefangnisses."

Wildberger (p. 535) follow s th is suggestion but v o ca lizes the l a s t
word o f the bicolon as (verb ). ("Das Haus, da e r sie
verschlossen h i e l t . " ) *’ "r
3,,Note e xe ge tique ," pp. 7 3-74.
156
w ith not to what precedes but to what follow s; on the o th e r hand
he assents th a t t n ^ 2 2 u1 « n : : : 2^2 form a p e r fe c t
bicolon. That being so, Dupont-Sommer suggests th a t vs. 17c is
incomplete and lacks a colon o f two stresses to have an expected
qinah bic o lo n . In s im i l a r fa s h io n , vs. 18a c o n s titu te s the beginning
o f a new bicolon which l o s t several words. The o th e r f i v e b ic o la
a r e , according to him, i n t a c t ; w ith th is arrangement the fo u rth
strophe o f the poem ends w ith the f i r s t bicolon of vs. 19. I t seems
t h a t the f i r s t bicolon of vs. 19 makes sense and is in a p e r fe c t
pentameter.
Ewald^ a lre a d y perceived the d i f f i c u l t y in vs. 19 and, in
t r y in g to e s t a b lis h sense and rhythm, had set the words O i l 3 "■ 2 2 2
o f the end o f vs. 19 a f t e r the Athnah o f the same verse and pulled
out the r e s t o f the verse as f i r s t colon o f vs. 20 ("Those who go
down to the stones o f the grave— w ith them a r t thou not joined in
2
b u ria l" ). But in t h i s arrangement 19b is s t i l l too long f o r a
re g u la r qinah b ic o lo n . Budde th in k s th a t vs. 20a has something
clumsy in i t s f i r s t bicolon and does not e lim in a te the p o s s i b i l i t y
o f damage in the c ontext. He suggests th a t in the p lace o f
m i3 P 3 a n rt we should read c n i ~i 2 p 2 which makes (f o llo w in g
Ewald's suggestion) 20a a r e g u la r f i v e - s t r e s s b ic o lo n . Thus,
fo llo w in g the above o bservations, vss. 1 9 -20a wouldappear:
:v n i i^ 3b - j- i n p o n2 P y n anki
i ] 33 2 -i rr ■» 2 y a n a ^ 2 rr tn 2 >
i n n * x 7 ~r 11 ^
^P. 160. ^Thus also Cobb, p. 23.
^"Das Hebraische K la g e lie d ," p. 13.
157
The t e x t arranged according to Ewald, Budde, Duhm, and Cobb
includes vs. 22 as belonging to the poem, completing the f i v e
stanzas o f seven pentameter verses each. Dupont-SommerJ d is
cussing in d e t a i l the m e tr ic a l and contextual problems of vss.
19 b -21, proposes th a t the passage 19b-20a should not antecede but
fo llo w 20b-21. In doing t h a t the word D ', ~iy , which is superfluous,
u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , and in excess to the meter o f 21b, would precede
ivaa ^ n n "i t n 7 ( □ ’• a y ) , which would give sense to
the word i a7 . Besides t h a t , i t would complete the meter o f th a t
bicolon (Dupont-Soiraner suggests a small emmendation o f the word
or t h a t i t be read as ', a~iy C=', ? ' ! V , or ^ a ~[V ] "naked,
d e s p o ile d " ). Thus the stanza would be presented as,
n n n i ay nnn
i 2f - t N “ a
y aa y i r K-,p-»-xy
a n u x ir ; a nnao'i'-aay n n n
) 3 n■ 1i s i y -iK itf-m Tap^-ya
n a n ' * 3y o n a ■> 3 ~i n y 3 3 y 1 a ~ty
2 ....................... ',1 3 ‘ ', ] 3 S _ y x
4am a a 3 a3 naiapa a n k ~ n n - sy
Dupont-Sommer adds t h a t the accident which caused th a t
a l t e r a t i o n was a very simple one: lack of space led a copyist to
w r ite in the margin the l a s t three verses le a v in g in the column
^"Note e x e g e tiq u e ," pp. 75-80.

2
In Dupont-Sommer1s view there was a loss o f two words or
stresses in 19c.
În b e h a lf of b e t t e r sense, 19d is transposed and placed

a f t e r 20a.
4
Because you have destroyed your la n d , s la in your people,
W ill never be named again the o ff s p r in g o f the wi.cked:
Prepare a sla u g h ter f o r his sons; because o f the g u i l t o f ( t h e i r f a t h e r ) :
Lest they r i s e and possess the e a rth and f i l l the face o f the world!
Unclothed o f ( h i s ) garment, slaughtered, pierced by the sword,
They descend to the stones o f the p i t . . .
You w i l l not j o i n them in b u r ia l l i k e a corpse trampled underfoot.
158
the f i r s t word o f these three verses ( ' , .2 ~,. v ) ; a l a t e r c o p y is t, in
r e -in tr o d u c in g the passage from the margin in to the column again,
put i t between stanzas f our and f i v e , instead o f a t the end; as a
re s u lt 2 1 2 '? was separated from ' • o n v and l e f t to o f f e r with
a 1 1 i n a strange combination. As f a r as the word ^ a i V is con
cerned, l e f t a t the end o f the poem, i t was changed, more or less
w ith the c o n te x t, to D ', ~ iy .
We have to agree w ith Dupont-Sommer th a t t h i s r e c o n s titu
tio n o f the stanza o ff e r s a lim p id sense. However, Dupont-
Sommer1s pro p o s itio n has against i t some strong points such as:
(1 ) i t demands a d r a s t ic a l t e r a t i o n in the order o f the members
o f the stanza; (2 ) i t requires the tr a n s p o s itio n o f two other
words ( 3 3 1 a ■ '.3 3 2 ) from the MT o rd e r; (3 ) i t demands the emmen-
dation of the word a 1 I V in to 1 a n v ; and (4 ) i f the mentioned
s c r ib e 's change in the order o f some verses r e a l l y happened, we
would have the chance— although a small one— o f having some MS
w ith the o r i g i n a l or d i f f e r e n t reading (but 1QIsa shows nothing
of the k in d ). At any r a t e , Dupont-Soirener' s suggestion, despite its
a ttra c tiv e n e s s , s t i l l is only a c o n je c tu re . I t is p a r t i c u l a r l y
a t t r a c t i v e in one aspect— i t contends f o r a poem o f f i v e stanzas
o f pentameter verses, ending w ith vs. 21, which i t seems was most
l i k e l y the o r i g i n a l ending o f the poemJ

2
Other scholars have t r i e d to re co n s tru c t t h i s apparently
Âlthough BHS t r i e s , in opposition to BHK^, to w r ite verse

members in vss. 22-23, the r e s u lt s a r e , as notes W ildeberger, "only
' l i n e s ' w ith a r b i t r a r y meter w ith o u t the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a ra lle iis m u s
membrorum o f the Hebrew poetry" (p . 537).
2
Duhm (pp. 120-21) a lre a d y recognized d i f f i c u l t i e s in v s i .
1 9 f f . due, according to him, to c o p y is ts ' n e g lig e n c e, marginal
159
disturbed passage (vss. 19-20a) o f the poem, but in doing so they
d e a l t w ith the t e x t a r b i t r a r i l y and o ffe re d only c o njectures. We
do not discuss the d e t a i l s o f these various views concerning the
possible s o lu tio n o f th is a p p a re n tly disarrayed p a rt o f the poem,
because i t is not c ru c ia l to the main o b je c tiv e o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .
We would l i k e to say, however, t h a t despite our ignorance in r e l a t i o n
to the o r i g i n a l arrangement o f these f i v e or s ix b i c o la , upon one
thing most o f the scholars agree: the poem was o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n
in f i v e stanzas o f seven b ic o la each in qinah meter. We are almost
sure th a t vs. 21 marks the end o f the poem; the t h i r d stanza is a
kind o f climax or high p o in t in the poem, and i t s language stands
out as very d i s t i n c t i v e in r e l a t i o n to the other four stanzas.
notes, e t c . ; and proposed f o r vss. 19-20a, the fo llo w in g recon

s tr u c tio n ,
3 3n ”> ] y a a □ •> : 3 3 n 3 n 3 ? n nnxi
0 3 3 1 3 1 3 3 D 11 3 ” 1 3 x ^T ]1 1
d v d 'd id ip d O o r a ; -=p k ]
[ n ; j 3 ] •■d i p [7 1 3 3 d t f53 32? V * ]
r r o 3 3 ? 3 n n « ~ n n S'? " V p p/1 5 k.
Du aber b i s t hingeworfen u nte r ErWlirgte'Schwertdurchbohrte
Hinabfahrend zu den Steinen der Grube, wie ein z e r tre te n e s Aas.
[0 wie b i s t du e n t f e r n t ] von deinen Grabe, wie ein verabscheuter Spross
[0 wie l i e g s t du ohne E hren,] b e k le id e t [m it d e in er Schande]!
[Deine V a te r] n ic h t v e re in s t du dich m it ihnen im Begrabnis.
Lohmann ( Die Anonymen P ro p h e tien , pp. 11-19) a f t e r d e t a il e d
a n a ly s is o f the t e x t o f LXX and o f Duhm's, B i c k n e l l ' s , and S i e v e r s
view s, suggested the fo llo w in g f o r those f i v e b ic o la :
3 y nd y.333 a m in: h d v jh rrn«i
3 '' 3 [ ] •> 3 3 3 3 3 !3 ■> D y 3 ~ ~ i 3 3
A a n :? ' 7 " « •? m
o o a 3 - f a 3 133? a’ ii3r^3 ' 2 “ ?y
a n 3 ? 3 a n x 3 rT n ; ~xr’? ^ n i 3 x
"But you are cast out w ith the dead l i k e ^ a loathed m is c a rria g e .
Among the pierced by sword, who descend to the p i t .
How f u l l of blood your garment, w ith o u t your p u r i t y .
Therefore you have been separated from your grave, l i k e a corpse
trampled under fo o t .
You w i l l not jo in your fa th e rs in b u r i a l . "
160
Mockery Lament
The s u p ers c rip tio n o f the poem c l a s s i f i e s i t as a ^ - 2 . The
word is used f o r t y - e i g h t times in the OT, in both verbal and nominal

1
forms. Examining the c l e a r instances where the masal genre appears,
we discover th a t " i t was not c h ara c te rize d by a more or less fix e d

2 3
l i t e r a r y form ," but "a p p lie s to a v a r i e t y o f l i t e r a r y ty p e s ." A
v 4
masal was determined more by i t s content and fu n c tio n " than by i t s
l i t e r a r y form. I t could be p o e tic , prose, long, s h o r t, and formulated
in various l i t e r a r y types such as popular proverbs, a l l e g o r i z i n g

5
f a b l e , a by-word, s a t i r i c a l taunt poems, e tc .
The ro o t > 3 3 is used almost two hundred times in the OT

(see Lisowski, pp. 874 -7 5 , and Abraham Even-Shoshan, ed. A New Con
cordance o f the Bible [Jerusalem: K iry a t Sepher, 1 9 8 2 ], pp. 7 1 9 -2 0 ),
and has been used associated w ith two meanings: "to be l i k e " and "to
r u l e , or dominate" ( c f . KBL, p. 576; BDB, p. 6 0 5 ). AKK. MaSalu "to
be s im ila r " ( c f . CAD, 1 0 / 1 : 3 5 3 - 5 8 ) ; and Arab, m itlun " lik e n e s s , the
same" ( c f . Joan Copeland B i e l l a , D ic tio n a ry of uTd South Arabic HSSt
25 [Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1982], pp. 2 8 6 -8 7 ). For the possible
etim ology o f the word and discussion o f the two meanings o f the root
masal and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p , see J. Schmidt, Studien zur S t i l i s t i k
der A1ttestam entlichen S p r u c h li t e r a t u r (Munster: Aschendorffsche
Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1 9 3 6 ), pp. 1 -2 ; A lle n H. Godbey, "The Hebrew
M a l a l , " AJSL 39 (1 9 2 2 -2 3 ):8 9 —108; Maxime Hermaniuk, La Parabole
Evangelique: Enquete exegetique e t C r it iq u e (B ruges-P aris e t Louvain:
Desclee, de Brouwer, e t B ib lio th e c a A lfo n s ia n a , 1 9 4 7 ), pp. 64-65.
See also K. M. Beyse, " > 3 3" JWAT (1 9 8 4 ), 5 :7 0 -7 4 .
George M. Landes, "Jonah: A MasaT" in I s r a e l i t e Wisdom:

Essays in Honor o f Samuel T e r r i e n . E d it . J. G. Gammie, W. A.
Brueggemann, W. L. Humphreys, J. M. Ward (M issoula, MT: Scholars
Press, 1 9 7 8 ), p. 138; Landes presents a c o l le c t i o n o f 0T malalTm to
show the d i v e r s i t y o f uses o f the term (pp. 1 40 -4 6 ).
^D. S u te r, "MaSal in the S im ilitu d e s o f Enoch," JBL 100

(1 9 8 1 ):1 9 6 .
4C f. Landes, p. 139; J. P iro t, "Le ’ MaSal' dans I'A n c ie n

Testament," RSR 37 (1 9 5 0 ):5 6 6 .
^For the b i b l i c a l passages which i l l u s t r a t e these forms, and

f o r comments on these c a t e g o r ie s , see Landes, pp. 138-46; W illia m
McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach, 0TL (London: SCM Press, 1 9 7 0 ), pp.
2 4 -3 3 ; A. S. H e rb e rt, "The P a r a b le 1 ( m a l a l ) in the Old Testament,"
SJT 7 (1 9 5 4 ):1 8 2 -9 6 ; Hermaniuk, pp. 65-124; Timothy P o lk, "Paradigms,
P ara b le s, and MgsSlTm: on Reading the Masal in S c r i p t u r e , " CBQ 45
(1 9 8 3 ):5 6 4 - 8 3 .
161
Despite the d i f f i c u l t y in e x p l i c i t l y d e fin in g the term
m a s a lJ we can say th a t the term is " r e la te d to the ideas o f lik e n e ss ,

2
resemblance, and comparison.11
Among the mala! passages o f the OT, we f i n d four (Is a 14: Ad-
21 , Mic 2 : 4 , Hab 2 : 6 f f . , Num 2 1:2 7 -3 0 ) which have been considered as
a kind o f " s a t i r i c a l ta u n t poems,1,8 and as having a " d i r g e - l i k e

4 V—
q u a lity ." The LXX t r a n s la t e s the word masal in Isa 14:4 with
( la m e n ta tio n ). Modern tr a n s la tio n s have rendered the term
as proverb, byword, p a r a b le , t a u n t, r i d d l e , or a ll e g o r y . The use

5
o f the word 1 ' ( r in the beginning o f the poem and in vs. 12 con
firm s the lam entation nature o f the t e x t . Commenting on the nature
o f the poem, Budde says: "Gerade durch den C o n tras t zwischen der
iro n isc h angewandten elegischen Form und dem hohnischen Triumphe
des In h a lts e r h a l t das Lied seine atzende S c h a r f e . " 8 Lohmann^ sees
in the poem " S a t i r i c a l Song" ( S p o t t li e d ) and "Funeral Song"
( L e ic h e n lie d ) blended; i . e . , the S a t i r i c a l Song clothes i t s e l f

g
in the apparel o f a d i r g e , where good q u a l i t i e s and good deeds
o f the deceased are sung and his loss is lamented. But as the
poet s ta r ts his funeral song, instead o f s in ging the good deeds
and l i f e o f j u s t i c e o f the deceased, a d e s c r ip tio n o f his
^Cf. P olk, "Paradigms," pp. 564-65; H e r b e r t , "P ara b le ,"

pp. 180-96; Hermaniuk, pp. 112-20.
2lan des, p. 139. 3I b i d . , p. 140.
4A. R. Johnson, " V i a , " VTSup 3 (1 9 5 5 ): 166; c f . also P i r o t ,

pp. 566, 572. T" r
5Cf. 2 Sam 1 :1 9 , 25,. 27; Isa 1:21.
8"Das Hebraische K la g e lie d ," p. 14.
^Die anonymen P ro p h e tie n , p. 21. C f. also Johnson, " V ’/ j V '

p. 166.
8Cf. 2 Sam 1:2 3; Isa 1 :2 1 -2 3 .
162
tyranny and c ru e lty comes out. The poem describes the h a te fu l
c h a r a c te r o f the oppressor in dark colors in order to emphasize the
greatness o f the s a lv a tio n th a t comes by his death, Jahnow says
th a t the poet undertook a "conscious transform ation o f the Gattung

1 2
o f the lam ent," and c a l l s the product a "Parodic fune ra l song."
There is no doubt th a t the poem abounds in d irg e m o tifs ,
where we can feel the diverse phases and scenes of a fu n e ra l song;
but on the other hand one can catch some s a t i r i c a l elements blended
in the l a m e n t a t i o n /
It seems th a t a f t e r a l l th a t is s a id , E i s s f e l d t ' s "mocking
fune ra l lamentation" and Jahnow's "parodic funeral song" are good

4
expressions to describe the nature o f t h i s Isaiah poem. The term
is used c o r r e c t l y , but blends w ith the m o tif and meter o f the
qinah p o e t r y / In the case o f the poem being applied to an
e x i s t i n g power, the funeral lament would be meaningless, since i t
is sung when the lamented one is dead.*’ Duhm has seen in i t "in
s p ite o f the pe rf. a prophecy"-/ and in t h a t case, the poem would
V . 242 ("bewusste Umbildung m it der Gattung des Leichen-

lie d e s vorgenommen") .
^P. 231. See E i s s f e l d t ( I n t r o d u c t i o n , pp. 9 1 -9 2 ) f o r his

c o n s id e ra tio n s on the d iffe r e n c e s and s i m i l a r i t i e s between "mocking
song" and "funeral d i r g e ."
"^Wildberger (p. 540) c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to the f a c t t h a t what

is c a l l e d ^ s n i n Isa 14:4 is c a l l e d n ^ ^ P in Ezek 2 7 :2 ; 2 8:12,
e t c . ; he believes th a t the jo in in g o f n i ^? and > s o and the
a p p l i c a t i o n to a people or to the p o l i t i c a l enemy was not created
by the w r i t e r o f 1 4 : 4b—21.
^With W ildberger, p. 540.
În Mic 2:4 the terms 7 s o and ^ stand side by s id e.
®The same could be said concerning Ezek 2 8 :1 1 -1 9 .
7 P. 117.
163
bet a l k i n g of the end o f the Babylonian power in the f u t u r e , or of
some o th e r power which the / '2/d was in te n d in g .
Not s a t is f ie d w ith the frequent tr a n s la tio n s and d e f i n i t i o n s
o f the term masal--such as " p a ra b le ," “proverb," "by-word," e t c . - -
H erbert has w ritte n an a r t i c l e on the term and a rrived a t the
conclusion that
the masil of the OT . . . is a powerful rh e to ric a l or l i t e r a r y

device . . . [which] has a c l e a r l y recognisable purpose: th a t
o f quickening an apprehension of the re al as d i s t i n c t from the
wished f o r , or complacently accepted; o f compelling the hearer
o r reader to form a judgement on h im s e lf, his s it u a t i o n or his
conduct . . . [and i s ] used by the prophets [as] e s p e c i a l l y
intended to awaken men to the supreme r e a l i t y of God's present
judgment. . . J
2 3 4 5
Polk examined Landes', S u t e r 's , and H e rb e rt's discussion on
maâl and concluded th a t t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
the term were wanting. Studying the use o f the word in E zekiel
he a r r i v e s a t the conclusion th a t when used in and as r e li q i o u s
d is c o u rs e , the masal wants to do something to , w ith , or f o r i t s
h e a re rs /re a d e rs . That "something is more than simply conveying to
them c e r t a i n inform ation, f o r inform ation does not begin to

■y .
exhaust the masal ' s m eaning." He remarks tha t the meaning of
comparison, analogy, to be l i k e , does not exhaust the te rm 's meaning
^"Parable," pp. 195-96.
^"Paradigms," pp. 564-83.
3Cf. "Jonah," pp. 138-58.
4Cf. "Masal in the S im ilitu d e s o f Enoch," pp. 193-212.
5Cf. "P arable," pp. 180-96.
5Polk, p. 567.
164
.y .
and suggests the term pa radiqm to d efine i t . The masal combines
n oetic and normative fu nctions and performs an operation on the
audience. The masal paradigm forces s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n ; the
ordinances i t prescribes are g e n e r a lly absurd. I t is meant to
s tim u late r e f l e c t i o n among witnesses; i t presents the v ir t u e s or
f a i l u r e s o f a person or a people as a type f o r every hearer or
reader. Despite the f a c t th a t P olk's observations about the
term would, perhaps, not f i t in a l l the cases where the word
masal is used in the OT, his remarks seem to be sound and in

. y .
order as f a r as Isa 14 is concerned. The masal presented in
Isa 14, d e sp ite i t s possible immediate h i s t o r i c a l bearin g , conveys
something beyond the e ig h th - or seventh-century in c id e n ts . It
is paradigmatic o f the s tru g g le o f good and e v i l , and in so being,
i t would be wise f o r the a uthor o f the poem to put in the c en ter
o f the poem— q u ite unexpectedly— the real source or o r i g i n o f
every act o f tyranny, s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y , p r id e , and arrogance.
And in so doing he would have to re s o rt to an event in the
heavenly realm , since in Eden the seeds o f e v i l were a lre a d y
present.
The ta u n t ( V t / n ) is addressed against the king o f Babylon.
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t — besides being mentioned tw ice in
Gen 10:10; 11:5*— the prophet Isaiah was the f i r s t one to use the
term (Babel or Babylon) in the OT; a t a time when the
Babylonian nation or c i t y was not i n f l u e n t i a l as f a r as i t s
r e la t io n s h ip w ith Is r a e l was concerned.^
^The c i t y o f Babylon was i n f l u e n t i a l as f a r as the r e l a t i o n

ship with Assyria was concerned. See below pp. 181-82.
165
Taking in to consideration th a t
1. the term T w p means l i t e r a l l y a " s i m i l e , " "comparison,"^
"p a ra b le ," e tc .
2. the poem under discussion was w r i t t e n in a prophetic
form in a time when the Babylonian power, although i n f l u e n t i a l ,
was n ot, as such, an enemy o f I s r a e l .
3. Is a ia h picked up a term ( T a n ) which had been used by

2
the Book o f Genesis (1 1 :9 ) connotating confusion ( T a n ) and
—r
opposition to God's plans ( Is a 21:9)
4. the a uthor o f the Book o f R evelation picked up
Is a ia h 's use o f the term and applied i t to a power h o s tile to God,
the mystic Babylon ( I s a 21:9— Rev 1 4 :8 ; Isa 48:20— Rev 1 8 : 2 - 4 )
5. in his apocalypse ( e s p e c i a l l y chap. 2 4 : 2 1 -2 2 ), the
prophet shows th a t in his message he has not only the immediate
h is to ric a l context in view but also a cosmic and more universal
scope in mind and c l e a r l y presents the tension between the e a r t h l y
and the cosmic realms in his w r i t i n g s , 2 i t is possible th a t the
prophet i s — d e sp ite the connection the poem could have w ith an
immediate h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t, as, f o r example, the d e fe at o f Babylon
by the Assyrians in 689 B.C. or the death o f an Assyrian monarch--
ta l k i n g about a power h o s t ile to a God which reveals H im self in
the actions o f the nations and t h e i r r u l e r s .
^See above, p. 160, n. 1.
2IXX r-'vY-jc-j ( r - j y ^ f J ; Vulg. Confusum.
2See below pp. 215-17.
166
I t is tru e t h a t we are de aling here w ith a poetic piece of
l i t e r a t u r e which abounds in imagery and is d i f f i c u l t to be applied
in i t s t o t a l i t y to an e a r t h ly or cosmic power; but i t seems th a t
in blending both realms and two genres of lite ra tu re (qinah and
mashal) , the prophet reaches his o b je c t iv e o f d e p ictin g the end
o f every power h o s t i l e to God.
Text— Isa 14:4b-21
Vs. 4. How the oppressor has ceased, the fury^ ended!
The hapax legomenon n n n m (MT) has defied scholars'

e xplanations f o r a long time. Based on the p a r a l l e l use o f a n
and n rr i in Isa 3 : 5 , scholars emended t ( i n n n m n ) to i to have
the same p a r a l l e li s m in the Is a ia n ic lam ent; c f . Duhm, p. 118;
M a r t i , p. 123; Gray, p. 252; Procksch, p. 195; Ginsberg, "Reflexes
of Sargon," pp. 51, 53, e s p e c ia lly notes 38, 39, and h e a r t i l y
supports the 1 QISa 1s n n m s , and s e v e re ly c r i t i c i z e s H. M.
O rlin s k y ("S tudies in the S t. Mark's Is a ia h S c r o l l , IV ," JQR 43
[1 9 5 3 ]:3 3 4 - 3 7 ; idem, "Madhebah in Is a ia h 1 4 : 4 ," n 7 [ l S 5 7 ] : 2 0 2 - 3
f o r his proposal o f an etymology f o r the massoretic n i m : , and
his a s s e rtio n th a t the versions (LXX [cnuj-touoacTn; ] , Pesh ,
Targ, and Vulg r trib u tu m l 1 did not p o in t to n n n ' i n . Erlandsson
(pp. 2 9 -3 2 ) has worked on the problem and a rriv e d a t the conclusion
th a t nn rT T O stems from Aramaic 2 m ( G o ld ), the l i t e r a l meaning
being "gold t r i b u t e , " and tr a n s la te s the term " t r i b u t e , " supporting
the Vulg t r a n s l a t i o n . We r e a l l y do not know which term was the
o r i g i n a l one, although 1QIsa rendering has made the choice of
n n n i n a very possible one. Cf. G. R. D r i v e r , "Notes and S tu d ie s ,"
JTS 2 (1 9 5 1 ):2 5 ; M. D. Goldman, "The Is a ia h MS of the Dead Sea
S c r o l l s , " A8R 1 (1 9 5 1 ):1 0 -1 1 . As f o r the meaning o f the word, we
also do not know f o r sure the c o r r e c t one, b u t, based on the p a r a l l e l
word o f the antecedent colon ( w a n ) , the suggestions given by Gray
( ' t e r r o r ' ) , Vulg and Erlandsson ( ' t r i b u t e ' ) , NIV and 0. Kaiser
( ' f u r y ' ) , and Ginsberg ('tyra n n y ') seem reasonable. Cf. also
W ild b e rg er, p. 533.
167
Vs. 5. Yahweh1 has broken the s t a f f o f the wicked, the

2
scepter o f the r u l e r s .
Vs. 6. That smote the peoples in wrath w ith unceasing"^
b lo w s,4 th a t trampled the nations in anger with r e l e n t l e s s 5 p e r
s e c u tio n .5
Since the end o f the n in e te e n th century scholars have per

ceived th a t the f i r s t colon o f vs. 5 is too long zo f i t the qinah meter
o f the poem, and the e lim in a tio n o f m r r 1 (which does not appear in
the r e s t o f the poem, and is considered a conscious i n t e r p o l a t i o n )
has been proposed; H. Guthe ( Das Z u k u n fts b ild des Jesaia [ L e ip z ig :
B r e itk o p t & H a r t e l , 1 885], p. 41) suggested th a t we read the f i r s t
word as 3 2 2? 3 ; Staerk ( Das assyrische W e ltr e ic h , p. 227) as 1 3 "i .
Cf. also Jahnow, p. 239.
^The LXX, as fr e q u e n tly happens ( c f . Isa 13:21; 1 4 :1 , 21)

uses the same word ( : o v ;-jyov ) f o r two d i f f e r e n t Hebrew synonymous
terms ( n a n and 3 2 ' 2 ) ; c f . Erlandsson, p. 32.
^MT '’ 3'? s . Lohmann ( Die anonymen P rophetien, p. 19) has

> ? ?•
is a hapax legomenon, meaning 's t o p p in g ', 'c e a s in g '.

The LXX has Vulg, 'i n s a n a b i l i ‘ ; Pesh has on ia * ; a l l o f the
versions f a i l e d to catch the c o r r e c t meaning. Cf. ErlaMdsson, p. 22.
5
Because o f the p a r a l l e l form f o r =1^9 in 6a the f a c t
th a t ^ J 3 never stands before a p e r fe c t ( c f . W ildberger, p. 534;
KBL, p. 1 29 ), and the absence o f a noun i t seems th a t the i n f .
abs. V'ilD. should be read ( c f . KBL, p. 338) o r , a noun, not
otherwise' a tte s te d .
S n o is a ho. p a r t , and as a noun means 'p e rs e c u tio n '

( c f . H. S. Nyberg, Hebreisk Srammatik [Uppsala: H. Geber, 1 9 5 2 ], §
75 q . ; KBL [ s u p l . ] , p. 168; c f . also J. Carmignac, “P rec isio n s au
Vocabulaire de l'H e b re u B ib liq u e ," VT 5 [1 9 5 5 ]:3 5 1 ) . Because o f the
p a r a lle lis m s n n n * " n 3 n and n ' r ~ i ~ n ~ r ~ : a , scholars have emended
a 'lp to n 7 1 n , 'Dominion1 w ith T a r g . ; the LXX seems not to have
read the word and tr a n s la te d f r e e l y according to the context
l b -jos -A -v '-j 's m itin g a na tio n w ith a w rathful p la g u e '. But
the MT is supported by 1QIS3 , Pesh, and Vulg (see also Auvray,
p. 160; Erlandsson, p. 3 2). Since the nour. n ] ] ? does not appear
in the OT, we should r a th e r fo l l o w the Pesh and 'the Vulg and read
^ t "~i h or =!'J'ha (see W ildberger, p. 5 34).
168
Vs. 7. The whole e a rth is a t r e s t and q u i e t , they break
f o r t h in to sin g in g .*
2
Vs. 8. The ju m p e rs r e jo ic e a t you, the cedars o f Lebanon,
saying, since you were l a i d low, against us® no hewer** comes up.
Vs. 9. Sheol beneath is s t i r r e d up® to meet you when you
come; i t rouses** the shades^ to greet you; a l l the rulers® of the
The LXX makes ' s t a f f ' the subject o f n n : (iv -r.r.'c u -:

l, r J s - - 1I t rested in q u i e t ' ) and attaches i t to vs. 6 ( c f .
Erlandsson, pp. 3 2 - 3 3 ) . The term n s s occurs only in Is a ia h (4 4 :2 3 ;
49:13; 52:9; 54:1; 55:12 ; where i t is p a r a l l e l to n 3 ~i), and in
Psalms ( 9 8 : 4 , where i t is p a r a l l e l to n n and ~ i o r ) . The Vulg
f r e e l y tr a n s la te s rr 3 ~i i n s s w ith 'gavisa e s t e t e x u l t a v i t ' ; KBL,
p. 772, tr a n s la te s i t 'to be s e re n e '; Fohrer ( c f . W ildberger, p. 534)
tr a n s la te s n i l i n 3 3 w ith 's i e brechen in h e ite r n Jubel a u s '. Cf.
akk. p i$ u , ‘ be w h ite ; be b r i g h t ' .
2 ••
*31 ~i 3 means, according to KBL, p. 148, the Phoenician
Juniper (Junip’e rus phoenicea L . ) , and not Cypress ( Cupressus
Sempervirenz L .) as norm ally assumed. Cf. Immanuel Lbw, Die Flora
der Juden, 4 v o ls. (L e ip z ig : Alexander Kohut Memorial Foundation,
1 924-1938), 3 :2 6 -3 3 . The LXX i n t e r p r e t s a ■» o T i n as ra -'jAct roO
A u 3 d v o u, 'th e tre e s o f Lebanon', p a r a l l e l i n g to the second colon
o f vs. 8.
®The LXX and the Vulg a ttach t 2 ■> 7 y to n t a r r , the Pesh con
nects i t to n P V ' 1 . C f. Gray, I s a i a h , p. 248, and Konig, J e s a ja , p.
180, f o r both views.
4m r ) has not to do w ith the name o f the hero of U g a r it KRT

te x t. C f. A. Kapelrud, Joel S tu d ie s , UUA 1948/4 (Uppsala: A. B.
Lundequist, 1948), pp. 26-30; W ildberger, p. 534; a gains t Q u e ll, p.
148.
®The LXX has e-tuxoauj^n, 'was made e m b it t e r e d ', f o r h T 3 ~ ;

Theod has joyi.j4n ’ was i r r i t a t e d ’ ; the Vulg has ‘ conturbatus e s t '
( i s c o n fu s e d '); Erlandsson (p . 16) follow s th is t r a n s l a t i o n . 'p '.'X'U
is fem inine, but the th re e verbs fo llo w in g i t a r e , in the MT,
masculine and fem inine. 0. Kaiser (p. 28) suggests th a t ~ i ' V and
3 ^ P rr should (w ith BHS) be regarded as i n f i n i t i v e s .
®See n. 5 above.
1 x s i has two d i s t i n c t meanings in the B ib le . I t r e fe r s
earth , I t raises^ from t h e i r thrones a l l (who were) kings of the
2
nations.
Vs. 10. A ll of them w i l l speak^ and say to you: "You

4
have become weak as we, you have become l i k e us.
to a race o f g ia n ts who l i v e d in the earth before the I s r a e l i t e s came

(Gen 14:5; 1 5 :2 0 ; Deut 2 :1 1 , 20, e t c . ) ; and a ls o r e fe rs to the Shades
( s p i r i t s ) o f the dead (Job 2 6 :5 ; Prov 2:9 ; 9 :1 8 ; 21:16; Isa 2 6:14 ,
19, e t c . ) . For discussion on the obscure use o f the term in
U g a ritic m a te r ia l and i t s r e l a t i o n to the B i b l e ‘ s use, see: Ch.
V iro lle a n d , “Les Rephaim. Fragments de Poemes de Ras-Shamra," S yria
22 (1941): 1 -3 0 ; Gray, "The Rephaim," pp. 1 27 -3 9 ; A. Caquot, "Les
Rephaim O u g a ritiq u e s ," S yria 37 ( 1 9 6 0 ):7 5 -9 3 ; Conrad L'Heureux, "The
Ligaritic and B i b l i c a l Rephaim," RTR 67 (1 9 7 4 ):2 6 5 —74. The word has
been i n t e r p r e t e d by the LXX as ■<' . v . t h e Vulg in the same way
(g ig a n te s ); the Pesh renders heroes. The term
occurs in two Phoenician c o f f i n in s c r ip tio n s in a context s im ila r
to th is one o f Isa 14 and a llu d e s to the in h a b it a n t s o f the under
world. Cf. H. Donner and W. R o l l i g , Kanaanaische und Aramaische
In s c h rifte n I I (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassow itz, 1 96 4 ), pp. 19-20;
Hartmut Gese, Die Reliqionen A l t s y r ie n s , RM 10:2 ( S t u t t g a r t : W.
Kohl hammer, 1 9 7 0 ), pp. 9 0 -9 8 .
Q
The word T i n y means "ram" or " h e -g o a t," but i t is
commonly used m e ta p h o r ic a lly as 'l e a d e r '. Cf. Zech 10:3. LXX has
:C •=-; the V ulg, omnes p rin c ip e s t e r r a e ; and the
Pesh, rCLi-irC'.l iriiXAz. w^Clcnla.- .
^See n. 5 on p. 164.
^The Pesh attaches a 1 ! ] d i r e c t l y to vs. 10.
^The f i r s t colon is too s hort, and th e re is probably a gap.

See p. 152 f o r discussion o f the m atter.
4G. R. D riv e r ( " I s a i a h 1-39: Textual and L in g u is tic Problems,

JSS 13 [1 9 6 8 ]: 43) does not want to derive n y n from n ? n "being
sick, weak," but from L ig a r itic h l y , "was a lo n e"'an d Arabic h a la ,
"was vacant, disengaged." WiIdFerger (p. 534) c r i t i c i z e s him
saying th a t "die t r a d i t i o n e l l e Auffassung einen guten Sinn e r g i b t . "
Cf. I . E i t a n , "A C o n trib u tio n to Isaiah Exegesis," HUCA 12-13
(1 9 3 7 -3 8 ):6 2 . A. B. E h r lic h ( Randqlossen zu r Hebraischen B i b e l ,
7 vols. [ L e i p z i g : J. C. H in r ic h s , 1912], 4 :5 5 ) thinks n ^ >> II is
unsuitable to the context and suggests to emend i t to n 1 i ij)
The LXX has "been ta k e n "; the Vulg, v ulnera tus "wounded";
the Pesh has <keni*i>K' &urc’ Arc', "have you also been made weak?"
and 0. Kaiser (p. 28) agrees with th is version in having the
phrase as an i n t e r r o g a t i o n .
1 2 3
Vs. 1 1 . Your pomp is brought down to S h eo l, the sound
4 5
o f your harps maggots are spread out beneath you and worms are
your c o v e r l e t . " * ’
Vs. 1 2 .
How are you f a l l e n from heaven, 0 shining o n e /
Q
son o f the dawn! (How) you are cut down to the e a r t h , you who
g
l a i d the n a tio n s low.
V h e Vulg tr a n s la te s ' l i X i as superbia t u a ; and the LXX

has " JO'J.
Â. Sperber ( H i s t o r ic a l Grammar, p. 646) thin k s th a t since

is p a r a l l e l to r n o i l . the word should be read ] i X'2 and the
colon tr a n s la t e d as "the uproar o f the pomp is brought down." The
suggestion i s a t t r a c t i v e , but 7 7 Kt? does not f i t in the context,
and the versions support the MT.
"In s te a d o f T 1! 1 1QISa reads "your corpse," what

is follow ed by the Vulg Cadaver Tuum.
-> n n sometimes means 7 i 3 n , "Pomp." J. Carmignac ( c f .

W ild b e rg e r, p. 534) thinks he can read in 1QISa m o n ( c f . let-jut:;
in Theod and in the Pesh), and tr a n s la te s "dans) la mort ton cadavre
. . .," but W ildberger r i g h t l y observes t h a t "corpse" is no p a ra lle l
to 7 1 X 3 . The LXX has 7 -to.Uh -rjôocuvn jo-j, "your great m ir t h ."
^ V ^ T (M T ) , Hoph. Duhm (p. 119) suggests V 2 ± (noun-Ab.); c f .

Jahnow, p. 239. Marti (p. 124) reads V 3 if 7 (n o u n -C s .). Cf. BHS.
^For 7 1 D 3 Q , lQISa reads ' D J 3 . The LXX has w 'l o t iw .''-.-

io u ; and the Vulg operimentum, "c ove ring."
^There is doubt concerning the v o c a l i z a t io n o f l.

Kohler (KBL, p. 231) and others ( c f . G r e l o t , VT 6 [1 9 5 6 ]:3 0 3 ) r e l a t e
the term to the Arabic hi l a ! ( o r h i l a l u n ) , "new moon," v o c a liz in g i t
as 7 7 ' 1 n ( c f . BHS). G relo t (VT, p. 303; idem, " I s a i e 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ,"
pp. 2 2-24 ; a ls o McKay, “H e l e l , " p. 452). on the o th e r hand thinks the
term is d e riv e d from the root 7 n, " s h in in g ," from the Akk a d j e c t i v e
e l l u ( h a l i l u > e l i l u > e l l u ) , " s h i n y . ” The LXX has tra n s la te d
by T -ijjaaooos, "b rin g e r o f the morning l i g h t , morning s t a r ." The
V u lg , as i t is well known, renders L u c ife r " l i g h t - b e a r i n g ” or "the
morning s t a r . " A quila has 5a .\u ^j v , "crying a lo u d ."
Q
C f. Budde (acc. Gunkel, Schopfunq und Chaos, p. 132); Cheyne,
The Prophecies o f I s a i a h , p. 90; M a r t i , p. 124; S ta e rk , pp. 144, 227;
Lohmann, pp. 9 , 20; Duhm, p. 119; BHS; 0. K a is e r, p. 28; W ildberger,
p. 535; e t c .
9' i 7 n has been in te r p r e t e d in two ways. (1 ) In the t r a n s i t i v e

sense "make weak, conquer," which follow s the sense o f the verb used
in Exod 17:13 and Joel 4 :10; c f . W ildberger, p. 535; Barth, Die
171
Vs. 13. You said in your h e a r t j "I w ill ascend to heaven;

2
above the stars o f God; I w ill set my throne on high, I w ill s i t on
3 4
the mount o f assembly in the recesses o f the north.
J es a ja -W o rte , p. 121; e t c . (1 ) in the t r a n s i t i v e sense, "w e ak lin g ,"

as used in Job 14:10; c f . Gunkel, Schopfung und Chaos, p. 132; G.
Gray, p. 256; McKay, p. 453; M a r t i , pp. 124-27. To accept the tr a n s
i t i v e meaning we have to admit the emendation o f - 7>y ("among") to
( " a l l " ) agreeing w ith the LXX (o i-toot-fAA jv u o ; iJ-jt:t - i -i-jvn)..
Gunkel understands 2 > n as i n t r a n s i t i v e " l i e g s t s t a r r auf Leichen,"
changing a n 3 in to n i ■> i 3. C f. Guillaume ("The use of 'W n in
. . . Isa 14:12 . . . ," JTS 14 [ 1 9 6 3 ] :9 1 ). McKay (p. 453, n. 4)
is r i g h t in observing th a t the tr a n s it iv e n e s s or i n tr a n s it iv e n e s s
o f the verb in t h i s passage depends on the subject o f '7 7 1 rt ; i f i t
r e fe r s to the king of Babylon, i t would be t r a n s i t i v e "to be weak,"
i f to H e l e l , then "weakling" in an i n t r a n s i t i v e sense would be
d e s ir a b le . Having in view McKay's arguments, he has reasons to
b e lie v e the l a t t e r should be c o r r e c t . (See pp. 4 5 3 -5 4 ). I . E itan
(pp. 6 2 - 6 3 ) , proposes t h a t D 11 l 3 7 0 0 i n ( w ith the LXX;
[Erlandsson (p. 35) thinks the LXX's t r a n s l a t o r had n7> "J in mind])
"0 reaper o f a l l n a tio n s !" forms a “picturesque a n t i t h e s i s to the
immediately preceding n y n 3 “ (How) a r t thou cut down to
the ground," and is a sound i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the meaning o f the
te x t. The Vulg renders s?7n as vulnerabas.
V o r 3 3 7> the LXX has -:v rfj 5uavoCqt, "mind."
"U. Cassuto ( The Goddess Anath, p. 57) i n t e r p r e t s 7 « in

t h is passage as the proper name of the Canaanite god E l. But, as
says W ildberger (p . 5 35 ), since the poem in the c u rren t c o ntext is
understood as a testimony o f b e l i e f in Yahweh, 7> « is l i k e 1 i 1 > 7
Yanweh (v s . 1 4 ). Pope (□ _ , p. 13, n. 79) views as an
e q u iv a le n t o f a s u p e r la tiv e "the highest s ta rs " (see f o r t h a t , 0.
Winton Thomas, "A Consideration of Some Unusual Ways o f Expressing
the S u p e rla tiv e in Hebrew," VT 3 [ 1 9 5 3 ] : 2 0 9 - 2 4 ) , but Dahood
("Punic hkkbm J1 and Isa 1 4 : 1 3 ," Or 34 [1 9 6 5 ]:1 7 0 - 7 2 ) r i g h t l y r e f e r s
to the close connection between God (7>k ) and the s ta r s ; see i . e . ,
Job 2 2 :1 2 -1 4 ; Ps 147:4; Isa 4 0:26.
^ T y i a must be, according to the c o n te x t, "assembly o f

gods"; the Vulg renders in Monte Testam enti; the LXX the r e p e t it io u s
tra n s la tio n : i-j ocei. jibnAi, i i C ~a 3on t4 juinAa iooodv. See
above, pp. 9 2 -9 3 , and below, p. 190, f o r more commentary on the
meaning o f the word; c f . a lso W ild b e rg er, p. 535.
4
1 3 3 ' i ', n3~i^ as an expression occurs in Ezek 3 8 :6 , 15,
3 9 :2 ; and Ps 4 8 :3 , where i t is associated w ith Zion. Luther ( Le ct.
on I s a i a h , p. 141) believed t h a t the expression r e fe r r e d to the north
side o f the Tempie-Mountain. See above, pp. 9 3 -9 4 , and pp. 199-202,
below, f o r more commentary on the expression.
172
Vs. 14. I w i l l ascend above the heights o f the c lo u d s J I

2
w i l l make myself l i k e the most High.
Vs. 15. But you are brought down to Sheol , to the recesses
o f the p i t . ^
4
Vs. 16. Those who see you w i l l s tare a t you, and ponder
5 5
over you. "Is th is the man who shook the e a rth and made ki ngdoms
trem ble,
Ginsberg ( The Book of I s a i a h , p. 44) has “mount the back

o f a c lo u d ." The c o n s tru c t form 1 a o a occurs several times in the
OT p o e tic t e x ts : Job 9 : 8 ; Amos A ^ T l s a 1 4 :1 4 , e t c . As 1QISa
shows I ' 1 n o n ) the form seems to d erive from n n ‘2 and not n o n
(see KBL, p. 132).
2
— mos t used in e x i l i c tim es; and used a ls o , accord
ing to Philo of Byblus, among the Phoenicians. See Cheyne, The
O rig in o f the P s a l t e r , p. 84.
^"Recesses o f the p i t ( 1 7 2)" c o ntrasts with “Recesses o f

the north ( 1 1 3 ' 3 ) , “ vs. 13. The LXX i n t e r p r e t s i i : * ' 1 W ' . ' - n
by 7a -leuix La yhs, which hurts the p a r a l l e l between the synonyms
Sheol and the grave. ( C f . Ps 8 8 : 4 - 6 ; Ezek 2 6 : 2 0 ). Thus T n is the
designation o f the realm o f the dead, or the graves (see Gunkel,
Schopfunq und Chaos, pp. 1 32-33, n. 8; Kraus, 1 :2 30 , 608-09;
KBL, pp. 114-15; TWATI, p. 5 03). The expression T ) 2 ” '’ n 3 " i''
occurs, besides Isa 1 4 :1 5 , also in Ezek 3 2 :2 3 , and according to
H. 3 a rth (pp. 121-22) shows a graduation in s id e the realm o f the
dead, and means the "aussersten (e n tle g en ste n ) Bereich der T o te n w e lt,"
“die ausserst T ie fe der U n te r w e lt." On Sheol and grave, see F r ie d ric h
Notscher, A 1 to rie n ta l is c h e r und a lt t e s t a m e n t l i c h e r Auferstehunqsqlauben
(Darmstadt"! W issenschaftliche Buchgesel 1 s c h a f t , 1926 [1970J ) , pp.
209-12.
S a p p e a r s o n ly three times in the 0T (Ps 33:14; Cant

2 :9 ; Isa 1 4 :1 6 ), always in the Hi phi 1, and means "to gaze a t , " a
c r i t i c a l te s tin g look i n t o something. Cf. W ildberger, p. 535. The
LXX has tauudccucl j, “wonder"; the Vulg renders i t in c lin a b u n tu r
which, as Erlandsson (p . 36) says, must be associated with T ~ z f.
The Pesh tr a n s la te s i t ^ , "they w i l l gaze."
S x i "to give heed to something."
^ t ■■ 3 2, "causing to shake," is synonym to the fo llo w in g

verb '7 ', 7 ~ D , and th e r e fo r e a f i t t i n g p a r a l l e l .
173
Vs. 17. Who made1 the world l i k e a d e se rt and overthrew

2
(its ) c itie s , who his c a p tiv e s , a l l the kings o f the n a tio n s ,
would not l e t go home?"^

4
Vs. 18. Yet they a l l are in s t a t e , each in h is own tomb,
^ h e LXX a ssociates 0 2? w ith o ' 1©, "to make," but the Pesh
renders i t = ’- u - ^ , "and he devasted," a s s o c ia tin g w ith c a a .
2
I t seems t h a t because o f which is fem inine, we should
read w ith Syriac m i y i instead o f ' 1 '1 "1V i ( c f . Duhm, p. 120; M a r t i ,
p. 125; Lohmann, Die anonymen P ro p h e tien , p. 20", Ginsberg, JAOS
88 [1 9 6 8 ]:5 2 , No. 28; BHS; Dupont-Sommer, p. 74; E h rlic h 4 :5 6 ;
W ild b e rg er, p. 5 35 ). H. Barth (p. 22) says th a t no emendation should
be made, f o r the incongruence r a th e r e x p la in s i t s e l f by the character
o f the masculine as a "genus p o tiu s ."
^From th is verse t i l l vs. 21 there have been much discussion

concerning the s tr u c tu r e and meaning o f the t e x t ; several Unos of
emendations have been proposed in order to re s to re the qinah meter,
as w ell as to make the t e x t more i n t e l l i g i b l e . At t h i s p o in t we
make observations and t r y to understand what the MT in i t s e l f brings.
The major proposed emendations and s tr u c tu r e problems are discussed
on pp. 147-63. The versions have taken n m 3 n n D - «'? ( n m 3
as an o b je ct to n n s ) as meaning t h a t the oppressor did not allow
the prisoners to go f r e e (Vulg. [ non a p e r u it carc e rem ], LXX, P es h .).
But since the n m 3 o f the MT does not seem to f i t to t h i s according
to form and semantics ( c f . H. B arth, 1 2 2 ), BH^, Auvray (p . 1 60 ),
and Wildberger (pp. 532, 535) suggest th a t rr m 3 and the f i r s t word
in vs. 18 ^ 3 are s c r ib a l e rro rs f o r rt y 3 n n 1 ! . Erlandsson says
(p . 3 6 ) , th is view has no support in the versions and IQ ISa and is
h a rd ly possible. See H. Barth (p. 122) f o r a strong defense to keep
the MT w ithout any emendation. He contends th a t the p le o n a s tic form
o f expression ( c f . Erlandsson, p. 37) employed in vs. 18a is possible
in Hebrew w ithout problems. G. Gray (p . 249) does not t r a n s l a t e the
phrase, considering i t c o rru p t. 0. Kaiser (p . 2 9 ) , fo llo w in g Budde,
d e le te s n n ■» 3 and brings vs. 18b forward reading n n ' > 3 ’? m x ,
"each ( t o ) his home." Ginsberg ("R efle x es . . . ," p. 52, note 29)
says th a t the "MT is s u b s ta n tiv e ly i n s ip i d and l i n g u i s t i c a l l y sus
p ic io u s ," and emends the expression to read r i m 3 n n 3 ’? ^ t p k ,
"who chained to his palace g a te ."
4m 3 means "grave" ( c f . Fohrer I , p. 190; Ginsberg, JAOS

88 [1 9 6 8 ]:5 2 , no. 30; Ps 49:12; Eccl 1 2 :5 ; Isa 22:16; KBL, on
m 3 section 2, p. 122; TWAT I , p. 6 3 5 -3 6 ), f o r th a t is demanded
by vs. 19a ( i n 3 ? n ) which is a n t i t h e t i c a l ( c f . H. B a rth , p. 122).
174
1 2
Vs. 1 9 . But you are cast out from your tomb l i k e a loathed
untim ely b i r t h , 3 clothed with the s l a i n , w ith those pierced by the

4 5
sword, who go down to the stones o f the p i t , l i k e a corpse trampled
und e rfo o t.^
With H. Barth (p . 1 2 3 ), who presents an e la b o ra te d commentary

on vss. 1 9 -2 0 , and emphasizes t h a t a l t e r a t i o n s of the t e x t are unnec
essary. As G. Gray (p. 259) says, the passage is " c l e a r l y speaking
not o f d is in t e r m e n t, but o f n o n -in te r m e n t" ; c f . Jahnow, p. 246;
Fohrer I , p. 190. Also E ic h ro d t, Der Herr . . . , p. 20; Ginsberg,
"Reflexes o f Sargon," p. 52; W ild b e rg e r, p. 535 ( 7 0 P r iv a tiv u m ).
^The LXX has ■-■> S osjlv ( D 1 i n n f o r T ^ i p a ) . bhk^

thinks i t was a d e t e r io r a t i o n from o ' 1 3 l i n n , but W ildberger
(p . 535) r i g h t l y says th a t th is is u n l i k e l y because □ ^ n ( i ) i n
follo w s immediately in the next l i n e and is there indispe ns ab le .
Passages such as Isa 5:25; 34:3; Ezek 3 2 :5 , which connect corpses
w ith mountains, must have influenced t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The
Vulg. has de Sepulchro Tuo and the Pesh v^t&a jza .
3i s 3 is u n c e rta in . The LXX has f o r n y n n n s n n the

fr e e t r a n s l a t i o n i s jcxoqs cSoc.v-jAue-.c;, "loathed carcase";
the Vulg. has " s t i r p s , " and the Pesh. , meaning "branch o f f
spring o f a f a m i l y . " On the o th e r hand, Symm. has c cv.touua
( 7 3 1 " A b o rtio n ," l i k e Aram. a n ' * ) . C f. Job 3:16.
Aq has C (io, "sap, blood." Many modern theologians see no
n e c e s s ity to emend the MT t e x t ( c f . F o h re r, 1:190; E ic h r o d t,
Herr . . . , p. 20; Erlandsson, p. 37; e t c . ) , but since F. Schwally
(" M is c e lle n [J e s . 1 4 : 1 9 - 2 1 ] ," ZAW 11 [ 1 8 9 1 ] : 2 5 7 - 5 8 ) , Sym's rendering
has been defended as the most acceptable one ( c f . Procksch, p. 199;
Dupont-Sommer, p. 75; F r ie d r ic h H o rs t, Hiob BKAT 16/1 [Neukirchen-
Vluyn: Neukirchener V e rla g , 1 9 6 8 ] : 5 0 ) . Among the reasons f o r
accepting t h i s view the scholars say t h a t : (1 ) i s i i s not sup
ported by the versions; (2 ) > 3 3 is confirmed by Targ and Vulg;
(3 ) i t is in agreement w ith n v n i ( c f . Job 3:16; Ps 4 8 : 8 ; Eccl
6 : 3 ) ; and ( 4 ) i t f i t s the context in general ( c f . H. B a rth , p. 122;
see also W ildberger [pp. 535-36] who r e je c t s the t r a d i t i o n a l i s : and
a ffir m s th a t "nobody asks him self whether an o f f s p r i n g , detested or
n o t, should be b u rie d ; and also t h a t 3 y n 3 7 3 3 is a good p a r a l l e l
to o n a 1 3 3 3 in 19b). Some theologians ( c f . KBL on 1 3 3 ,
p. 640) proposed 1 3 3 but th a t seems an awkward suggestion ( c f .
W ild b e rg er, p. 5 36).
Êvery OT theologian agrees t h a t vss. 19 and 20 are "packed

w ith d i f f i c u l t i e s " (H. B arth, p. 122) and have been exposed to many
attempts a t emendations. I t seems t h a t the te x t was d is turbe d in
some way; but since IQ Is 3 has the same t e x t as the MT, i f such sup
posed disturbance occurred, i t happened before the second century
B.C. Since lQ Is a and the v e rs io n s , except the LXX, have the same
t e x t as the MT, we t r y , as much as p o s s ib le , to base our t r a n s la t i o n
on the Hebrew t e x t . But we would not deny th a t the attem pts (as f o r
175
example by Dupont-Sommer) to make the poem one o f f i v e stanzas of

7 Qinah meter verses a r e , f o r several reasons, v ery a t t r a c t i v e .
Those reasons are presented and discussed elsewhere in th is chapter.
The LXX renders 2 i n a *> a - i n t n 3 7 by tcaa ;>.
rc-jvnaoTujv ixxexEvTnufvuju uaxoupaj, “w ith many dead who have been
pierced w ith swords." Despite adm itting m etaphorical uses of
3 3 7 ( c f . Job 7 :5 ; Ps 6 5 : 1 4 ) , G. Gray (pp. 259, 249) doubts the
t e x t is a t t h i s p o in t sound. E rlic h (p . 56) a f f i r m s th a t f o r
an'? we should read 2 3 7 3 , and th a t because o f what precedes the
p re p o s itio n is erroneously omitted ( c f . Esth 4 : 2 ; 8 : 1 5 ) . He adds,
“Ohne die P roposition konnte an'? h i e r nur P a rt pass, im s t .
co n str. s e in , und dazu passt a 1 a m n i c h t . " H. Barth (p. 123)
thinks a l t e r a t i o n s o f the t e x t (as f o r example Procksch, pp. 199-
200; E ic h ro d t, Herr . . . , p. 20; and Ginsberg ["R efle x es on
Sargon," p. 52, n. 32] who follows E r l i c h ) are unnecessary, fo r
a i n ' ? continues the n n V f f n o f the previous b icolon by a p a r t i
c i p l e , and i t juxtaposes the honorable b u r ia l o f the dead who is
buried in clothes a g ain s t the shameful b u r ia l o f the one who is
only "dressed w ith k i l l e d men."
5The LXX tr a n s la te s m ' ' 1 •> a m by - a T i a a u o ' j - ^

■zi ; 1 5au "going down to the grave"; Aq and Theod - : t u
upon the stones of the p i t , " the same happening to the Pesh:
< 3 ^ . Scholars ( c f . H. Barth, p. 123) have seend i f
f i c u l t i e s in t n i s expression in the f a c t t h a t i f m n is taken as
" p i t , grave" ( c f . Duhm, p. 121), i t would be awkward; and i f m
means, as u s u a lly , the "realm of the dead" (see above n. 7 , p. 1 6 5 ),
i t would De even more improbable.
Since Gunkel ( Schopfung und Chaos, pp. 132-33, n. 8; c f.
a lso M a r t i , p. 126; G. Gray, p. 260; Ginsberg ["R e fle x e s on Sargon],"
p. 52, n. 33; H. B arth, p. 123), i t has been suggested th a t instead
o f 1 n k i t should be read ^ i i x , "Foundation, base" ( c f . Job 3 8 : 6 ) ,
which could agree w ith Sym ieucAtods Xdxxo'j) and the Vulg ( ad
fundamenta l a c i ) , and which probably point to a reading
m n m i s i s ( c f . B. Kedar-Kopstein, "D iv erg e n t Hebrew Readings
in Jerome's Is a i a h ," Textus 4 [ 1 9 6 4 ]:1 8 7 ). This reading would
correspond to vs. 15 (~n 3 - 1 n n m 1) . W ildberger (p. 536) reacts
a g a in s t i t saying th a t t h i s suggestion h a rd ly h i t s the mark. He
f i rml y bel i eves th a t m i - 1 m s - 7 x ~ 7 i "> i s mi splaced and
belongs as the f i r s t colon o f the next l i n e o f the vs. Konig
( J e s a ja , p. 183, n. 4) believes th a t the expression is an i l l u s
t r a t i o n o f scorning the dead ones and connects i t w ith Josh 7 :2 6 ,
8 :2 9 b , 2 Sam 18:17. Erlandsson suggests t h a t i t could probably
r e f e r to a "s to n e -lin e d grave." A f t e r his re c o n s tru c tio n o f the
t e x t , H. Barth (p. 123) suggests t h a t the v erbal expressions
(v s . 19aa ) — ‘m u ’? (vs. 19as)— (v s . 19b) form three
stages and demonstrate the successive e n te r in g o f the "Lamented one"
in to the Sheol (to be thrown down— to l i e th e re in a shameful way
o f being b u r r ie d — to go down into the realm o f the dead); he also
suggests th a t the middle phrase or vs. 19a3 is w ithout comparison
and the o r i g i n a l t e x t could have a 3 before 3 3 n m v a b . (see
175
Vs. 20. You w i l l not jo in them1 in b u r i a l , fo r you have
destroyed your land and k i.lle d your people. The o ffs p r in g o f the
2 3 4
e v ild o e r s w i l l never be named again.
also Ginsberg, Is a ia h , p. 45, f o r a d i f f e r e n t arrangement o f the

phrases o f vs. 19 and the com parative). I t seems th a t we should,
in view o f lQ Is a and some vers io n s , keep the MT t e x t as r e l i a b l e
in the discussed phrase.
^For 3 : ' : ' 3 3 3 the Vulg. has quasi cadaver putridum

and the Pesh. - - , "trodden down." The LXX renders tv --tc'-cv
. j-jouc 'jo-j (see Erlandsson, p. 38, fo r possible
reasons f o r LXX free i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f these two words as w ell as
f o r vs. 20 and the rendering o f other v e r s io n s ).
Whe LXX has a v e ry d i s t i n c t t r a n s l a t i o n f o r vss. 1 9 -2 0 ,

w hile the other versions tend more or less to agree with the MT.
Concerning to whom n n « , "them, with them," 3rd p i . r e f e r s , some
exegetes ( c f . Procksch, pp. 192, 200, e t c . ) th in k i t r e fe rs to the
e n t i t y mentioned in vs. 19 (some put 7 2 ~ ■* 3 2 K ~ P h* 1 ~r m ^ a t
the beginning of vs. 20a; see f o r th a t O illm ann, pp. 138-39; Cobb,
p. 23; Fohrer, J e s a ja , 1 :1 9 0 ; 0. Kaiser, p. 2 9 ) , but others (as f o r
example H. Barth, p. 124) say i t could not be because there i t
is only spoken about those who are equal to the "Lamented one"
(vss. 20a "You do not j o i n them," c f . M a r t i , p. 2 17 ). Ouhm (p . 1 22 ),
Marti (p . 1 27 ), and E ic h ro d t ( Per Herr . . . , p. 20) suggest the
a d d itio n o f f p r h n K , which is a mere c o n je c tu re . I t seems t h a t
j 1! ] 1 in vs. 18 helps us in the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the
s u f f i x 3rd p i . masc. in vs. 20; the whole t e x t wants to say th a t
although they— the kings o f the nations and the lamented one— are
in the realm o f the dead, the l a t t e r ( i n c o n tra s t to the form er)
has not an honorable b u r i a l . (C f. H. B a rth , p. 1 2 4 .) W ildberger
thinks n - n n p n should be a gloss to e x p la in ~n 2
Some scholars— probably because o f the LXX's rendering

( a : c ; 'j a -svnpo'v) and Isa 1 :4 — have tended to render the p i . forms
□ and (v s s . 20b and 21a) in sin g, forms: y ' D and
3 H U X ( c f . Duhm, p. 123; M a r t i , p. 127; Procksch, p. 200; Dupont-
Sonmer, p. 77; Q u e ll, p. 155; 0. K a ise r, Is a ia h 1 3 -3 9 , p. 2 9 ) ; but
as H. Barth (p. 124) has observed, the LXX d i f f e r s so much from the
MT th a t we cannot s a f e l y r e l y on i t ; besides t h a t , W ildberger (pp.
22, 536) r i g h t l y points out th a t y ~i T does not mean " o f f
spring o f evildoe rs" but "generation th a t consists o f e v ild o e r s "
( c f . also G. Gray, p. 2 6 1 ).
^Dupont •Sommer ("Note e xegetique," p. 77) based on the LXX

wrr'ch has -til; tV ; aCjjva c.ccvcv (which could correspond to the Hebrew
t ; 1) suggests the a d d itio n o f y y a f t e r n P i y P , which woud supply
us w ith the 3rd stress o f the colon th a t seems to be lacking in the MT.
^The LXX renders by t l u- u c v ^ ; , ancj Erlandsson

(p. 38) thinks i t depended on the e a s ie r reading probably
177
Vs. 21. Prepare the slaughter^ f o r his sons because o f the

2 3
g u ilt of th e ir fa th e rs , th a t
they r i s e not and possess the earth
4
and f i l l the face o f the world (w ith c i t i e s ) .
because o f "an a t t r a c t i o n from i D p i in vs. 21. The Vulg. has

“V o c a b itu r. " D r i v e r ( Jss 13 [ 1968] : 44) thinks of s i p ' 1 as a v a ri
a n t o f n~ip'> and tr a n s la t e s "the brood o f e v il-d o e r s s h a ll no more
appear" ( c f . W ild b e rg e r, p. 536, who says i t does not make b e tte r
s e n s e ).
' n a a a (Hap. Leg.) could mean the slaughtering o f animals,

or the place o f s la u g h te r.
2
As mentioned above (see n. 2, p. 165), the LXX has
lotToo's jou (a u x iu ) (according to the recension of the Hexapla:
s jx iiv ). Dahood ( Bib 44 [1 9 6 3 ]:2 9 1 ; 70) understands m n K as
p l u r a le e x c e l ! e n t i a e . Rinaldi ( BeO 10 [ 1 9 6 8 ]:2 4 ; c f . also W ildberger,
p. 536) suggests t h a t n 7 3 x 7 l V is a fix e d term: " g u i l t o f the-
fa th e rs ." I t seems th a t the MT t e x t should be maintained.
^ 7 3 ( f o r 7 x or 7 .? ; c f . Dillm ann, p. 139) seems ( c f . G.

Gray, p. 261) "to have the force so th a t . . . not . . . ; and is
confined to l a t e r l i t e r a t u r e . "
4m nV " c i t i e s " is tr a n s la te d — aeuujv "war" by the LXX

(fo llo w e d by the Pesh. which has ) , which B. Gray (p . 261)
thinks was a probable e r r o r f o r ( c f . A q., Theod., Sym. , e t c . ;
Henry S. Gehman, "Some types o f Errors o f Transmission in the LXX,"
VT 3 [1 9 5 3 ] : 3 9 9 ) , or toacu Lujv = 3 1 ~iy , from the Aram sense o f enemy
iDan 4 : 1 6 ) . Since the beginning o f the nineteenth century (because
the presence o f the term would a p p a re n tly be a c o n tra d ic tio n to vs.
17) emendations have been proposed f o r the term: H i t z i g ( r e f . by G.
Gray, p. 261) suggested 3 ■> ? y , " r u in s , rubble" ( c f . BHK^; Vanderburgh,
p. 1 14). Ewald (p . 160) proposed " t y r a n t s ," as in 13:11
(see also 29:20; J e r 2 0 : 1 1 ). Dillmann (pp. 138-39) suggested
3 ■> ^ i n n r r , "wasted c i t i e s . " Cobb (pp. 23-24) ends the vs. with
7 3 3 ■> 2 3 aha begins vs. 22 with a s u b s t itu te f o r 3 ' 1~ iy , namely,
1 V s ( Hi phi 1 o f i -l V ) . T. K. Cheyne, "Recent Study o f I s a i a h , " JBL
16 (1 8 9 7 ):1 3 2 -3 3 , c r i t i c i z e s Cobb's suggestion and proposes "to
enclose the whole word-group Q 1 1 7 7 a n * 1 3 3 7 K 7 3 T w ith in marks
o f i n t e r r o g a t i o n ." He thinks th a t we cannot even be sure the 7 K 7 3
i s c o r r e c t , since i t is not a good p a r a l l e l to 7 7 ~ i'1. One o f the
most common suggestions has been 3 ■> ~i if ( c f . Dillmann, p. 139; Duhm,
p. 122; H. B a rth , pp. 124-25, who th in k s th a t d ^ i l f in the sense o f
"oppressor" provides an e x c e lle n t p a r a l l e l to 3 ' , V ~ '.n o f vs. 20 and
3 ’’ y i n o f vs. 5) as anAramaism. Confusion o f and V occurs often
in the te x tu a l t r a d i t i o n o f the OT ( c f . F. D e lit z s c h , Die Lese und
S c h re ib fe h le r im A !ten Testament [ B e r l i n : W. de G riiy te r, 1920] §
108 a , b . ). The u n c e r t a in ty o f knowing f o r sure i f 3 1 i y is the
o r i g i n a l word o f the t e x t has caused scholars to t r a n s la t e the l a s t
phrase o f vs. 21 both p o s i t i v e l y — " th a t the e a rth may be f i l l e d with
178
H i s t o r i c a l Context
Authorship and date o f

Composition
At the end o f the eig h te en th century E. F. Rosenmiiller^
s ta rted the view th a t the o ra c le in Isa 14— cn the basis o f the
mention o f Babylon— did not come from Isaiah o f Jerusalem but has
to do w ith the events r e la te d to the f a l l o f Babylon in the middle
o f the s ix th century B.C. Since then many scholars have advocated

2 3
th a t view and proposed Nabuchadnezzar and Nabonidus0 as possible
fig u re s concerning whom the poem was pronounced. There are others
4
who assign the passage to the times o f Oarius o r Xerxes, or even
c i t i e s ” ( c f . D illm ann, p. 139; Ginsberg, " R e f l e x e s , ” p. 52 and n. 37)

— and n e g a t iv e ly ” . . . and th a t they do not f i l l the earth with
c i t i e s " ( c f . Erlandsson, p. 17; W ildberger, pp. 533, 5 36). Kissane
(pp. 170, 174) has suggested the j o i n in g o f the word to what
follow s and emends i t to read: o n x or n g n " ( I w ill in te r
vene) and r i s e up a gains t them." A very i n t e r e s t i n g and q u ite
ingenious suggestion, proposed by Dupont-Sommer (pp. 78-79) would
emend o ' , ~iy to read ' • a n y (= or ’’ p t y ) "naked, unclothed,"
and detach the word from the end o f ' v s . 21," p la c in g i t a t the begin
ning o f 19b: 0 '| 2 ~in i n ) ', o~iy. Although t h i s proposition has,
as the author says, i t s f a i r reasons (a more acceptable sense, and
a r e s t o r a tio n o f the poem's m e tr ic ) and a very a t t r a c t i v e explanatory
suggestion o f how the t e x t was d is tu rb e d (see p. 8 0 ) , i t c o n s titu te s
a mere s uppos ition . Since the MT t e x t is supported by lQ Is a and by
the Greek v e rs io n s , and since the LXX is very f r e e in t r a n s la t i n g
th is p a r t o f the poem, we have to admit th a t i f i t is not o r ig in a l
with the t e x t (a reasonable p o s s i b i l i t y since i t s presence disturbs
the sense and m e tric o f the t e x t ) , i t was in s e rte d very e a r ly in
the h i s t o r y o f the B i b l i c a l t e x t .
Ê. F. Rosenmiiller, S cholia in Vetus Testamentum Sectio

III (L ip s ia e : J. A. B arth, 1 7 9 1 -9 3 ), 1 -3 .
o
Frans D e lit z s c h , p. 314; 0. C. Whitehouse, Isa ia h 1-39
NCB (New York: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 0 5 ), pp. 93-94 ; Procksch,
J e s a ia , p. 194; W ildberger, pp. 541-42.
^ I.e ., Duhm, p. 117; M a r t i , Das Buch Jes a .ja , KHC 10

(Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul S ieb e c k], 1 9 0 0 ), p. 128; E. Konig,
pp. 185-86; S. H. Langdon, "The S ta r H e !e l, J u p i t e r , " Exp Tim 42
(1 9 3 0 /3 1 ) : 1 7 4 ; e tc .
4I . e . , Morgenstern, "Mythological Background," p. 110.
179
to th a t o f Alexander the G r e a tJ
On the oth e r side we have had scholars s u b s t a n t i a l l y
defending the t r a d i t i o n a l view th a t the passage has to do w ith the

2
Assyrian em pire’ s events, and id e n t i f y in g the t y r a n t w ith Sargon I I
or Sennacherib 3 in the time o f Is a ia h o f Jerusalem. We also find

4
some who even th in k of A s s u r u b a l l i t . S ta rtin g a t the end o f the
n ine te enth c e n tu ry , some scholars strongly defended the end o f the
eighth century B.C. as the date f o r the composition o f Isa 13-14.
Cobb in his a r t i c l e on the ode o f chap. 14, in which he contends
i t could not apply to the neo-Babylonian empire, concludes his
remarks saying th a t "the h i s t o r i c a l and r e lig io u s re fe re n c e s point
to I s a i a h 's time more d i s t i n c t l y than any o th e r ," "the language
and s t y l e give c onfirm atory testimony of the most i n t r i c a t e and
convincing n a tu re " ; and "the l i t e r a r y character o f the whole piece
is so e le v a te d and powerful as to harmonize w ith the known w r itin g s

5 6
of I s a i a h . " In another fir m defense of th is view, Ginsberg says,
C. C. T o rre y , "Alexander the Great in the Old Testament

P rophecies," in Vom A!ten Testament Karl Marti zum S iebziqs te n
Geburtstaqe Gewidmet, BZAW 47 (Giessen: A. Topelmann, 1 9 2 5 ), p . 286.
2
I . e . , W in c k le r, p. 193; 3. A l f r i n k , "Der versammlungsberg im
Ausserten Norden ( I s a 1 4 ) ," Bib 14 (1 9 3 3 ):6 7 ; N. K. G ottw a ld , A ll The
Kingdoms o f the Earth (New York: Harper 4 Row, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 175—76;
Ginsberg, "Reflexes on Sargon," pp. 49-53; H e rb e rt, p. 102; e tc .
3
I . e . , Cobb, pp. 26-28; W. S taerk, Das assyrische W e ltre ic h
im U r t e i l der Propheten (G ottingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1 908),
pp. 144 -4 7 , 226-27; Vandenburgh, p. 120; S. S c h i f f e r , ”Un Chant de
triomphe meconnu sur la mort de Sanherib," REJ 76 ( 1 9 2 2 ):1 7 6 ; E ic h ro d t,
Der Herr der Geschichte, p. 29; Erlandsson, pp. 8 6 - 9 1 , 164; e tc . Among
the scholars who have wavered between Sargon and Sennacherib are
A. Jerem ias, pp. 526, 601; Kissane, 1:166.
4 I . e . , P. Rost, "J e s a ja ," pp. 173-75; see Erlandsson, pp.

111-13, f o r a survey o f several scholars and t h e i r views on the
m a tte r. Cf. also 0. K a ise r, Isa ia h 1 -3 9 , p. 30, n. b.
^P. 35. ^"Reflexes o f Sargon," p. 52.
180
a f t e r presenting his points : "The Poem (vss. 4-2 1) f i t s the unique
event o f the year 705 B.C. as adm irably as was claimed above, is
l i t e r a l l y as worthy o f Is a ia h (and Isaiah a? uniquely worthy of i t )
as was claimed above. . . . " In his already c it e d monograph,
The Burden o f Babylon, Erlandsson, a f t e r a d e ta ile d study of the
language, motives, and h i s t o r i c a l context of Isa 1 3-14 , a r r iv e s a t
the conclusion th a t
The l i n g u i s t i c and them atic content lin k s i t (1 3 : 2 - 1 4 : 2 3 ) c lo s e ly

w ith g e n e ra lly accepted a u th e n tic portions of Is a ia h and the
h i s t o r i c a l circumstances which form both the background and the
cause o f t h i s account had occurred by 701 B.C. He have found
th a t . . . the 7 3 3 has both i t s l i n g u i s t i c and h i s t o r i c a l
context in the accounts o f the prophet Isaiah on the occasion
of the Asryrian occupation . " 1
We have to agree w ith the l a s t three authors c it e d in t h e i r
strong defense o f the t r a d i t i o n a l view, which advocates th a t the pas
sage has, in many aspects, to do w ith events o f the end o f the e ig h th
century and comes from the hand o f Isaiah of Jerusalem. Vandenburgh,
based on the f a c t th a t chap. 13 is an oracle on the f a l l o f 3abylon—
which seems to have been w r i t t e n s h o r tly before the f a l l o f th a t g re at
empire by the bands o f the "Medes" (denoting the Persian Em pire), and
the d i ffe r e n c e in the l i t e r a r y s t y l e between those two s e c tio n s --
advocates t h a t "the oracle (chap. 13) and the poem (chap. 14) were
products o f d i f f e r e n t periods" as w ell o f " d i f f e r e n t l y c o n s titu te d
minds." In his view, "when the book o f Isaiah was completed, th is
ready-made song was in s e r te d , most l i k e l y applying to Nabonidus. . . .'
In p o s t - e x i l i c times "the ode was w r i t t e n f o r the purpose of
in s p ir in g the I s r a e l i t e s w ith hope f o r d e liv e ran c e from a dominion
^P. 166. See also H. Barth (pp. 135-40) f o r discussion and

support f o r the e ig h th -c e n tu ry view.
2 Pp. 114, 116.
181
1 2
o f which Sennacherib was an a n te ty p e ." Q uell a ffir m s th a t the
marginal words o f vss. l - 4 a and vss. 22-23— which are poor and
without o r i e n t a t i o n — show th a t the poem (v s s . 4 b -21) was, through
a v io le n t process o f r e d a c tio n , incorporated in to a prophecy, and
th a t Isaiah has nothing to do with the poem— which has nothing to
do with God but w ith gods, i t s o r ig in being pagan and f u l l o f mythic

3 4 5
m a te ria l. A lb rig h t, Kapelrud, and Childs b e lie v e 14:12-15 was
gotten from a Canaanite Epic. As says Heaton, the m a te ria l (Is a ia n )
is complex, and sometimes a passage must “from one p o in t of view, be
distinguished from i t s c o n te x t, y e t from a n other p o in t o f view i t must
be considered very c a r e f u l l y in r e la t i o n to t h a t same context.
Although the prologue (vss. l - 4 o ) and the ep ilo g u e (vss. 22-23) and
che use of the term “3abylon" seem to i n d i c a t e th a t the prophecy was
re -applied in the s ix t h - c e n t u r y e x i l i c c o n te x t we should not fo r g e t
th a t the prophet could have been shown the whole s it u a t io n long before
the events occurred. Besides t h a t , the use o f the term "Babylon" ( " ? : : )
does not demand th a t i t was incorporated in the t e x t in the s ix th
century B .C ., since the term was used by the end o f the eighth
century (2 Kgs 2 0 : 1 2 - 1 9 ) , and Sargon h im s e lf took the throne o f
Babylon and was king o f both Assyria and Babylon . 7 I t could have
g
been used also by the prophet w ith a d i f f e r e n t connotation.
] Pp. 120-21. 2 Pp. 1 3 1 -3 2 , 155-57.
2 " 8 ook Reviews," p. 155. 4 Baal_, p. 56, n. 4.
^Hyth and R e a l i t y , pp. 59-70. C h ild s argues th a t the myth

is placed in a framework in which i t is "th o ro u g h ly dem ythologized."
6 Pp. 139-40. 7 C f. ANET3 , p. 584.

g
See above, pp. 164-66.
182
Summarizing, we can say th a t although there is a very probable
chance th a t the author used a poem which was ready-made when he wrote
the o r a c le , i t seems th a t the immediate context ( 1 4 :2 4 -2 7 ) as well as
a l a r g e r one in the Is a ia h book (as f o r example 1 0 : 5 - 1 5 ) show that
the "Burden o f Babylon" should be dated as from the end o f the eighth
century B . C . J and, consequently, t h a t the author o f the o r a c le , as
we have i t now, must have been Is a ia h o f Jerusalem.
H is to ric a l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the Tyrant
I t seems l e g it im a t e to say th a t most o f the B ib le prophet's
oracles were r e la te d to immediate h i s t o r i c a l events— even in the
case o f those passages which i n t e r p r e t e r s have considered as having
Messianic connotation or esc ha tologica l a p p l ic a t i o n , in many cases
the prophetic message came or was pronounced having contemporary— or

2
near f u t u r e — events or h i s t o r i c a l s it u a t i o n s in view. In the case
o f the Is a ia n ic passage under discussion one whould look f o r some
r e la t i o n to immediate h i s t o r i c a l events.
In 1896 Cobb examined the c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f the fig u r e
o f Isa 1 4 :4 b -2 2 , such as "oppressive ty ra n n y ," "world r u l e r s h i p , "
"famous f o r pomp and p r i d e ," and h is in g lo rio u s end"; r e je c te d the
idea t h a t the passage re fe rre d to a g eneric king; and advocated
th a t "a t a l l events the t r a i t s described must c h a r a c te r iz e i n d i -

4
vid u als before they can be predicated o f a c la s s ."
^ i s s a n e ( I s a i a h , 1:168; c f . a lso p. 155) has considered the

p o s s i b i l i t y th a t an Isa ia h prophecy on Assyria could have been con
verted in to one to Babylon in the e x i l e period. Concerning to which
Assyrian king the passage r e f e r s , see below pp. 183-87.
p
C f. W ild b e rg er, p. 542; a lso J. Barton Payne, Encyclopedia
o f B i b l i c a l Prophecy (New York: Harper and Row, 1 9 7 3 ), pp. 137-40.
3 Pp. 25-35. V 26.
183
Before determ ining the time o f the event and to whom i t
r e f e r s , the i n t e r p r e t e r is faced w ith the problem of deciding
whether the d e s c rip tio n is something which— having as basis the
time o f composition— has a lre a d y happened or is about to happenJ
We come back to t h i s below on pp. 211-16.
Indi-vidual a p p lic a tio n

2
Opposing Cheynes' views th a t the Isa ia n passage came from
e x i l i c tim e s, and fo llo w in g E. S trachy's and Hugo W in c k le r's sug
gestion^ th a t Sennacherib's c h ara c te r would f i t the Isaian passage,
Cobb examines the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c expressions o f the passage, con
tr a s t s them w ith the e x i l i c tw e n ty -e ig h th chap. of E z e k ie l, and
t r i e s to show th a t the d iffe r e n c e s in language, vocabulary, and
s t y le are s t r i k i n g . At the end he shows t h a t the vocabulary o f
Isa 1 4 :4 b - 22 is the common one used in the whole book o f Is a ia h .

4
This view has had a host o f proponents from the end o f the nin e
teenth century u n t i l today; but i t was Erlandsson who, through his
study on Isa 1 3 -1 4 , q u ite s o l i d l y showed ( l i n g u i s t i c a l l y and in the
Cf. Kissane ( The Book o f I s a i a h , 1:167) believes t h i s

passage is (as in 9 : 1 - 6 ) a past event only in the mind o f the
prophet; c f . also Duhm (p . 1 1 7 ), M arti (p . 1 2 3 ), and Lohmann ( Die
anonymen P ro p h e tie n , pp. 2 5-26 , 42) who see the passage as a
prophecy. Rost (" J e s a j a , " p. 1 7 5 ), on the o th e r hand, thinks th a t
due to the use o f the p e r f e c t , the song speaks about some accomplished
fa ll. C f. also Staerk ( Das assyrische W e l t r e ic h , p. 226) who says
t h a t “das Gedicht 14, 4 f f . nur aus dem Eindruck e in e r epochemachenden
g e sc h ic h tlic h e n P e r s o n lic h k e it v e rs ta n d lic h w ir d , darum auch n ic h t
Weissagung von Zukiinftigem, sondern nur Riickblick auf Vergangenes
sein kann."
2
I n t r o d u c t i o n , p. 75.
^See Cobb, p. 27. La te r on W inckler waived his view, making

Sargon the s ubjec t of the Ode.
^See above pp. 180-82; and Erlandsson pp. 112-13. Cf. also
S ta e rk , Das assyriche W e ltre ic h . . . , pp. 144-45, who views the
song as an echo o f the death o f Sennacherib in 681 B.C.
184
m atter o f th e o lo g ic a l motives) t h a t the Isaian poem has conclusive
c h a r a c t e r is t i c s which place i t in the h i s t o r i c a l context o f the
end o f the e ig hth century B . c J He also contends t h a t i f the
passage should be applied to an h i s t o r i c a l monarch, Sennacherib
would be the one. In th is case the poem had been composed a f t e r
the monarch's death which s tim u la te d the imagination o f the poet.
In 1903 Winckler advocated the a p p lic a tio n o f the poem to
the events concerning Sargon's d e a th , and his view has been

2
followed by many a f t e r him. Besides the reasons o f l i n g u i s t i c
and th e o lo g ic a l motives, we would say th a t we do have some h i n t s —
although not too conclusive— which would support the view t h a t the
te x t is r e f e r r i n g to an Assyrian monarch from the l a s t years o f the
e ighth century (whether i t be Sargon or Sennacherib): the oppressor
s p i r i t depicted in vss. 14b, 16-18 and the n on-b urial o f the kin g's
3 4
body in vss. 19-20. Winckler and Orr stressed the p a r a l l e li s m
between Isa 14:18-19 and the f a c t th a t Sargon's body was ap p are n tly
abandoned in the b a t t l e f i e l d , and the reference in t a b l e t K4730
which reports t h a t Sargon "was not buried in his h o u s e . B e s i d e s
^The Burden o f Babylon, p. 166, e tc .

2
Cf. Ginsberg, "Reflexes o f Sargon," pp. 4 9 -52 . See also
Lohmann, Die anonymen P ro p h e tien , pp. 26-28.
^Die K e i li n s c h r if t e n und das A lte Testament, pp. 4 7-48 .

4.
Ref. by Ginsberg, "Reflexes of Sargon," p. 50.
^Cf. also H. Tadmor, "The Sin o f Sargon," in E retz Is r a e l

V (Jerusalem: Is r a e l E xploration S o c ie ty , 1958), p. 93. See G. B.
Gray, I s a i a h , p. 251, who r i g h t l y observes th a t
" 'n o t buried in his house' . . . does not n e c e s s a r ily imply th a t
he died a v i o l e n t death, and l a y unburied ( c f . vs. 1 9 ): more
o v e r, Sargon c e r t a i n l y did not involve his country and people
in ru in (v s . 2 0 ) ; w ith in tw elve days o f his death his son
Sennacherib was recognized as kin g, and Assyria s u ffe re d no
serious check f o r h a lf a c entury a f t e r Sargon's d e a th ."
185
t h a t , 2 Kgs 1 9 :2 1 -2 8 , where the f a l l of Sennacherib is prophesied,
makes us r e c a l l the Isaiah poem in many fe a tu r e s .
We cannot deny t h a t those who view the passage as re la te d
to the e x i l i c times^ (and th a t i t would be a p p lie d to Nebuchadnezzar

2 3
o r Nabonidus) have good p oints in the mention o f the name Babylon
in vss. 4 and 22 and the possible r e d a c to r's work in the in tro d u c tio n
4
(vss. l - 4 a ) and conclusion (vss. 22-23) o f the passage. In
a d d itio n , some c h a r a c t e r is t i c s would q u ite f i t the p e r s o n a lity o f
of the mentioned Neo-Babylonian r u l e r s , ^ unless one takes the
po s itio n t h a t vss. l - 4 a and 22-23 were produced by a d i f f e r e n t hand
and considers vss. 4 b -21 s e p a r a te ly .^ Vandenburgh has conjectured
th a t the Ode could have been w r itte n in p o s t - e x i l i c times
^ e e above pp. 1 7 8 -7 9 .
2
Although, as Jahnow observed (p. 2 4 2 ), Nabonidus did not
f a l l in b a t t l e , nor was he executed by Cyrus, but he was taken
priso ner and his f i n a l d e s t in y is not known w ith accuracy.
^Cobb (p. 31) contends in fa v o r o f the f a c t t h a t the Assyrian

r u le r s "re p e a te d ly c a l l (themselves) S a rri B a b i l i , " which would
e lim in a te p a r t o f the tension in t h i s passage. But Wildberger (pp.
541-42) points out th a t in I s a i a h 's tim e, the Babylonian kings were,
as f a r as they were able to show t h e i r s tr e n g th , a g a in s t Assyria
and in no way r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f a power under which the whole world
had had to sigh. Due to the p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n , i t seems improb
able t h a t Is r a e l had a t t h a t time r e jo ic e d a t the end o f Babel.
4See 0. K a is e r, Is a ia h 1 3 -3 9 , pp. 2 9-31 .

C
See Vandenburgh (p . 1 2 0 ), who c it e s the “plundering of
fo re s ts f o r b u ild in g m a t e r i a l , the love f o r r e t r e a t and devotion in
the presence o f the gods and the subsequent i n j u r y to the nation
occasioned by such regal n e g le c t and by the imposing o f heavy
t r i b u t e on the people, as w e ll as the d i s l i k e in the nation f o r t h is
monarch (Nabonid). . . . " C f. Staerk ( Das a ss yrische W e lt r e ic h ,
p. 226) f o r strong argument ag ain s t Nabonidus. See also Jer 50-23—
where i t is almost c e r t a i n Nebuchadnezzar is meant— whose form and
content seems to be r e la t e d to Isa 1 4 :4 b -5.
6 H. Barth, p. 141.
186
f o r the purpose o f in s p ir in g the I s r a e l i t e s w ith hope f o r

d e liv e ra n c e from a dominion o f which Sennacherib was an a n t i
type. The memory o f the reign o f Sennacherib, who had l e f t a
l a s t i n g impression both on P ale s tin e and Babylonia, was the
germ f o r the growth o f such a song, which was o rie n te d with
f i g u r a t i v e c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f th a t conspicuous k in g , making o f
the song a pa rab le . . . - When the Book o f Is a ia h was completed,
th is ready-made song was in s e r te d , most l i k e l y as applying to
Nabonidus, a view which appears to be confirmed by the great
p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t the book of Isaiah could not have reached i t s
f i n a l form e a r l i e r than the second century B.C . 1
We disagree w ith Vandenburgh' s view as to the time when the poem was
w r itte n as w ell as the time the book of Is a ia h was completed; but
we admit t h a t in the time o f the e x i l e some a d d itio n by an e d ito r
could have been made in order to reapply the poem to a d i f f e r e n t
h is to ric a l s i t u a t i o n , even though no Neo-Babylonian monarch f i t s
the p ic tu r e t o t a l l y .
Summarizing, we may say th a t there is no reason to r e je c t
the view t h a t the poem (as we have i t today) came from the eighth
century B .C .— w r i t t e n by Isa ia h o f Jerusalem— and bearing some
r e la t io n s h ip to one of the two Assyrian monarchs mentioned. On the
other hand, an e x i l i c w r i t e r could have added the in tro d u c tio n and
the conclusion to the passage— or a t le a s t introduced the term
>33 in vss. 4a and 22 in to the t e x t — and re a p p lie d i t to a d i f f e r
ent h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n ; but again we cannot fin d a Neo-Babylonian
monarch who f i t s the d e s c rip tio n s in the poem, and the use o f the
term > 3 3 and the apparent e x i l i c standpoint o f the prologue and
epilogue are points which can be dismissed in fa v o r o f an e ig h th -
century date o f authorship. There a r e , however, problems in the
t e x t which m i l i t a t e against a d e f i n i t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the
] P. 120.
h is to r ic a l fig u re . As H. Barth^ has observed, we fin d an
a lt e r n a tio n between sin gular and p l u r a l number in r e l a t i o n to

2
the ty r a n t of the passage. He advocates th a t t h i s lack of
harmony conveys signs o f e d i t i n g la y e rs in the t e x t which were
made in Is a i a h 's time (eighth c e n tu ry ) or be fore . I t seems almost
impossible th a t a w r i t e r could have produced a piece o f l i t e r a t u r e
o f the c a l i b e r o f th is Isaiah poem— a l i n g u i s t i c , p oetic master
piece— in q u ite p e r fe c t qinah meter poetry (vss. 4 - 1 7 ) , using
previous m a t e r i a l , without s e t t i n g i t in an harmonious numerical
form. I f the w r i t e r had the c a p a c ity to introduce his e d i t o r i a l
additions in the already w r it t e n g r e a t e r part o f t h i s pentameter
piece, keeping the same high le v e l o f poetical expression and
m e trics , i t is u n l i k e l y th a t he would have f a i l e d in resolving the
disharmony in number. On the o th e r hand, i f th a t kind o f
v a ria tio n in number was d e s ire d , it is not required th a t we
a t t r i b u t e to the t e x t two or more la y e rs as f a r as the time o f
composition is concerned.
As f a r as vss. 12-15 are concerned, i t is very d i f f i c u l t
to apply them h i s t o r i c a l l y to any Assyrian or Neo-Babylonian r u l e r .
I t departs so much from any reasonable immediate h i s t o r i c a l s i t u
a tion th a t scholars have used a l l so rts of e xplanations (con
s id e ra tio n o f which c o n s titu te s a g r e a t p a rt o f th is d i s s e r t a t i o n ) ,
but w ithout reasonable c e r t a i n t y .
1 P. 127.
2See vs. 5: and O "O 3 o ; vs. 20: f V ' t ; vs. 21

i m n K ; where the plu ra l number is present; and vs. 4b: 7 3 : ;
vs. 15: t n x n , e t c . , f o r the s in g u la r.
188
C o lle c t iv e A p p lic atio n
As a lre a d y m entionedJ Cobb admitted th a t the passage uouid
in some sense r e f e r to a class instead o f an i n d i v i d u a l . Dillmann
a ffir m s "der Konig . . . a ls Zusammenfassung des Volks und der Macht
der B a b y lo n ie r." Lohmann, a f t e r e x t e n s iv e ly discussing the m atter
o f the subject o f the poem and the time o f i t s composition,^ a rriv e d
a t the conclusions th a t
das P o r t r a t e in e r P e r s o n !ic h k e it i s t in dem masal n ic h t gegeben.

Die s c h e in b a r in d iv id u e lle n Zuge verschwimmen bei genauerer
Betrachtung: A lle s i s t a llg e m e in , grosszugig gedacht. Von.
T y ra n n e i, W e lth e r r s c h a ft, B a u lu st, Prachtsucht, ijp p ig k e it horen
w ir : das i s t die Zeichnung der imponierenden Macht eines
W e ltre ic h e s , die in ihrem Herrscher g r e if b a r in d ie Erscheinung
tritt. Die personlicr.c Not-' kpmn+ n ic h t zur G eltung. Darum i s t
je d e r Versuch v e r g e b lic h , d ie einzelnen Zuge zum Gesamtbilde
eines bestimmten Herrschers zusammenzufugen; s ie sir-d zu dehnbar,
die P e rs o n lic h k e it i s t n ic h t fa s s b a r. Deshalb konnte man auch
a l l e moglichen assyrischen und chaldaischen Regenten zur Wahl
s te lle n . Auf jeden passt die ganz schablonenhafte Zeichnung . 4
G. B. Gray^ also thinks the w r i t e r "has not in view merely a single
in d iv id u a l." Other scholars adopted the same c o rp o ra tiv e view,^
and E i s s f e l d t recognizes t h a t the fu n e ra l dirges were a t an e a r ly
date applied in a " t r a n s fe r r e d sense to c o l l e c t i v e e n t i t i e s , " and
th a t " i t is c le a r th a t i t (th e poem) is d ire c te d a t one o f these two
world powers (Assyria and B abylon), represented by the person o f
t h e i r kin g, under which I s r a e l had so t e r r i b l y s u ffe r e d . . . .
^See above p. 182. ^P. 134.

3 4
Die anonymen P ro p h e tie n , pp. 26-42. Pp. 38-39.
5 I s a i a h , pp. 2 5 0 -5 1 ; 253, 261.
^Cf. P. Rost, " J e s a ja , Kap 1 4 :4 b -2 1 ," pp. 175-79; e tc .
^ In tr o d u c tio n , p. 97.
189
1 2
But w hile there are laments over c i t i e s , i . e . , Ur and Jerusalem,
the Isaiah poem does not partake of the c o l l e c t i v e atmosphere which
is present in the laments over the mentioned c i t i e s . S till others
th in k l'ie lament d is p la y s t y p ic a l connotation and portrays a power
h o s t i l e to God. 3
As we see, th is passage is a very d i f f i c u l t one to i n t e r p r e t .
Scholars are f a r from a consensus with respect to the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
o f the f i g u r e ( s ) the passage presents. Among the problems we face
in the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the personage(s) of the passage a re:

4 5
1. Despite s c h o la rs 1— e s p e c ia lly Cob^s and E rla n d s s o n ^
— e f f o r t s to show th a t the content of the poem f i t s lin g u is tic a lly
i n to the context o f the whole account o f the prophet Isaiah on the
occasion o f the Assyrian occupation, we do not know f o r sure i f
Is a ia h used a ready-made poem to compose his o ra c le concerning
Babylon.®
2. There is no consensus among theologians concerning
whether the passage i s — from the standpoint o f the time o f i t s
^See S. N. Kramer, "Lamentation Over the D estruction o f Ur"

ANET. pp. 454-63.
See the Book o f Lamentations.
3See Procksch, Jesaia I , p. 201; E ic h ro d t, Der Herr der

G eschichte, p. 25; 0 . K a ise r, Isaiah 1 3 - 3 9 , pp. 2, 30, 31;
W ildberger, pp. 542-43.
4 Pp. 18-35.
®Burden o f Babylon, pp. 129-53, 160-66. See also Rachel

M a rg u lies , The I n d i v i s i b l e Isaiah (New York: Yeshiva U n i v e r s i t y ,
1 96 4 ), pp. 2 2-42, and in passim.
®Cf. W ildberger, p. 542. As long as there is no evidence

f o r a p ro to ty p e , the poem should be a t t r i b u t e d as an o r i g i n a l work
o f the prophet.
190
composition— a prophecy or a d e s c rip tio n o f something which has
already happened.
3. Opinions are divided whether the poem, as i t appears in
the t e x t , o r ig in a t e d in the e ig h th century or s ix t h century B.C.
4. The a lt e r n a t i n g use o f s in g u la r and p lu ra l in r e l a t i o n
to the s u b jec t makes i t very d i f f i c u l t to determine whether the
personage is to be taken i n d i v i d u a l l y or c o l l e c t i v e l y .
5. To make the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n more c om plicated, the t h i r d
or c e n tra l stanza seems to go beyond the e a r t h l y realm and to be
speaking about a more-than-human f i g u r e .
P re lim in a ry Conclusions
In response to our research so f a r , we have a rriv e d a t the
follo w in g p r e lim in a r y conclusions:
1. We have in t h i s passage (Is a 1 4 : 4 b - 21) a masterpiece
o f Hebrew p o e try w r it t e n in an almost p e r fe c t qlnah (vss. 4b -17)
or p e n ta m e te r-s ty le bic o la which, I th in k , were o r i g i n a l l y
d is t r i b u t e d in f i v e stanzas o f seven b ic o la each. The f i r s t th re e
stanzas are well demarcated by the change o f scenes or realms; the
te x t o f the l a s t two stanzas seems to have been d is tu rb e d , deranging
the symmetry o f the poem, but the apparent d isturbance does not
d e tr a c t from the intended message o f the poem. The l i m it s o f the
poem are very c l e a r and d i s t i n c t a t i t s beginning. I t s end, we are
almost sure, occurs w ith vs. 2 1 .
2. Although the poem is w r itte n in (although not e xclu
s iv e l y ) qinah meter rhythm, i t was also w r i t t e n in a form of
"mocking song." The poem seems to be a t y p i c a l case o f blending
191
the l i t e r a r y genre qinah and mashal (proverb, pa rabolic mocking
song).
3. The t e x t does not show, in our view , any sign of
redaction in the poem i t s e l f .
4. The poem seems to have been composed in the time o f
Is a ia h of Jerusalem or b e fo re , and used i n i t i a l l y by the prophet
to depict a p ic tu r e th a t would make sense in the h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t
o f his times.
5. In view o f the content and c h a r a c t e r is t i c s of the p r o
logue and epilogue o f the passage— or what precedes and fo llo w s
the poem— i t could have been re a p p lie d fo r a new h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t
in the e x i l i c times.
6. In view o f the l a s t two items presented, i t is v e ry
d i f f i c u l t and unwise to i d e n t i f y the fig u r e o r subject of the poem—
in i t s e n t i r e t y — as a s p e c i f i c person in a s p e c i f i c epoch; but it
seems th a t both the monarchs o f the Assyrian Empire (Sargon and
Sennacherib, e t c . ) , as well as the Neo-Babylonian Empire Rulers
(Nebuchadnezzar, Nabonidus, e t c . ) could— depending on the epoch
o f a p p lic a tio n — be meant. Besides t h a t , the poem shows signs o f
connoting more than in d iv id u a l p e r s o n a litie s as i t s subject and
makes room f o r a c o l l e c t i v e o r co rp o rativ e a p p l ic a t i o n — by
transference or extension— o f the subject. In ..hat case the
e n t i t i e s under which Is ra e l had in te n s e ly s u ffe re d could be i d e n t
i f i e d as the world powers o f A ssyria or Babylon.
7. The use o f the terms mashal and Babel seems to i n d i c a t e
also that the power depicted in the passage is one th a t opposes God
and f i t s , in an extended sense, the powers which fo llo w
192
s e lf-s u ffic ie n t, s e lf-g lo rify in g , r e b e llio u s , and God-opposing ways.
The poem i t s e l f , the prologue and the epilogue, as w ell as the
f i r s t p a r t o f the oracle a g ain s t Babel (1 3 :2 -1 4 :2 3 ) seem to present
a tension between the d e s c r ip tio n which could be a p p lie d to
h i s t o r i c a l events and the d e s c r ip t io n of events which belong to
cosmic l e v e l . I t seems th a t the prophet had in mind to d e p ict
something o f cosmic scope, but in the process he makes use of
immediate h i s t o r i c a l events w hich, in any ins tan ce , are p a rt o f
the whole p ic tu r e o f the b a t t l e between God ana the powers h o s tile
to Him.
8. Vss. 12-15 are t h a t p o i n t in the poem where the prophet,
in a c le a r e r way, gives the impression that the im p lic a tio n s o f the
poem transcend mere h i s t o r i c a l fi g u r e s in the human e a r t h l y realm.
Those verses seem to p e rta in to the heavenly realm or the sphere
o f the heavenly beings. Examining those cru cia l verses in themselves,
in r e l a t i o n to the whole poem, and in r e la tio n to o th e r passages is
the task o f the fo llo w in g pages.
Exegesis— vss. 12-15
4s noted a b o v e j th e o lo g ian s since the end o f the nineteenth
c en tu ry, have viewed these vss. (1 2 - 1 5 ) as o f m ythological o r i g i n ;
the Ras-Shamra te x ts have s upplied some m aterial which has
strengthened the s ch o la rs ’ view t h a t the m aterial o f th is passage

2
must have come (as already suggested by Gunkel ) from a Canaanite
] Pp. 17-34.
2
Schopfunq und Chaos, p. I3 j .
153
s e ttin g j However, as noted in chapter 2, although we fin d e le
ments in the Is a ia h passage which seem to be present in the
mythological l i t e r a t u r e from the Near East, we have not been able
to fin d corresponding mythological phraseology f o r the Isaiah
passage.
In a d d itio n to our concern o f i d e n t i f y in g the fig u r e in vss.
4 b -11as the same one found in vss. 12-15, we are faced with the
g re a te r d i f f i c u l t y in t h i s passage which derives from the fa c t
th a t '?'?'< n , which could o f f e r the info rm a tio n to i d e n t i f y ,
is unknown to us. A lso, c e r t a i n expressions in t h i s t h i r d stanza
of the poem have been d i f f i c u l t to in te rp re t. These in c lu d e ,
i is 'i ,: v ^ 0 3 . Let us
•• : - ~ -r -r- --t.-t
consider those expressions now in more d e t a i l .
He!el ben Shahar ( " i n ^ - 7 3 Y Q -’ n)
To s t a r t w i t h , we have the task o f discovering i f we have in
"? ■> na verb or a noun, and i f the root fo r the word is ^ 17 (to
howl) or 'p 2 n (to s h in e ). The Pesh. viewed the word— probably
because o f the use found in Jer 47:2 ( ' ? ' ? ' ' h t ) , Ezek 21:17 (> 7 ^ <}' ) ,
2 3
and Zech 11:2 ( 2 2 ' , n ) — as a Hi ph. o f 2 2 ^ and rendered i t as i-u-..
(howl [aph. o f ] ) . Subsequent commentators seem to have

4 5
followed t h i s view. However, Henderson o bjects to the use of the
^Cf. S c o t t, pp. 261-62; R. E. Clements, God and Temple

(Oxford: Basil B la c k w e ll, 1 965), p. 7; G r e lo t , " I s a i e 1 4:12-15,''
pp. 18-48; e t c .
2C f. KBL, pp. 382-83; BOB, p. 410.
2Cf. R. Payne Smith, Thesaurus S yria cu s , 2 v o ls . ( O x i n ii :

E. Typographeo Clarendoniano, 1879), 1:1598.
^Cf. Henderson, p. 132; Young, I s a i a h , 1:440. 5P. 132.
194
imperative in t h i s t e x t , saying th a t "the s tr u c tu r e of the verse is
decidedly opposed; the p a r a l l e li s m re q u irin g ^ ^ "* j7 t 0
describe the person before his having f a l l e n from heaven, j u s t as
a 'V )) •y'? i n describes him previous to his having been f e l l e d
to the ground. Any im perative i n t e r j e c t e d would spoil the beauty,
and im pair the force o f the language."
The LXX (-ijc p d o o ;), Targ. (K rn iu i ^ i D S ) , 1 and Vulg.

2
(L u c ife r), e tc ., took '?'?'> n as coming from the root ^ n (to
shine) and rendered i t as a noun. As Alden says,^ we fin d in a t
le a s t th re e Sem itic languages besides Hebrew, a form o f the word

4
having the meaning "to shine"— the Akkadian e l l u , the U g a r itic
h l l , and the Arabic ha 11 a . ^ The MT vocalizes the word but
some scholars have p re fe rre d i t vocalized connecting i t
with the Arab hi 1a 1^ and rendered "new moon." N. A. Konig^ sees
^J. F. Stenning ( The Tarqum of Isaiah [Oxford: Clarendon

Press, 1 9 4 9 ], pp. 48-49) tr a n s la te s these two words as "the b r i g h t
s ta r."
C f. Henderson (p. 132) f o r a l i s t o f commentators who

hold th is view.
From ha 1 i 1u -*■ el i l u , "pure, s hiny." The feminine form is

e l l i t u and is a name fo r the goddess I s h t a r ; c f . G re lo t, "Sur la
v o c a lis a tio n de ( Is a 1 4 : 1 2 ) , " VT 6 ( 1 9 5 6 ): 303; W ildberger,
pp. 534-35.
^Cf. W ildberger, p. 535.
6So Hugo Winckler, Geschichte I s r a e ls in E in z e ld a rs te llu n g e n

. . . 2 v o ls . (L e ip z ig : E. P f e i f f e r , 1 89 5 -1 9 0 0 ), 1:24. D. Winton
Thomas, BHK; c f . also KBL, p. 231.
7 Konig, " L u c ife r ," p. 479.
195
in 7 7 ^ rr the l a s t quarter moon, j u s t about to disappear.^

2
Wildberger thinks i t is absurd to i d e n t i f y e i t h e r the new moon
3
or the l a s t q u a rte r moon w ith the son of the dawn, adding th a t
* 4
in a is good Hebrew and should not be emended. He proposes the
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f 7 7 ^ n as being an e p ith e t o f a d e i t y . 8 I t seems
th a t w ith G r e l o t 8 we should m a in ta in the MT v o c a l i z a t io n and to
admit t h a t — based on the c o ntext in r e la tio n to t " W l 2 — the
word comes from 7 7 rr (s h in e ) and has an a s tr a l c o n n o ta tio n ; 7
and the t r a n s l a t i o n cjcjojo ; (LXX) and Luc ife r ( V u l g . ) , and the

g
paraphrase o f the T a r g ., are in agreement w ith the o r i g i n a l .
The expression ~i rr:? “ 7 a 7 7 ^ n , as such, ’-s a hapax
legomenon in the OT; i n a is n o t. In order to help in the i n t e r
p r e ta tio n o f '?'?'< n , the use o f the words i rry “ 7 2 must be taken

g
in to c o n s id e r a tio n . The word occurs f r e q u e n t l y in the OT and
ôme change n n t- it o " in 's , by which the moon (god) is de sig

nated in some Semitic languages, thus "New Moon, Son o f the Last
Q u a rte r." C f. also McKay, p. 452.
2 P. 551.
2Cyrus H. Gordon ("A M arriage of the Gods in Canaanite

Mythology," BASOR 65 Cl9 3 7 ] : 3 1 - 3 3 ) tends to i n t e r p r e t the term as
meaning “new moon"; D riv e r ( Canaanite Myths, pp. 106, 1 2 8 ), as the
crescent moon; c f . also J. C. de Moor, The S em itic Pantheor. o f
U g a r i t , " UF 2 ( 1 9 7 0 ) :225q.
• 4 C f. McKay, p. 452.
8See McKay, pp. 451-55 f o r suggestions on the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

O f 7 7 ^ .
8 "Sur la v o c a l i s a t i o n , " p. 303.
7See also Oldenburg, "Above the S ta r s ," p. 206, n. 121.
8 C f. also G r e lo t, " I s a i e 14:12 -1 5 ," p. 30.
8 C f. Lisowsky, pp. 1423-24; also McKay, pp. 456-60.
196
is the norma 1 Hebrew word (r.i^scul in e ) f o r the natural phenomenon
"dawn. ' ' 1 I s a ia h 's use of the term is undoubtedly with reference
to the dawn phenomenon ( c f . 8:2 0; 5 8 :5 ). The word appears also m
some personal names such as m i n t ? (1 Chr 8 :2 6 ) and
(1 Chr 7 : 1 0 ) , but we cannot a f f i r m with c e r t a i n t y th a t these words

2
r e l a t e to any d e i t y o f dawn. Thus there is no reason to i n t e r p r e t
the term ~int7 ( i n the OT and more s p e c i f i c a l l y in Is a ia h ) as re fe r
ring to a pagan god, since i t s b i b l i c a l use is in the sense o f the
"dawn"— natural phenomenon. Thus the expression ''irtfl _ 7 3 "?7> ■> ~
should be rendered "shining one, son of^ the dawn." The versions
rendering o f 7> 7 1 i i : LXX (5 côtjooos 5 toJc iuarc.x \ j v ) ,
Vulg. ( L u c ife r qui mane o r i e b a r i s ); and Targ. (x n i i j 3 3 i 3 ?
s ^3 5 i 3 7 3 ) , express f a i t h f u l l y the sense o f a s tr a l phenomenon

4 5
of the dawn. McKay has discussed some i n t e r p r e t a t io n s o f the
"Helel ben Shahar" expression such as: its representing d i f f e r e n t
aspects o f the moon, d i f f e r e n t aspects o f the sun, or o f J u p i t e r ; ^
but he c o r r e c t l y admits t h a t the most p la u s ib le theory is the one
which takes Isa 14:12 -1 5 as a nature myth and th a t Helel is the
^McKay (pp. 456-59) says th a t MT uses " i n t f i n a personal

ized way, but t h a t the versions attempted to remove th a t connotation.
However, th is view seems improbable. C f. also L. Kohler, "Die
Morgenrote im A lte n Testament," ZAW 44 (1 9 2 6 ):5 6 -5 9 .
^Cf. G. Meadors, "The I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f "in 2 7 - 7> 7> ^ ~

in Isa ia h 14:12" (M .D iv . Thesis, Grace Theological Seminary, 1 976),
p. IT .
^"Belonging t o , " c f . Isa 5 :1 ; Job 5 :7 ; Lam 3:13. C f. Haag,

" 7 3 ," TDOT ( 1 9 7 5 ) , 2 :152.
^See Meadors (pp. 13-23) fo r a more d e t a ile d discussion on

the versions' t r a n s l a t i o n o f the phrase.
5 Pp. 4 52 -5 6 . 6 Ib id ., pp. 452-53.
197
"shining one," the b r ig h te s t s ta r in the morning sky, Venus as the
morning s t a r . " His views are summarized thus:
Venus, l i k e Mercury, l i e s inside the E a r t h ’ s o r b i t and appears

in the west a t evening fo llo w in g the Sun to r e s t and in the
east a t or before dawn r i s i n g before the Sun. Because o f i t s
o r b i t a l path i t is never seen to a t t a i n the c e l e s t i a l ze n ith
before i t is b lo tte d from s ig ht by the l i g h t o f the r i s i n g Sun.
Instead i t seems to the observer t h a t i t is unable to ascend
"above the s tars of El" and is compelled to descend from i t s
highest p o in t towards the morning horizon e v e n tu a lly disappearing
from view , as i t were "cut down to the ground" and "brought
down to S heo l, to the recesses o f the P i t " beneath the eastern
horizon.^
McKay points out t h a t t h i s view does not r e q u ire te x tu a l emendation
and recognizes the normal meaning of the word ~irri/. G r e lo t , as noted

2 3 4
above, s ta r te d w ith Gunkel's and Duhm’ s suggested i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
o f Helel w ith the Greek Phaeton, and developed the idea and a rr iv e d
a t the conclusion th a t Helel is indeed the same personage as Phaeton-
Venus, and t h a t the same motive o f ’ Sous attached to Phaeton Son of
Eo is perceived in H eiel ben Shahar. G r e lo t advocates the view th a t
there was a prototype o f a Phoenician myth, which was im ita te d by
the B i b l i c a l au th o r; and a f t e r being introduced in to the Greek
w orld, i t developed i t s e l f in to several independent l i n e s . ^ Also,
as was discussed above,® G relo t i d e n t i f i e s Helel ben Shahar w ith
the Phoenician Ashtar which p e rs o n ifie s the p la n e t Venus and admits
Ib id . C f. also R. B. Y. S c o tt, "The Book o f Is a i a h ," _IB

(N a s h v ille : Abingdon Press, 1 95 2 -5 7), 5 :2 6 1 ; Clements, God and
Temple ( P h ila d e lp h ia : Fortress Press, 1 9 6 5 ), p. 7.
2See pp. 7 8 -8 0 ; c f . G re lo t, " I s a i e 1 4 : 1 2 -1 5 ," pp. 18-48.
^Schopfung und Chaos, pp. 132-34. 4 P. 119.
5 " I s a i e 14:12-1 5 , p. 32. 6 Pp. 88-90.
198
th a t although a f a l l o f Ashtar is not w itnessed, there is testimony
o f A s h ta r's ambitious immoderation which caused the f a l l o f the
Isaiah f i g u r e . ^ However, he recognizes th a t the myth passed through
mutations and a d a p ta tio n s , and i t s meaning is not simple. At the
end o f his discussions, Grelot admits th a t the theme of A s hta r's
f a l l could well be the mythic e x p lic a t io n o f a natural phenomenon
(as presented above, p. 80); but in r e l a t i o n to the b i b l i c a l
author, the p o l y t h e i s t i c and p a n th e is tic c o n te x t is e lim inated in
be half o f Yahweh's f a i t h , and Helel (which G r e lo t says is A shtar)
is presented only incarnated in the King o f Babylon. Despite the

2
uniqueness o f Yahweh, use of l i t e r a r y a llu s io n s are made, and
i t seems t h a t a n c ie n t mythic themes continue to be used to point
to Yahweh as a God conquerer o f the powers th a t oppose His p la n s . 3

4
Childs , a f t e r presenting his re co n s tru c tio n o f the Helel myth,
a ffirm s t h a t
The p ro p h e tic w r i t e r has taken t h i s old myth and reworked i t

in to h is ta u n t song. He compares the mighty king of Babylon
to the u p s t a r t , H e la l. He also had a b r i l l i a n t s t a r t , but
then Yahweh hurled him down to become the laughingstock of
the n a tio n s . . . . In s p ite o f the h ig h ly mythical nature o f the
m a t e r i a l , the framework into which i t isn ow pla c ed has had
the e f f e c t o f thoroughly demythologizing i t . The myth of
Helal has become merely a s t r i k i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n dram atizing
the splendour o f the ris e to fame and the shame o f the f a l l
which is s a r c a s t i c a l l y hurled a t the king o f Babylon. There
is no tension whatever between the myth and i t s Old Testament
As we saw above on pp. 87-90. th e re are aisc d i f f i c u l t i e s

in th is view. See Wildberger, pp. 552-53; c f . Oldenburg, "Above
the S t a r s , " pp. 199-208.
Ôldenburg ("Above the S t a r s ," p. 208) and Childs ( Myth

and R e a l i t y , p. 70) c a ll i t " i l l u s t r a t i o n . "
3 C f. G r e l o t , " Is a ie 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ," p. 46.
S iyth and R e a l i t y , pp. 6 7-71.
199
framework since the myth c a r r ie s only i l l u s t r a t i v e value as

an extended f i g u r e of speechJ
In the l i g h t o f the nature o f the Is a ia h t e x t and others (as pre
sented above on pp. 190-96, and below on pp. 2 0 5 -1 6 ), i t seems
t h a t what comes in vss. 12-15 is not only a “mere i 1 1 u s tr a tio n "
which dramatizes the Babylonian f a t e , but something t h a t c a r r ie s
our mind to the u ltim a te o r ig in o f a l l antagonism to God's plans.
This t r u t h is in one way or another present in the myths o f a ncient
c u ltu r e s and peoples. Although using the mythical language, the
prophet presents something considered mythological (b u t not
n e c e s s a r ily u n h i s t o r i c a l ) in the m onotheistic Yahweistic frame
and c o n te x t. Support f o r t h i s view is revealed as our study
progresses.
Other Alleged Mythic Expressions

in Vss. 13-15
When G re lo t a ffir m s th a t “Tant de references mythologiques
(i.e ., t V i a " ' jT, 2V ^ 3 3 )

... • • •“ •• r /
rassemblees en si peu d'espace l a i s s e n t supposer une e r r o i t e

2
dependance du passage par rapport a son modele p h e n ic ie n ; 11
De Vaux adds th a t "Ces correspondences, reunies dans quelques
v e r s e ts , suggerent que la c a n tile n e d 'l s a 14 s 'i n s p i r e d'un
modele p h e n ic ie n , " 3 and A lb r ig h t suggests t h a t the prophet probably

4
quoted a dirge r e la t e d to the ‘ A t h t a r o f the Baal Epic. We have
^ I b i d . , pp. 69-70.
2 G r e lo t , “ I s a i e 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ," p. 21.
3 "l_es T e x te s ," p. 547.
4"The Old Testament," p. 30.
200
to admit th a t indeed the prophet is using a terminology th a t was
f a m i l i a r among the mythological language o f the Ancient Near E as t,
e s p e c ia lly in the Phoenician c u ltu re .^ But what must be emphasized
is th a t the prophet was not r e a l l y dependent on the myths. He
used t h e i r language to express something th a t was c l e a r in his
mind and which could not be grasped in the myth i t s e l f . Besides

2
t h a t , as we have alread y a ffirm e d , those alleged mythic motives
could have been, due to c u l t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y , common elements.
Stars o f E l . As noted above,^ El was the head o f the
U g a r i t i c pantheon, but the term is fr e q u e n tly used in the OT to

4
designate the God o^ Is r a e l as well as a heathen god. Concerning
the expression 2 D") 3 , in f a c t , we fin d in the U g a r i t i c te x t^
— d espite i t s badly broken condition— chances o f p a r a l l e li s m
between bn i 1 , "the Sons o f E l ," and phr kkbm, "the assembly o f the
stars.The form ^ k 3 3 3 3 ^ has been found in the Phoenician
In s c r ip tio n o f P y rg i 7 and could have had i t s o r ig in in the Canaanite
^See above pp. 84-98 fo r references and comments on t h i s .
^See above p . 96. ^Pp. 92-93; 111-14.
4Cross ( " > « , " TDOT [1 9 7 4 ], 1:254) says t h a t "El is r a r e l y

i f ever used in the B ib le as the proper name o f a n o n - I s r a e l i t e ,
Canaanite d e i t y in the f u l l consciousness o f a d i s t i n c t i o n between
El and Yahweh, God o f I s r a e l . " Cassuto ( The Goddess Anath, p. 57)
thinks th a t the word ’P K in Isa 14:13, Hosea 1 2 :1 , and Ezek 28:2
r e fe r s to the Canaanite E l ; but see above pp. 9 1-92 , and below p. 250
5CTA, 1 :1 0 .1 .3 -4 .
^Cf. Dahood, "Punic hkkbm," p. 170; Pope, El_, p. 103; c f.

also Fohrer, J e s a ja , 1 :1 7 5 , who thinks the phrase is s u p e r l a t i v e ,
t r a n s la t i n g i t "the h ighest s ta r s ."
7Joseph A. F itz m y e r, "The Phoenician In s c r ip t io n from

P y r g i," JA0S 8 6 (1 9 6 6 ): 2 8 6 -8 7 .
201
1 2
mythic language, but as we have discussed above, t h a t is not
t o t a l l y necessary. In Job 38:7, the "morning stars" are p a r a l l e l
to the Sons o f God and, consequently, can "be i d e n t i f i e d w ith the

3 4
members o f the d iv in e assembly." Of the th ir t y - s e v e n times
th a t the word 2 3 1 3 is used in the OT, only Isa 4 7:13 and Amos
5:26 c l e a r l y r e f e r to an a s tra l c u l t , but Isa 14:13 i s the only
t e x t where > x is r e la te d to 2 D
T i 3.
Mount o f Assembly. This expression ~ r y i 3 ~ ~ n n was a
conmon phrase in the r e lig io u s language o f the c u ltu r e s o f the
whole F e r t i l e C re sc e n t . 8 The OT a lso presents the concept o f the
"heavenly assembly" which was presided over by God and composed of
created beings . 8 Scholars think th a t Is ra e l must have, to some
e x te n t, adapted t h i s notion of the d iv in e assembly from the
neighboring c u l t u r e s . 7
Recesses o f the North. Concerning the expression 1 n D ' 1

Q
7 1 3 if, we have seen above th a t in most o f the OT occurrences
i t in d ic a te s one o f the cardinal points o f the compass, but in
] So Cross ("T’ X , " TDOT [ 1 9 7 4 ] , 1:254) who c a l l s i t a

" fro z e n , a rc h a ic phrase."
2 Pp. 9 2 -9 3 . C l i f f o r d , p. 161, n. 84.

4
Li sowski, p. 670.
8See above, pp. 92-93, e s p e c i a l l y n. 1 on p. 92 f o r b ib lo -

graphical sources on the m atter. See also Gray, Legacy, p. 24.
8See above, pp. 93-94 and 101-105.
7 C f. M i l l e r , Divine W a r r i o r , p. 6 6 ; C l i f f o r d , pp. 139-43.
% . 106-109.
202
Isa 14 i t seems to have a d i f f e r e n t connotation. I t seems th a t
the term 7 7 3 s is the designation f o r the U g a r itic mythological
mountain,^ the d w e llin g place o f B aa l. But on the o th e r hand,

2
it is almost sure t h a t despite the l i n g u i s t i c p a r a l l e l s between
the Isa ia h expression and the a n c ie n t Near Eastern l i t e r a t u r e
( e s p e c i a l l y P h oenician ), the prophet uses i t in a d i f f e r e n t context
and dimension. In Isa ia h the mountain has nothing to do w ith Baal
or Mount Casius,^ but w ith something in the Yahwistic c o n te x t. It
is also doubtful th a t the Isaian expression has to do w ith Mount

4
Zion i t s e l f ; i t r a th e r seems th a t the passage is t a l k i n g about a
spot which is opposite th a t located in Sheol, the “depths o f the
p it," i.e ., Yahweh's d w elling place in the heavenly realm.
Ginsberg^ tr a n s la te s 7 ID S 1 n: 7 , "in Highest Heaven,"
and has the view th a t ] t has in t h i s passage the same meaning
as in Job 2 6 :7 .^ C l i f f o r d i n t e r p r e t s Zaphon not as a p a r a l l e l to
See E i s s f e l d t , Baal Zaphon, pp. 1-30; de Langhe, Les Textes,

2 :2 1 7 -4 5 . For an ela bora te d discussion on the view t h a t the expres
sion comes from the Babylonian concept o f the "mountain o f the w orld,"
see A l f r i n k , "Der Versammlungsberg," pp. 41-57. Cf. also C l i f f o r d ,
pp. 57-59; Montgomery, "Notes," p. 102; O h le r, pp. 156-60.
2
■Âgainst Young, I s a i a h , 1 :4 4 1 , n. 78.
4See above, pp. 108-09.
^"Reflexes o f Sargon," p. 51; c f . also Ginsberg, "Lexico

graphical Notes," VTSup 16 (Leiden: E. J. B r i l l , 1 9 6 7 ), pp. 79-80.
^This assumption is based on the f a c t th a t in Job 26:7:

( n o “ ', ’? i - '7 y v - i k i r i n ” 7 y 7 1 d y rra^ ) 7 1 s x means (due
to the p a r a l l e l ) "heavens," and the word rrn7 is used o f I ' 1 in
several passages ( Is a 40:22; 42:5; 4 4 :2 4 ; 45:12; 51:13; J er 10:12;
51:15 ; Zech 12:1; Ps 104:2; Job 9 : 8 ) , and in a l l the quoted passages
except two ( Is a 40:22 and Job 9 : 8 ) , 3 1 3 5 is paired w ith y ~ « .
E. Dhorme ( Job, ET by Harold Knight [London: Thomas Nelson & Sons,
196 7 ], p. 372) views 7 ' 37f as a " c e l e s t i a l re g io n ." C f. also de
Langhe, Les T e x te s , 2 :2 3 7 -4 4 , fo r more discussion o f the m a tte r.
203
the Mount o f Assembly but to n v 1 n r: 2 , "the heights o f the clouds,"
and advocates Ginsberg's view saying th a t “Zaphon1s meaning seems to
be p r a c t i c a l l y 'heavens'."^
?
J. J. M. Roberts s tr o n g ly r e s is ts th is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
Job 2 :7 , which is also applied to Isa 14:13, advocating th a t the
p a r a lle lis m and progression o f thought in the Job passage argue
fo r taking ? I 3 i ‘ as r e f e r r i n g to the sacred mountain. Also
Ginsberg points out th a t the mountain on which the U g a r i t i c phr m d 3
meets is not ] i 3 ' i but L I . ^
Despite the u n c e rta in ty o f scholars concerning the real
meaning of the term in Isa 1 4 :1 3 , as was pointed out by Ginsberg,
"] i 3 i‘ stands in a n t i t h e s i s to n : " 1 n i t 1, and the po la r
opposite of the nether world is the sky; Amos 9 : 2 ; Ps 1 3 9 :8 ." The
p a r a l l e l passage in Ezek 28:12 -1 9 corroborates w ith the idea th a t
T 1 3 J means something else than Mount Casius or Mount Z ion . 3
^Cosmic Mountain, pp. 161-62. Cf. also O h le r, p. 156.
^J. J. M. Roberts, "Sapon in Job 2 6 : 7 , ” Bib 56 C. 975):

554-57.
3UL, p. 13 ( c f . also CTA, 1 : 2 . 1 . 1 4 , 2 1 ) . See Pope, El_,

pp. 68-69, where the meaning of the U g a r itic is discussed.
f a s t e r ( Thespis, p. 138) reads ij_ instead o f JJ_. Pope

( E l , p. 6 8 ) says th a t "even i f the reading 1_1_ is e s ta b lis h e d , i t
might o f course, s t i l l be a s c r ib a l e r r o r . " E i s s f e l d t ( El im
U g a r i t i c Pantheon, p. 33, n. 3) thinks 1_1_ might not even be a
whole word.
^ C l i f f o r d (p. 131) suggests th a t the t r a n s l a t i o phenomenon

could have happened in which the r e l i c s a t t r i b u t e d to Zaphon could
nave bean transposed to Zior., ir. a d i f f e r e n t c o n te x t. See Gaster
( Thesp is, p. 169) f o r the th e s is th a t the gods dwell in the north.
See also Morgenstern, "Psalm 4 8," pp. 47-87, f o r the b i b l i c a l and
e x t r a - b i b l i c a l t r a d i t i o n s concerning ] i 3 'i in the Sem itic c u ltu res
end the tendency "of p o s t - e x i l i c period w r ite r s to in v e s t the various
mountains o f I s r a e l i t e and Jewish t r a d i t i o n w ith various o f the
204
In Ezek 1 :4 -2 8 the prophet d e f i n i t e l y im plies th a t the glory
of Ychweh comes from th-* no rth , and i d e n t i f i e s the place from which
Yahweh’ s glo ry comes as the dw e llin g place o f God. I t is very
i n t e r e s t i n g th a t Ezek 1 has some expressions (see vss. 4 , 7 - 8 , 13-14,
e t c . ) which resemble the dw elling place o f the Cherub in chap. 28, a
passage which in several aspects is p a r a l l e l to the Isaian one.
Summarizing we would say th a t i t is very doubtful t h a t the
Isaiah w r i t e r had in view the Phoenician Mount Cassius. That he
re fe rr e d to Mount Zion, the lo c a tio n o f the temple, is a lso improb
a b le. The context and p a r a lle lis m fa v o r , as we see i t , some region
in the C e le s t ia l S phereJ
As f a r as the expression a v 1 n n i'V ; “I w i l l

2
ascend above the heights o f the cl cuds," is concerned, we have
mythological q u a l i t i e s and a t t r i b u t e s of Safon." K. Barth ( Church

Dogmatics, 3 .9 . § 41) i d e n t i f i e s "the mount o f God, in the extreme
north" ( Is a 14:13) w ith the "cosmic po la r point" and i n t e r e s t i n g l y
says th a t "Paul obviously has th is in mind when he speaks in 2 Cor
1 2 : 2 o f his ra pture to the ' t h i r d heaven'."
^See A. Barnes, Notes on the Old Testament— I s a i a h , 2 vols.

(Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1950), 1 :2 7 2 -7 4 , f o r more d is
cussion on the view o f several O rie n ta l cultu res concerning the
north as the residence o f the gods. He also asserts t h a t several
passages in the OT ( i . e . , Ezek 1 :4 , 5; Job 37:22; Zech 6 : 1 - 8 , e t c . )
show th a t the northern regions were regarded as the s eat o f s tr ik in g
and p e c u lia r m a n ife s ta tio n s of the d iv in e g lo ry . Cf. also J. Savignac,
"Note sur le Sens du term Saphon dans quelques passages de la B ib le ,"
VT 3 (1 9 5 3 ):9 5 -9 6 . A. Jeremias (p . 257, n. 3) comments th a t "the
Rabbis imagine t h a t the earth is surrounded by ehaven, but the north
is open. Comp. Herrschensohn’ s Hebrew w r i t i n g , Book o f the Seven
Wisdoms, pp. 4 and 12. ' I t is said in Baba bathra i i . 25b: The
heavens surround the e a r t h . For Aksadra (surrounded on three sides,
not the north s id e ) th is is explained thus: there is no heaven
th e r e ; th a t i s , i t is open th e r e , there is a gap in the heavens."
I t is explained in o th e r passages th a t the d w e llin g place o f e v il
demons is in the gap; tempest, ghosts, shedim, l i g h t n i n g , and demons
come from thence' . "
2 Vs. 14a.
205
already commented on i t in the previous chapter^ and a r r iv e d a t the
conclusion t h a t when the OT w r ite r s use the “cloud" imagery, they
associate i t w ith the m anifestation or in te r v e n tio n of Yahweh. The
Isaiah passage then shows H e le l's pretensions to usurp d iv in e pro-

2
ro g a tiv e s . The d iv in e name 7 1 ^ 7 y occurs t h i r t y - o n e times in the
3 4
Hebrew B ib le , most o f them in poetic t e x t s . Besides short notes in
the commentaries, several scholars have w r i t t e n on th is term more

5 v 6
e x te n s iv e ly . Nyberg advocates th a t S|\l_, Êl_, L El yon, 3 El Sadday
are the same d e i t y which was absorbed by Yahweh.^ A statement in

Q
Sanchunyathon' s Theoqony — where 'Elyon ( ..v . o j j) is r e fe r r e d to as
a d i s t i n c t god in r e l a t i o n to El belonging to one of the "Cosmogonic
Pp. 9 6-98 . See also W. Boyd B a r r i c k , "The Rich Man from

Arimathea (M att 2 7 :5 7 -6 0 ) and IQ Isa , “ JBL 96 (1 9 7 7 ):2 3 5 -3 9 , fo r
the meaning o f n n n .
\is o w s k y , p. 1071.
^Four times in Genesis ( 1 4 : 1 8 - 2 2 ) ; Mum 24:16; Deut 32:8;

2 Sam 22:14; Isa 14:14 ; twenty-one times in the Psalms; tw ice in
Lamentations ( 3 : 3 5 , 3 8).
4
Except in two instances: Gen 1 4 :1 8 , 22.
^H. S. Nyberg, "Studien zum Religionskampf im A lten

Testament," ARW 35 (1 9 3 8 ):3 2 9 -8 7 ; G. Levi D e lla Vida, "El 'Elyon
in genesis 1 4 : 1 3 -2 0 ," JBL 63 (1 9 4 4 ) : 1 - 9 ; Remi Lack, "Les O rigines
de Elyon Le T re s -H a u t, dans La T r a d itio n C u l t u r e l l e d ' I s r a e l , " CBQ
24 ( 1 9 6 2 ) :4 4 -6 4; Cross, "Yahweh and the God," pp. 241-44; S t o l z ,
S tr u k tu r e n , pp. 149-80; see also Van Z i j l , B a a l, pp. 2 8 2 -8 4 , f o r a
summary on the views on 7 i ■> 7 y ; f o r more extensive b ib lio g ra p h y see
Stan Rummel, Ras Shamra P a r a l l e l s , AnOr, 51 (Rome: P o n tific iu m
In s titu tu m B iblicum , 1981), pp. 452-53.
6 ,,S tu d ie n ," pp. 355-56.
^Gaster ( Thespis [1 9 5 0 ], p. 8 6 ) thinks 7 1 O K ( i n

Isa 14:14) "need not mean 'th e most h i g h ' , but merely 'one o f
the upper gods' . "
Êusebius Praep. Ev. 1:10, 15-16.
206
p a i r s , — and the presence o f the term Elyon in the S e fir e

2
I n s c r ip tio n --where i t is u l t i m a t e l y associated to E l , but pre
sented as d i s t i n c t d e i t y — have puzzled scholars, e s p e c ia lly since in
Gen 14 7 s and 7 i ^ 'PV are used as r e f e r r i n g to the same d e ity .
D e lla Vida 3 says th a t i f El and 'Elyon are two separate d e i t i e s , the
f a c t would help us b e tte r understand Num 24:16, where El and cElyon
appear in p a r a lle lis m . He adds th a t these two names should not be
considered "as synonymous o f Yahweh, but ra th e r as two d i f f e r e n t ,
although re la te d d iv in e b eings." For him, El is the Lord of Earth
and eElyon the Lord o f heaven . 4 On the other hand, as Cross says,^
we can, using the b i b l i c a l references f o r support,^ i n t e r p r e t
th is p a ir as a double name o f a sin g le god, although adm itting
th a t there is a chance th a t
‘ Elyon, e a r ly an e p it h e t o f ‘ E l , has s p l i t a p a rt in to a sep

a ra te c u l t , and hence ‘ El and ‘ Elyon may be paired as separate
d e itie s . This would support the view th a t ‘ Elyon is c o r r e c tly
Ê1 as the Lord o f E arth , and 'Elyon as Lord o f Heaven.

2
Cf. A. Dupont-Sommer and Jean S tarcky, Les In s c rip tio n s
arameennes de S e fir e (P a r is : Imprimerie N a tio n a le , 1958); J. A.
F itzm y er, "The Aramaic In s c r ip tio n s o f S e f ir e I and I I , " JAOS 81
(1 9 6 1 ):1 9 2 -9 3 ; M. Noth, "Der h is to r is c h e Hintergrund der In s c h r ifte n
von S e f f r e , " ZDPV 77 ( 1 9 6 1 ) :1 18-72.
3 "E1 Elyon," p. 3. 4 Ib id ., pp. 8 - 9 .
^"Yahweh and the God," pp. 242-43.
Ê1 is well a tte s te d in the U g a r itic te x ts as well as in

the OT; and
" ‘Elyon is a name f a m i l i a r from the OT, as an e p i t h e t of ■
>E1
(Gn 14, 18-22; Ps 78, 3 5 ) , o f Yahweh (Ps 7, 18; 47, 3 ) , of
’Elohim (Ps 57, 3; 78, 5 6 ); i t is also used in p a r a lle lis m w ith
>E1 (Num 24, 16; Ps 73, 11; 107, 1 1 ) , with Yahweh (Dt 32, 3 -9 ;
2 Sm 22, 14 [= Ps 18, 1 4 ]; Ps 91, 9 ) , with ^ l o h i m (Ps 46, 5; 50,
1 4 ), with Shaddai (Num 24, 16; Ps 9 1 . 1 ) . I t is also used alone
in Ps 9, 3; 77, 11 ; 82, 6 ; Is 14, 14"
(F itz m y e r , "The Aramaic," pp. 1 9 2 -9 3 ).
207
used as an a p p e lla tio n o f ‘ El in Genesis, and l a t e r , i n t e r

changeably with El as an e p i t h e t of YahwehJ
R. Lack, a f t e r examining e x t r a - B i b l i c a l and B ib lic a l m a te r ia l
on the term ] i " O y , a r r iv e s a t the conclusion th a t the term was
common in the Western Sem itic c u l t u r e , was applied to the Supreme
God, was used by Is ra e l before the occupation o f the land o f Canaan,
and th a t
Disons p l u t o t qu'Elyon e t a i t pour I s r a e l , a tous les moments

de son h i s t o i r e , le seul Grand Dieu E l , le m aitre de to u t
1 'u n i v e r s , mais qui pour son peuple s ' e t a i t revele sous le
nom de Jahve.2
In view of the views presented above, and the use the OT
makes o f the term, i t seems t h a t there is no reason to r e j e c t the
fa c t th a t ] l -1 7 V i s — in the OT use--an e p i t h e t of Yahweh.
Some S tr u c tu r a l Observations
As was presented above, the Isaiah passage in discussion

3 4
was w r i t t e n as a form o f mockery lament in the qinah meter, or
pentameter. The d i f f e r e n t scenes which occur in d i f f e r e n t realms^
— e arth , lower w orld, and heaven— show us th a t we have a poem b u i l t
in stanzas o f seven b ic o la each.** In vss. 4b-8 we have a d e s c r ip tio n
o f events t h a t occurred in the e a r t h ly realm; a f t e r the t y r a n t ' s
aggression, he is abased by the Lord, and men and nature l i e a t la s t
^Cross, "Yahweh and the God," p. 243; c f . also A l b r i g h t ,

Yahweh and the Gods, p. 164; Oldenburg, "Above the S ta r s ," pp.
189-98.
^Lack, "Les O r ig in e s ," pp. 63-64.

3 4
See above pp. 160-64. See above pp. 148 -5 9 .
^See Ewald, p. 162; Smith, I s a i a h , p. 409.
Âgainst W ildberger (p . 541) and Erlandsson (p. 1 2 2 ), who

th in k "no d iv is io n in to stanzas can be determiend with c e r t a i n t y . "
208
in peace. In vss. 9-11 the oppressor's a r r i v a l to the nether world
is depicted in very f i g u r a t i v e language; the realm o f the dead is
c l e a r l y in view in t h i s s e c tio n . In vss. 12-15 we perceive a
dig re ss io n from what came b e fo re , as f a r as the chronological order
o f the existence of the t y r a n t — or of the fig u r e he emulates— is con
cerned. The realm is w ith o u t doubt a heavenly o n e J In vss. 16-19—
d esp ite the probable d isturbance in the poetry— the thought seems
to lead back to the n e th e r-w o rld realm. In vss. 19b—21 the scene
s w itches--although not so markedly— back to the e a r t h ly realm where
the oppressor's body faces exposure and n o - b u r ia l. His d e s tin y is
made c le a r ana the f a t e o f his o ffs p r in g is determined.
I f we observe t h i s poem a t t e n t i v e l y , we perceive t h a t a
kind o f chiasm is present in i t s s tr u c tu r e . The f i r s t and l a s t
stanzas present the end o f the t y r a n t , vss. 4b-8 being an account
o f the things the deceased imposed on peoples and n a tio n s . Vss.
19 b - 21 account f o r the things which w i l l be done to him. Both the
f i r s t and the l a s t stanzas present the e arth f i n a l l y in peace
because o f the d e s tr u c tio n o f the oppressor.
Heavenly
Underworld Underworld
E a rth ly E a r t h ly
See Quell (pp. 150-54) fo r i n t e r e s t i n g remarks on the

c e n tra l stanza o f the poem, which he defines as "ein geschlossenes
mythisches Korpus" ("a closed mythical body"), and in which he
confirms what is advocated here.
209
The second and fo u rth stanzas present the surprise o f those
who contemplate the oppressor coming to the grave (vss. 9 and 1 6);
the change he su ffe re d from the time he was in power to his
in g lo rio u s end (vss. 10 and 1 6 -1 7 ); the a b je c t s it u a t io n of his
unburied body (vss. 11 and 1 9 ); and the kings o f the nations who are
mentioned as being in a b e t t e r s itu a tio n than he (vss. 9 and 18).
Another l i t e r a r y device used in t h i s poem is the "envelope
s tru c tu re " which was a lre a d y mentioned by lie b r e ic h ^ as appearing
in vss. 9-15 and 16-21 : the word 7 i appears in vss. 9 and 15,
(a ls o used in vs. 1 1 ); in vss. 16-17 we fin d i . . .
? ' , s n ; and in vs. 21 a n v 7an . . . y->.K.
But the appex o f t h i s m agnificent poem is without doubt the
t h i r d stanza which takes us to an event which happened on high, f o r
the t e x t abounds in terms which belong to the d iv in e abode. From
the f i r s t bicolon (v s . 1 2 a) to the seventh (v s . 1 5 ) , the enigmatic
being goes from "heaven" in to the “depths o f the p i t . " Between these
two extremes we fin d those f i v e pretensions o f the great ty r a n t
which are presented by those f i v e f i r s t person s in g u la r verbal forms:
-y y x ( I w i l l ascend), a " x ( I w i ll ra is e ), n ^ K ( I w ill s it
enthroned), n7v« ( I w ill ascend), noTK ( I w ill make m y s e lf). In
a s a l i e n t manner we see the contrast between and
between i i a s ' • n o n ' 1, and ~n a ^ n d "t ^ .
The Pride M o tif

2
As we p e r c e iv e , and has also been analyzed by Erlandsson,
the pride m o tif is v e ry c le a r in the burden o f Babylon as well as
^"The Com D ilatinn n -f the Book o f I s a i a h , " JQR 47 (1 9 5 6 /5 7 ): 131.
2 Pd. 139-42.
210
in the whole o f Isa ia h ( 2 :9 -1 1 ; 5 :1 4 -1 6 ; 9 :8 ; 10:12-14;'* 16:6;
23:9; 37:22-25 [where some images present in 1 4:8-9 are used]; 4 7).
But we fin d th is m o tif emphasized in o th e r passages o f the Old

2
Testament, e s p e c ia lly in Ezek 2 8 :2 -1 9 . Though we cannot deny
th a t the p r id e - m o t if is cen tral in Isa 14 and Ezek 28, we should
not fo r g e t Obadiah ( 3 - 4 ) which in i t s o r a c le against Edom uses a
vocabulary which very much resembles t h a t in Is a ia h .
Nickelsburg has c a lle d our a t t e n t i o n to the serie s of
s i m i l a r i t i e s and c o ntrasts between Isa 52-53 and Isa 14,
a) Both scenes take place in the s ig h t o f the kings ( 5 2 : 1 5 / / 1 4 : 9 ) .

b) In both cases, the kings see one whom they form e rly knew
given over to a fa te th a t is j u s t the opposite o f his former
s tate.
c) The kings re a c t in amazement and i n c r e d u l i t y ( 5 2 : 1 5 / / 1 4 : 1 6 f . ) .
d) The L u c ife r f i g u r e aspired to ascend to heaven and be l i k e
God and was c ast down ( 1 4 : 1 2 - 1 5 ) . The protagonist in
Isa ia h 52-53 is c a lle d the serv a n t o f Yahweh; his h u m ilit y
is stressed; his f a t e is to be e x a l t e d , l i f t e d up, and made
very high ( 5 2 : 1 3 ) .
These p a r a l l e l s make a lin k in g o f Is a ia h 52-53 and Is a ia h 14
In Isa 1 0 :1 2 -1 4 , where the haughty prid e of the King of

Assyria is p o rtra y e d , wefin d a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t s p i r i t s i m i l a r to
the one found in 1 4 :1 2 -1 4 , and six verbs in the f i r s t person s in g u la r
are used by the a rrogant king to d escribe his ty ra n n ic a l a t t i t u d e .
This s i m i l a r i t y in a t t i t u d e seems to strengthen the view th a t an
Assyrian king was meant in Isa 14 o r i g i n a l l y .
2
See, f o r t h a t , Erlandsson (pp. 1 4 8 -4 9 ), who presents the
hybris in i t s two main modes of expressions as present in Gen 3:5 and
1 1 :4 , and i t s p a r a l l e l in Isa 14 and Ezek 28:
the a s p ir a tio n to be l i k e God
z G e n . 3 :5 p i ' ' ? ' ; ' ? . t q t x I s . 14:14
■> 3 x > x Ezek. 28:2
^ 3 K c "> rr'7 x Ezek. 28:9
the a s p ir a tio n to reach up to heaven
z^n^z i "i n n > T 3 z G e n . 1 1:4 a ' • D o r r i s . 14:13
’ S tD f TK “ ' • Z Z T Z '7 7 V 3 Q Is . 14:13
zv 1 r!D Z ‘ V ; I s . 14:14
'i n z z , '! z z t z Ezek. 28:2
See also Gowan ( When Man Becomes God) f o r an in-depth study o f human
hybris in several passages o f the OT, in c lu d in g Isa 14 and Ezek 28.
F. L. M o r ia r ty , "The Lament over Tyre (Ezek 2 7 ) ," Gregorianum 46 (1965):
84, has noted th a t "the condemnation o f human pride . . . is a common
theme o f the two prophets ( I s a i a h , E z e k i e l ) . "
211
n a tu ra l and strengthen the case f o r t h e i r ju x ta p o s itio n in

Wi sdom. 1
2
Commenting on the Servant Songs, W. F. Lofthouse noted th a t "they
may be regarded as the summit o f Old Testament prophecy, where
Resurrection, pp. 6 9 -7 0 . The Book of Wisdom o f Solomon,

2 : 4 - 5 ; 4 :1 8 - 1 9 , uses the language taken from Isa 52:53 to describe
the rig h te o u s , and Isa 14 to d e s c r ib e the enemies o f the r i g h t e o j s .
Cf. P. Skehan, “ Isaiah and the Teaching of the Book of Wisdom,"
CBQ 2 (1 9 4 0 ):2 9 6 .
2
The l i t e r a t u r e on the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Isa 5 2 -5 3 , as well
as on the h is to r y of the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of these two chapters, is
immense. For bibliography on the m a tte r see Christopher R. North,
The S u ffe r in g Servant in D e u te r o -Is a ia h (London: G eoffrey Cumberlege,
1948); J. S. van der Ploeg, Les chants du S e rv ite u r de Jahve (P a r is :
J. Gabalda, 1936); P ie rre G r e l o t , Les Poemes du S e r v ite u r ( P a r is :
Les E d itio n s du Cerf, 1981). Through the centuries fo u r main th e o ries
have been proposed f o r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Isa 53 and the i d e n t i f i c a
tio n o f the S u ffe re r Servant: ( 1 ) The Servant was an anonymous
contemporary of Is a ia h ; (2 ) the S ervant was the prophet h im s e lf;
(3 ) the Servant was em pirical I s r a e l , ideal I s r a e l , the pious remnant
o f the tr u e I s r a e l , the order o f the prophets, together w ith combin
a tio n s o f these elements in d i f f e r e n t proportions; and t h i s is known
as the C o lle c tiv e Theory; (4 ) th e Servant was the M essiah--or the
Messianic Theory ( f o r discussions on these the o ries and t h e i r
exponents through the c en tu rie s see North, The S u ffe rin g S e rv a n t;
van der Ploeg, pp. 107-60. I adopt the Messianic theory f o r the
f o llo w in g reasons: (1 ) Even i f the prophet i n i t i a l l y had in view
some anonymous contemporary or h i m s e l f , he would d e p ic t a type o f an
e s c h a to lo g ica l fig u re to appear in the future (the tension between
the present and the f u t u r e , and between thee a r t h ly and cosmic is
real in Is a ia h ; see pp. 2 1 9 - 2 0 ) ; ( 2 ) i f the c o l l e c t i v e a p p lic a tio n
is pressed, one could say th a t C h r i s t was in a sense a p e r s o n if ic a tio n
o f I s r a e l ; (3 ) the Jewish i n t e r p r e t e r s and the Targun i t s e l f i n t e r
preted the Servant as being the Messiah, and they probably "abandoned
the messianic in favor o f the c o l l e c t i v e in t e r p r e t a t io n as a means
o f defense against the C h r i s t i a n s ; to admit th a t the Servant was
the Messiah was to la y themselves the more open to the assaults
o f the C h ris tia n propaganda" ( N o r t h , p. 18); (4 ) the New Testament
and Jesus Himself were conscious t h a t Isa 53 was a prophecy o f the
C h r is t (see H. Wheeler Robinson, The Cross of the Servant: A Study in
D e u te ro -Is a ia h [London: Student C h r is tia n Movement, 1 9 2 6 ], pp. 6 4 f f . ;
F. R. M. Hitchcock, "The 'S e r v a n t 1 in Isaiah and the NT," Exp, Ser. 8
14 [1 9 1 7 ]:3 0 9 -2 0 ; North, pp. 2 3 - 2 6 ) ; and (5) a f a i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
Isa 53 in the context o f the S c r ip t u r e s shows th a t the prophecy was
f u l f i l l e d in Jesus' l i f e (see van der Ploeg, pp. 149-60; North,
pp. 207-19; G re lo t, Les Poemes du S e r v i t e u r , pp. 138-89; H. W.
Robinson, The Cross in the 0T [P h i l a d e l p h i a : Westminster Press,
1 955], pp. 65-114).
212
prophecy indeed r is e s to something e ls e to which I would give the
name o f myth."^ Even though we could r e f r a i n ourselves from
c la s s i f y i n g Isa 53 as having any mythical c o lo rin g — even in the
sense Lofthouse uses— we have to admit t h a t th a t song's very
f i g u r a t i v e language and the u n iversal-scope emphasis r a is e s the

2
passage above the le v e l o f general prophecy. Isa 53 and Isa 14
share th is univ ers a l sc^pe c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w ith an emphasis on
eschatology, which i d e n t i f i e s — to some e x t e n t— these passages
w ith apocalyptic l i t e r a t u r e . ^ Thus Isa 14 and Isa 53 seem to
present two c o n tr a s tin g powers and t h e i r main protagonists
in the "cosmic sweep" o f the controversy between Good and E v i l ;
the a t t i t u d e o f one the fig u re s being a s olution to n e u t r a l i z e
the a t t i t u d e o f the o th e r . Furthermore we should " re c o g n ize ," as
Lofthouse remarks, " th a t no 's o l u t i o n ' o f the mystery o f e v i l
and o f redemption, no e x p o s itio n o f the i n e f f a b l e grace o f God,
has been more p e n e t r a t in g , outside the New Testament i t s e l f , which
Quoted by N orth, p. 212. The term myth here means

"philosophic myth a f t e r the fashion o f P lato . . . [which] i l l u s t r a t e s
our p hilosop hical knowledge w ithout adding to i t . . . ken," C. C. J.
Webb, God and P e r s o n a lit y (London: George A lle n , 1 91 8 ), p. 170. Webb
adds, "The p h ilo s o p h ic a l myth may p r o v i s i o n a l ly take the place o f
h is to r y which we have now a t hand in memory or on r e c o rd ," i b i d . ,
p. 177; and in the words o f North ( S u ffe r in g Servant, p. 213) l a t e r
on “genuine h i s t o r y would then to a c e r t a i n extent supersede myth."
2
Cf. Kenneth A. S trand, I n t e r p r e t in g the Book o f R evelation
(Ann Arbor P u b lis h e rs , 1 97 6 ), pp. 1 8-19.
^ I b i d . , pp. 1 8-19. Cf. also Leonhard Goppelt, Typos, tra ns .

by Donald H. Madvig (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), p. 234, who
notes th a t "a poc aly pticis m . . . is the successor o f prophecy and
c a r r i e s on the purposes o f prophecy in an universal and r a c i c a l l y
eschatological way. At the same tim e , however, i t brings a c e r t a in
amount o f a l i e n a t i o n from prophecy."
213
is here (Is a 53) so s tra n g e ly foreshadowed or more e v a n g e lic a l.
In the same mood one cannot examine th is t h i r d stanza in the Isaiah
poem w ithout also th in k in g o f th a t m agnificent c ounterstory which
presents Jesus the ''low ly one": Phil 2 : 5 - 1 1 . In comparing these
two passages we can perceive the opposite a t t i t u d e s taken by the
Isaiah fig u r e and C h r is t Jesus:
Isa 14:12-15 Phil 2:5-11
Divine Level Divine Level Immortal

(vs. 6 ) V - /
\ /
Creature / \ \ Creature
Level / \ Level
(v s . 1 2 ) j \ (vs. 1 2 )
/ \ \
M o rtal! \p e a th Death
The being in Isa 14 was a c re a tu re subjected to m o r t a l i t y . C h ris t
in Phil 2, by His h u m i l ia t i o n , became one w ith humanity, but is

2
Immortal God a t the same tim e. Zim m erli, comparing Ezek 28:11-19
w ith Phil 2 :5 -1 1 , says th a t both passages p o rtr a y the true h is to r y
of mankind; they are "more than mere episodic occurrences." Since
Isa 14 emphasizes the same p r id e -m o tif and portrays a more p e r fe c t
co n tra s t to the a t t i t u d e taken by the being in Phil 2, the com
parison suggested by Zimmerli is an a p p ro p ria te one.
] W. F. Lofthouse, "Some R e fle c tio n s on the 'Servant Songs','

JTS 48 (1 9 4 7 ):1 7 5 .
^ E z e k ie l, 2 :95.
214
Past Events as the Root of Motives

of Present Condemnation
The Is a ia h passage under study has some a f f i n i t i e s to oth e r
b i b l ic a l te x ts such as Ezek 28 and Rev 12 which deserve some con
s id e r a tio n . A ll three of these passages^ d escribe some event, or
pronounce some judgment, but a t a c e r t a in p o in t they stop ta l k i n g
about the present or near fu tu r e s it u a t io n and s t a r t presenting a
past event which seems to l i e a t the basis o f or is the moral cause
of the pre se n t a t t i t u d e . For example, in Ezek 28 the prophet
describes the sin of the prince o f Tyre (vss. 2 - 1 0 ) , which is a
kind of present s it u a t io n ; but from vss. 12-15 the w r i t e r s t a r t s
ta lk in g about something which seems to have happened in the past
and th a t seems to transcend the present h i s t o r i c a l realm; or
something in the past which, i f not m y th o lo g ic a l, is about the
remote past and even gives a h in t o f an event t h a t occurred in the
heavenly realm . A ft e r reaching th a t p o i n t , the passage comes back
again to the present or n e a r - fu tu r e event (sometimes smoothly as
in the case o f the Ezekiel passage, sometimes a b r u p tly as in Isa 14
[vss. 1 5 -1 6 ] and Rev 12 [vss. 9 - 1 0 ] ) . The sections in these te x ts
which seem to r e f e r back to a d i f f e r e n t but r e la t e d event are
Isa 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ; Ezek 28:12-17; Rev 1 2 :7 -9 . G r e lo t has grasped the
tru th o f the d i f f e r e n t plans or realms in the antagonism between
Yahweh and the opposing powers, which he presents as the opposing
forces ( 1 ) a t the c re a tio n , ( 2 ) in the theme o f d iv in e war in the
angelic realm (where good and bad angels such as Michael and the
^There are other passages (as f o r example: Dan 7 - 8 , e t c . )

where, in my view , the phenomenon occurs.
21 5
dragon are an example [Rev 1 2 ] ) , and (3 ) the e a r t h ly nations which
oppose Yahweh's designsJ
Thus Isa 14:12-15 sings about an event which does not belong
2
(in p o in t o f tim e) to the two stanzas th a t precede i t . As Quell
says, the m a te ria l (which he considers m y th o lo g ica l) of th is
stanza is w ith o u t doubt o f d e c is iv e value to judge the whole poem.
This s ec tion not only i l l u s t r a t e s a monarch's s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t or
proud a t t i t u d e ; i t presents something which belongs to him and a t the
same time i s beyond him. The prophet s t a r t s vs. 12 without g iv in g
any warning th a t there is a change o f fig u r e and context, but a t
the same time i t is impossible not to th in k o f th a t . Hanson corrob
orates t h i s the s is when he, in commenting about the tension between
cosmic dimension and the h i s t o r i c a l events, a ffir m s th a t "prim ordial
event, h i s t o r i c a l past, fu t u r e s a lv a tio n are a l l brought to g e th e r
in to one dynamic t e n s i o n - f i l l e d u n ity which permits Yahwism n e i t h e r
to be reduced to the one-dimensional h i s t o r i c i z i n g of the deuteronomic

3 4
h is to r y nor to escape in to the timelessness o f myth." Cross agrees
th a t "in I s r a e l , myth and^ h i s t o r y always stood in a strong te n s io n ,"
1" I s a i e 14:12 -1 5 ," pp. 46-48.

2
C f. Q u e ll, pp. 150 -5 3 , f o r more on t h i s m atter.
^Paul D. Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic (P h ila d e lp h ia :

Fortress Press, 1975), p. 25.
4 F. M. Cross, "The Divine W arrior in I s r a e l ' s E a rly C u l t , "

in B i b l i c a l Motives, ed. Alexander Altmann (Cambridge: Harvard
U n iv e r s ity Press, 1966), p. 19.
^"Myth" here should be taken in the sense of

"a sym bolic, approximate expression o f t r u t h which the human
mind cannot perceive sharply and com pletely but can on ly glimpse
vaguely, and th e re fo re cannot adequately or a c c u ra te ly express.
. . . I t im plie s , not falsehood, but t r u t h . . . an in s ig h t more
216
but adds, “myth serving p r i m a r i l y to give a cosmic dimension and
transcendent meaning to the h i s t o r i c a l , r a r e l y fu n c tio n in g to
d is so lv e h is to ry ." ^ We also agree with Barr who d e c la re s . “ I t is
thus perhaps possible to say th a t the c e n t r a l p os ition in I s r a e l i t e
thought is occupied by h is to r y ra th e r than myth, and th a t such

2
s u rv iv a ls of myth as e x i s t are c o n tr o lle d by the h i s t o r i c a l sense."
I t seems th a t th is tensio n is present in Isa 14, where h i s t o r i c a l and
cosmic events, p a s t, p re s e n t, and f u t u r e , are a l l brought together
in to the mentioned "dynamic t e n s i o n - f i l l e d u n i t y . "
To confirm our th e s is we have the very i n t e r e s t i n g and
re v e a lin g te x t in the Apocalypse o f Is a ia h (chaps. 2 4 - 2 7 ) , in which
the prophet ta lk s about God punishing "the host of heaven, in
heaven, and the kings o f the e a r t h , on the e a r t h ," as i f blending
the two realms,^ b r in g in g them in to judgment and to an end together
(2 4 :2 1 -2 2 ). This passage seems to bring l i g h t to the time o f the
profound than s c i e n t i f i c d e s c rip tio n and lo g ic a l a n a ly s is can

ever achieve"
( M i l l a r Burrows, An O u tlin e o f B i b l i c a l Theology [ P h ila d e lp h ia :
Westminster Press, 1 9 4 6 ], p. 115 ); or as " p i c t o r i a l pre se n ta tio n s of
enduring and e s s e n tia l t r u t h about the unseen forces w ith which man
has to do, and o f h is r e la t i o n s w ith them" (R. B. Y. S c o t t, "Is a ia h
1 - 3 9 ," JOB [ 1 9 5 2 - 5 7 ] , 5 :2 5 9 ). See f o r p la u s ib le discussions on the
meaning o f the term , James Barr, "The Meaning o f 'Mythology' in
R e latio n to the Old Testament," X I 9 (1 9 5 9 ):1 -1 0 ; Davies, "An
Approach," pp. 8 3 -9 1 ; D u lle s , "Symbol, Myth," pp. 6-17.
^"The D ivin e W a r r io r ," p. 19. ^"The Meaning," p. 3.
^See P. D. Hanson, "Old Testament Apocalyptic Reexamined,"

I n t 25 (1 9 71 ):4 5 4 —79, where he presents the view th a t "prophecy
emerged from a mythopoeic environment, w it h in which d iv in e a c t i v i t y
per se was regarded as occurring on a cosmic plane and w it h in which
the mundane sphere was regarded as a mere r e f l e c t i o n o f the drama
o f the gods" (p. 4 5 7 ) , and discusses the tension between those two
realms; see also below pp. 219-20.
217
event described, whether i t is something which a lre a d y happened,
or i t is about to happen. Kissane^ advocates th a t “the poem can
be in te r p r e te d l i k e 9 : 1 - 6 , i . e . , i t is a past event only in the
mind of the p ro p h e t," taking the verb tenses as prophetic p e r fe c t s .
Rost thinks t h a t the f a l l o f the t y r a n t is something accomplished,
since the use o f the p e r fe c t is c l e a r , and adds th a t "nur gezwur.gen

.?
von e in e r Weissagung gesprochen werden kann.'
I t seems to me th a t the passage ta lk s about something th a t
has happened ( o b j e c t i v e f o r which the poem was o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n ) ;
what is happening (event or happening f o r which the poem is now
secondarily a p p l i e d ) ; and what w i l l happen ( i n the sense t h a t
[according to Isa 2 4 :2 1 -2 2 ] judgment w i l l be brought against the
hosts o f heaven and the kings o f the e a r t h ) . Thus, as i t appears
in t h i s passage, the poem— regardless o f what the o r ig in a l author
had in mind when the poem was composed— seems to be r e la te d to past
and fu tu r e eve n ts . Besides r e f e r r i n g to some immediate h i s t o r i c a l
e v e n t, Isa 14:1-21 portrays two o the r dimensions: i t d epicts the
a t t i t u d e s and judgment o f powe-s h o s t i l e to God and in a d d itio n
c a r r ie s us to the past (vss. 12-15) to a f i g u r e — in the heavenly
realm— who seems to have had the same proud a t t i t u d e and had an
unhappy end.
Is a ia h 14 and the Whole Book o f Is a ia h
I t is not necessary to say t h a t chap. 13 is r e la te d to

3
chap. 14, f o r the heading 7 2 2 X 3 3 , "burden o f Babylon,” covers
V 167. 2 " J e s a ja ," p. 175.
2 0n the meaning o f see: P. A. H. de Boer, “An In q u iry
218
both chaps, (in c lu d in g 1 4 :2 4 -2 7 ). G. 3. Gray has suggested tha t

■ 1 2
chap. 13 has in i t s e l f eschatological f e a tu r e s . 0. Kaiser also
perceived the tension^ between the immediate h i s t o r i c a l events and
a universal e v e n t, with the t e x t switching from universal fu tu r e
event to local prophecy.
I t is important th a t we understand t h a t the term eschatology
should be taken not only as meaning the d o c trin e of the things which
concern the end o f the world b ut, as Clements says, as "the study
o f ideas and b e l i e f s concerning the end of the present world order,
on the in tr o d u c tio n o f a new o rd e r ," not obscuring "the i n t r a -
in to the Meaning o f the Term tt'SQ," OTS 5 (1 9 4 8 ): 197-214; Henry S.

Gehman, "The 'Burden1 of the Prophets," JQR 31 (1940/41 ):107-21 ;
R. B. Y. S c o tt, “The Meaning o f Mass! as an Oracle T i t l e , " JBL
67 ( 1 9 4 8 ) : pp. v - v i .
Îsa ia h 1 - 3 9 , pp. 237-38; Gray says t h a t "whereas in vss.

17-19 the poem is q u ite c l e a r l y concerned w ith actual c o n d itio n s ,
and p o s s i b i l i t i e s c lo s e ly r e la te d to them, in o the r places there
appears the vagueness of an esc ha tologica l poem; the opening verses
might w ell r e f e r to superhuman armies o f Yahweh, and by no means
obviously suggest a sin gle s p e c ific nation . . . ," and adds th a t
"the darkness y,vs. 10) and the univ ers a l commotion are escha
to l o g i c a l fe a tu re s . . . ," pp. 237-38.
2 Isa ia h 1 3 -1 3 , p. 8: "In 1 3 :2 -2 2 the prophecy o f the

judgment o f the world th a t is to take place on the day o f Yahweh
and th a t o f the conquest and d e s tru c tio n o f Babylon, are remark
ab ly in te r m in g le d ." Kaiser warns us a g ain s t any attempt by means
o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m to d is tin g u is h fragments o f an o ld e r o r ig in a l
w ith in vss. 6 -1 3 , and urges us to accept these two natures o f
m a te ria l as they are found a ppare ntly interm in gled in the t e x t
(p. 9 ) . Cf. also Vermeylen, pp. 2 88 -9 1 , f o r more comments on the
esc ha tologica l nature of the passage.
■^See Hanson, "Old Testament A pocalyptic Reexamined," pp.

4 57-61, who discusses the tension between the h i s t o r i c a l and the
cosmic plane, f o r prophets always seem to "s tra d d le two w orlds, to
view the d e lib e r a tio n s and events o f the cosmic realm, but then
immediately to in te g r a t e th a t v is io n in to events of the p o l i t i c o -
h i s t o r i c a l order" (p. 459).
h is to ric a l nature of such d iv in e a c tio n ." ^ Thus we perceive th a t
there is no a r b it r a r in e s s in a f f i r m i n g th a t in Isa 14 the prophet
straddles two worlds, fo r th a t is tru e also in chap. 13 which
belongs to the same block-passage c a lle d the Burden o f Babylon.
Besides, i t seems t h a t the whole book o f Is a ia h has a
constant tension between those two realms. I t is found in chap. 6
where heavenly and e a r th ly realms blend to g e th e r , or are in te n s io n .
Even th e re i t is d i f f i c u l t to know in to which temple (heavenly or
e a r t h ly ) the prophet was taken. The s o -c a lle d Apocalypse of Is a ia h
(chaps. 2 4 -2 7 ) presents the same phenomenon, e s p e c i a l l y 24:21-22
where the judgment of the in h a b ita n ts of the two worlds or realms
is emphasized in a d i s t i n c t i v e manner.^ In the second part o f the

4
Isaiah book the picture is the same. Chaps. 65-66 are an example
of a t e x t t h a t interm ingles the two realms in i t s s tru c tu re ( 6 5 : 1 - 1 6
- 1 7 - 2 5 ; 6 6 : 1 - 1 4 — 15-24); here Hanson's statement is p e r tin e n t t h a t
"in the e ig h th century Isaiah i l l u s t r a t e s perhaps b e t t e r than any
other prophet the d e lic a te balance achieved by pro p h e tic Yahwism
between the v is io n a ry element and the pragmatic in te g r a t io n o f the
cosmic v is io n in to the events o f t h a t tim e ."^
^R. E. Clements, Prophecy and Covenant, S8T 43 ( N a p e r v i l l e ,

IL: Alec R. Allenson, 1 965), p. 105.
2See Hanson, h it 25 (1 9 7 1 ):4 5 9 .
^See above, p. 203; c f . O tto P loger, Theocracy and Escha-

to lo q y , t r a n s . s. Rudman (Oxford: Basil B la c k w e ll, 1968), pp. 59-60
J. Lindblom, Die Jesaja-Apokalypse, Jes. 24-27 (Lund: C. W. K.
Gleerup, 1 9 3 8 ), pp. 26-30.
^Cf. P. D. Hanson, The Dawn o f Apocalyptic (P h ila d e lp h ia :

Fortress Press, 1975), pp. 23-27.
^The Dawn of A p o c a ly p tic , p. 19. See a lso pp. 23-25 f o r
220
Thus, the in te rm in g lin g o f the h i s t o r i c a l and e s c h a to lo g ic a l,
e a r t h ly and heavenly realms in the book o f Isaiah strengthens our
view t h a t chap. 14:12-15 ta lk s about an event t h a t transcends the
e a r t h ly realm.
Ezekiel 2 8 :1 -1 9
Lim its o f the Passage
The oracles against Tyre are very well d e lim ite d in t h e i r
beginning (see 26:1; 27:1; 2 8 :1 , 11; observe the formula
3 [n n « h ] "Ow r n n ', - -im [ rr ^ rr] ' ■ m i ) and
a t the end o f each of them (see 26:21; 27:36b; 2 8 :1 9 b ). As Zimmerli'
has observed, the two oracles in Ezek 28 (1 -1 0 and 11-19) have— on
the basis o f 23:19b being used as an epilogue f o r both— been' intended
as a u n i f i e d whole and " f i t to g e th e r from the p o in t o f view both o f

2
content and o f form." However, the two formulae f o r receiving the
word o f God in vss. 1 and 11 show th a t these two blocks m ust--in
some way— be considered as having t h e i r own i n d i v i d u a l i t y . Besides,
the nature o f the m aterial makes— in some aspects— the two passages
d is tin c t.^
the view th a t the in tro d u c tio n o f the "cosmic dimension o f a d iv in e

a c t i v i t y in the in t e r p r e t a t io n o f the past" was necessary in order
to save Yahwism from a "shallow h i s t o r i c i z i n g tendency," and no
c o n tr a d ic tio n of the promises o f the covenant.
1E z e k i e l , 2:22, 73; c f . also L o re tz , UF 8 (1 9 7 6 ):4 5 5 .
2 I b i d . , p. 22.
■^Zimmerli, E z e k ie l, p. 73, observes th a t vss. 11-19 "operates

to an unusual degree with m a te ria l of a mythical n a tu r e , vss. 1 -1 0 ,
on the o th e r hand, in s p ite o f vs. 2, produce a more strongly
fo rm u la ic impression."
221
L i t e r a r y Form
Vss. 1-10
Because the f i r s t p a r t of chap. 28 is not introduced as a
q in a h , some commentaturs are in c lin e d to view i t as p ro s e J BHS
views the passage as prose, w hile BHK t r i e s to present the o ra cle
in m e tric form. Cheminant advocates th a t the whole o ra c le must

2
have been o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n in the s ty le o f lam entation.
Budde suggests^ th a t a t le a s t vss. 9-10 resemble the qinah
m eter; and Cheminant proposes taking the l a s t two words ( 3 7 3
jin y ti) from vs. 2— which he thinks are in excess th e r e — to make
a f i v e - s t r e s s bicolon and to add them a t the end o f vs. 5, making
o f the l a s t p a r t o f t h a t a p e r fe c t f i v e - s t r e s s bicolon 332 î
3 ^n7x 37 3 i > ' i n 3 ) . Although the presented suggestions would
solve— a t the expense o f changes o f word and order o f the t e x t — the
problem o f vss. 2, 5, 6, 9, and 10, we would not fin d qinah meter
in vss. 4a, 5, 7, and 8. Zimmerli observes th a t i t is d i f f i c u l t to
recognize a c o n s is te n t m e tr ic a l form, f o r what we r e a l l y have here is
a " fr e e a l t e r n a t i n g o f th re e and tw o -fo o t l in e s combined into u n its

5
o f f i v e , six or e ig h t l i n e s . " Thus i t is impossible to fin d a
•1
‘ Cf. Kraetzschmar, pp. 214-18; P. Cheminant, Les Propheties
d 'E z e c h ie l contre Tyr ( 2 6 -2 8 :1 9 ) (P a r is : Letouzey e t Ane, 1 9 1 2 ), p.
66.
2
I b id . W illia m A. I r w in , The Problem o f Ezekiel (Chicago:
U n iv e r s ity of Chicago Press, 1943), p. 216, and R. H. P f e i f f e r ,
In tro d u c tio n to the Old Testament (New York: Harper & Brothers,
194 1 ), p. 564, have the same view.
^"Das Hebraische K la g e lie d ," p. 20.
4P. 66. C f. also pp. 67-71 f o r an attempt to fin d m e tric

poetry in th is o r a c le .
^ E ze k ie l, 2 :76.
222
re g u la r qinah meter poetry in these verses. Zimmerli also observes
t h a t , “as a lre a d y in chap. 27 (fo llo w in g chap. 26) and in chap. 19
(f o llo w in g chap. 1 7 ), so here too the lament fo llo w s d i r e c t l y a f t e r
a d iv in e judgment o ra cle ."^ He also makes a c r i t i c a l review o f the
passage and contends th a t a " f a i r l y succinct basic te x t has been
s ec o n d a rily enriched and had i t s content expanded by the m o tif o f

p
the wisdom o f the king o f T y re ." A tte n tio n is c a lle d to the "ugly
r e p e t i t i o n " which overloads vss. 6-7 ( . . . 7 37; . . . 7 3 7 ) and
e th e r signs o f the expansion o f the t e x t . L o r e t z , 2 a f t e r making a
s tic h o m e tric a n aly s is o f the passage, admits "Sekundaren Zufiingen."
Let us examine the te x t :
: 33k 7 'i 7 x m n ' , - 3n'7 1 3 "n

Prose
m-'> M ' x iQK ~nr 7 ■*2 37 mx 3 ~ - 73 •
m x >x " . a s m / ia 7 n m 7 - ; '’ - 3: 3
M ’n / M n a 1 3 ', 3 7 « 3 3 T 3 _ 3 : 2 or 2:1
: m 7 x 3 7 3 7 3 7 ] n m / 7 x _ x7i s ix nnN7 . 3:3
'TD3V X7 M n o * 7 3 /7 X M D 3 3t t 33 3 n 3 n _ 4 ; 2
7 ■> 3 - 7 n ■>*7 v / 7 n 3 7 3 n 3 7 ' 3 3 3 3 3 - 2: 3
: 7 M 7 7 S i X 3 / 7 0 3 1 3 3T r ; m - 3: 2
! 7 3 3 1337 3 3 7 M / 1 7 M 3 ■>3 3 3 / 1 3 7 3 3 3 13333 3 33 - 3:2:3
3 1 3 '' M X 33 737 Prose
1E zekiel , 2:87; c f . also 1:391. 2E z e k i e l , 2:76, 8 7 -8 9 .
2"Der Sturz des Fursten von Tyrus," pp. 455-58. C f. a lso

Frank H ossfeld, Untersuchunqen zu Komposition und Theoloqie des
E zechielbuches, FZB 20 (Wurzburg: Echter V e r la g , 1977), pp. 1 62-72,
who thinks vss. 1 -2 , 6a, and 7-10 c o n s titu te the basic t e x t , vss.
3 - 5 , and 6b being an a d d itio n concentrated on the wisdom o f the
r u l e r o f Tyre.
223
- : 73 inn 7y ^
5:4:3
m ■> :* ■> 7 y 1 ■> i t / - ■> ■?y « ’ :3 ■> 3 : n 7
■7ny 3 ■> i >> m 1 na ; rr/ ■

>3 ■> _ T y a m ain 1 ? ■> 1 ,13 - 3:3
2 ">2 ■> : > 3 )>n ^ id o / nnci v i m '' n n 3 7 - 3:3
13 "i n ■>:3’7 / ' i 3K a ■>n « a a x n a a x i - 4:2
V77na 7 ' i a/3’ x - x m 2 ax n n x 3 - 4:2
2 ■
> a r ~ 1 -> 2 / n 3 a n a ■>3> 1 y 1 m a - 3:2
: !3 3 m ^ 3 X 2X3 ''2 137 1 7X '•2 Prose
Besides the formula f o r receiving God's Word and the Commission to
the prophet to address the Ruler o f Tyre (vss. l - 2 a ) , the poem pre
sents three more phrases (vss. 2b; 6a; 10b) which were c l e a r l y w r i t t e n
in prose. The th re e formulae f o r d e l iv e r in g God's Word used in the
poem d e l i m i t the beginning and the end o f the poem, as well as the
tr a n s it io n between the indictment (vss. 2b-5) and the punishment
(vss. 6b-10a) d e s c r ip tio n s . We note th a t the two t r i c o l a present
in the o r a c le are a t the center o f the poem, b a ck -to-back. The r e s t
o f the two halves is an approximately even m ixture o f qinah and
non-qinah b i c o la . The prose d iv is i o n comes between the two central
tric o la . The poem is p e r fe c t ly balanced in i t s p a rts :
Indictm ent (vss. 2 b -5 ) — 44 words— 174 l e t t e r s
Punishment (vss. 6 b -1 0 a )— 44 words--174 l e t t e r s
Depending on the way we group the words belonging to the construct
chains, we a lso come out with an i d e n t i c a l number o f stresses in
both Indictm ent and Punishment, i . e . , 41. Besides t h a t , the repe
t i t i o n o f words and phrases in both parts seems to show the design
with which t h i s poem was produced:
224
Indictment Punishment
7 V ■> (2b) 7 V ^ (6b)
2b) ^3 k :: -1 n 7 k (9 a )
3 ' , n'> n '? 3 (2 c ) o -'D '1 n 7 n ( 8 a )
7 k ~ x 77 n *r« nn«T (2d) 7 k - k7 i dtk nnxi (9b)
n 7 :j -27> 7 nm (2d) :7 d i a : i 7 “ nx in n (6b)
n a jn n (4a) I n a 2 n (7b)
Observing th is poem we perceive t h a t we have in i t h a l f a
dozen o f what could be considered qinah verses; three being in the
f i r s t p a r t or Indictment (vss. 2cJ 3a, 4 b ), and three in the second
p a rt or Punishment (vss. 9a, 9b, 10a). The Indictment ends w ith a
t r i c o l o n (v s . 5) and the Punishment s ta rts w ith a tr ic o lo n (vss.
6b, 7 a ) . Although we could fin d some signs which might in d ic a te
some expansion o f the te x t,"* the fa c ts presented seem to demonstrate
th a t the f i r s t oracle in Ezek 28 was w r i t t e n under design and seem
to show th a t the m a te ria l o f th is piece o f l i t e r a t u r e was in i t
since the beginning.
Vss. 12-19
The oracle a g a in s t the king o f Tyre (vss. 12-19) is i n t r o
duced as a q in a h , and since the advent o f Budde's famous a r t i c l e on
^ I f we consider the woros o f the c o n stru ct chains :7 :

and 2 - > n 7 x n rt n D as c a r r y in g a stress each.
Or. W. H. Shea, c h i e f a d v is e r on t h i s th e s is , observes th a t

th is poem could have been w r it t e n in a p a tte r n which goes thus:
A lt e r n a t in g Qinah in the f i r s t h a l f ,
Back-to-back t r i c o l a a t the c e n te r,
Qinah a l l in a row a t the end.
I t h in k t h i s could be a p o s s i b i l i t y .
Âs, fo r example, the repet-;tion found in vss. 6 f f . (. . .

' r / . . . 7 r 7)- See Zim m erli, E z e k i e l , 2 :7 5.
225
] 2
Hebrew Lamentation, it has been— with some exceptions — recognized
th a t despite m e trica l i r r e g u l a r i t i e s today, th is o ra c le must have
been w r it t e n o r i g i n a l l y in the qinah or pentameter verse. ^

4
Hoi seller's view is t h a t only those parts in the book which were in
a special qinah meter form were o r i g i n a l l y from the prophet, and
the prose m a t e r i a l , in c lu d in g 2 8:12 -1 9 , was spurious. ^ Ir w in ,
considered one o f the most a r b i t r a r y a n aly s ts o f E z e k i e l's prophecy,^
reduced the second p a r t o f Ezek 28 to the words found in vss. 11-12
and p a r t o f vss. 13, 14, 17, as those t h a t are o r i g i n a l ; 7 the r e s t
he considers a c o r ru p tio n and commentary on the o r i g i n a l nucleus.
Although, a t f i r s t in s ta n c e , th is passage gives a " m e t r i c a l l y very

Q
obscure impression," we fin d some verses where the qinah meter
9 10
rhythm seems to be p re s e n t: 12b, 18a, 18c.
1ZAW 2 ( 1 8 8 2 ) : 1 - 5 2 .
2
Ir w in , The P ro p h e t, p. 216, considers i t e n t i r e l y prose.
^Budde (p. 20) says th a t only " l e i s e Anklange" of the qinah

meter could be perceived in vss. 1 2-17, and th a t o n ly from vs. 18
and on can we see c l e a r l y the mentioned m e tr ic a l s t r u c t u r e . See
also Cheminant, pp. 7 2 - 7 3 , 85; Jahnow, pp. 221-28; Kraetzschmar,
pp. 216-18; Zim m erli, E z e k i e l , 2:87.
4Pp. 140-41.
3Many scholars today ( i . e . , Howie, pp. 88, 119) recognize

t h a t much o f the p o e tic m a te ria l must have been reduced to prose
in the process o f w r i t i n g i t .
®Cf. Howie, p. 86.
7 Ir w in , The Problem, pp. 218-19, 314.
^Zim m erli, E z e k i e l , 2:87.
^Cf. LXX. C f. Zim m erli, E z e k i e l , 2:87.
^ C f. Budde, ''Das Hebraische K la g e lie d ," p. 20.
226
Wevers thinks the t e x t o f the lament is f u l l o f uncer
t a i n t i e s and has been expanded considerably. He advocates th a t
l a t e r " t r a d i t i o n i s t s " added, on the basis of the previous oracle
(vss. 1 - 1 0 ) , the references to the wisdom of the King " f u l l of
wisdom" (vss. 12, 17a; c f . vss. 2, 7 ) ; to e x p la in the mention of
precious stones, a scribe added the nine gems found in the High
P r i e s t 's b r e a s tp la te from Exod 2 8:17 -2 0 . He th in k s vss. 16a and
19 are o the r places added by some e d i t o r .
Zim m erli, continuing Wever's e f f o r t s to r e s to r e what they
think was the o r i g i n a l p o e tic a l s tru c tu re o f the t e x t , e lim inated
parts which he considered a d d it io n s , changed the p o s itio n o f some
cola in the poem, and even a lt e r e d some words. He a rriv e d at
what he c a l l s nucleus (G rundtext) or basic t e x t o f vss. 11-19. In
his r e c o n s tru c tio n , the passage was transformed in fo u r stanzas of

2
three b ic o la each— the b ic c la o f f i v e stress each.
Ê z e k i e l , pp. 215-16.
o
Based on the English version o f his re constructed t e x t ,
Zim m erli's Hebrew t e x t o f the passage would look thus:
>31 n 1 :o n om n nns
rrn n x > n : n n ,n3 30 m p ' 1 7 n x - m
1xm n ^ in ~p np 3 h v a n
( ?) T innn ~ 3 i3 n :r o 'n n
v n : n ' , ', rr m r i P x m n
1 xm n m m 3 H 3 3 -1 an n n ? ~ n n
i n 3 3 7 1 v X 3 ‘ 3 J _ ' V
lion m m i~3si
1 3 m in'? m i
1 ^ 3 3 ] 3 ’ 3 > 3 ■’ 3 3 ' ?
? nx n - p V 1 3 3 X 1
mnyn im'Tmrnn
As Jahnow had done decades b e f o r e J Zimmerli deals a r b i t r a r i l y
« i t h the t e x t , r e w r itin g the poem the way he lik e s i t . Let us now
examine the b i b l i c a l te x t o f Ezek 2 8:12-19:
:in x y m x m m m m
i y i i n x i m s i y n ~ y y n ] v o i x ~ 7 3 Prose
m m m i x i nx id
m a "1 x i a / n n ^ n o m n in x - 3 :2 :2
! i3 o n i-n? 1 7 3 x _ y 3 /m i a 1 n 7 x ‘ i a 71 y 3 - 3:3
is a m 312? r 1 m n / c ^ r f i n a a : i « - 3:3
im n 1 3 x7>a a n 0 / 1 1 1 3 a 7 2 a m 20 - 3:3
:i a a i a i x a : n / m n 13 i 1 apai - 2:3
i m n i i 1 3 1 0 1 / 1 0 no 3 i i 3 ~ i x - 2:2
: 1 3 7> 1 n 1 3 X “ ^ 1 3 X " i i a / m m a ’ D x 2? i p 1 1 3 - 4 :3
: 13 i n y i y x s n i - i y / i x i 3 i n m n / i m i m in x a m i - 3:2 :3
x a n m o o n /io in iy n - 1 1 3 1 313 - 4:2
:2?X~>13X - l i n / 1 3 0 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 X 1 / □ ' , 1 > X 1 1 3 1 7 0 X 1 - 3:3 :2
1 1 y 3 ^ - y y 1 1 3 3 1 1 n 3 / 1 "> 3 ”> 3 1 3 7 131 - 3:3
: 1 3 n x i 7 / T ,ina a ' 3 ) a 1 i d i / i 1 i 3 7 i i n y 1x - y y - 2:3 :2
i m ' i p n i 7 7 n /ii7 3 i y i y3 im iy 3 1 a - 4:2
in y o x x 1 1 / 1 3 1 i a t?x- x s i x i - 2:2
: 1 ■* k 1- 73 ^ 1■> y y / ? 1 x 1 ~ y y 13 x y 1 1 1 x 1 - 3:2
1 yy i a a 2 / / 0 ■> a y 3 1 ■>y n 1 - y3 - 2:2
: 0 y i y - 1y i i 1 « i / n -' o n 1 y 3 - 2:2
Pp. 2 2-23; here is her re c o n s tru c tio n :

Du w arst das Siegel der Vollendung
und die Krone der Schonheit, (5 )
M it a l l e r l e i Edelsteinen warst du bedeckt,
und aus Gold waren deine Eingrabungen. (5 )
Im G ottesgarten warst du,

auf den h e ilig e n Berg s t e l l t e ich d ic h , (5 )
Bei den Keruben wardst du e in g e s e tz t
a ls schirmender Gesalbter. (5 )
Im Kreise f e u r i g e r Steine w andeltest du,

ein Gott warst du, (5 )
Schuldlos warst du in deinem Wandel
vom Tage, da du geschaffen wardst, (5 )
Bis ein Vergehen an d i r erfunden ward,

du dein Heiligtum e n tw e ih te s t, (5 )
Sein Inneres m it Frevel e r f i i l l t e s t
durch d ie Grosse deines Handels! (5 )
Da l i e s s ich Feuer aus ihm hervorgehen,

das fra s s d ic h , (5 )
Vom Gottesberge r o t t e t e ich dich aus,
aus dem Kreis der fe u rig e n S te in e . (5 )
H o f f a r t i g war dein Herz ob d e in e r Schonheit,
228
The o ra c le s ta r ts with
The formula f o r re c e iv in g God's Word (v s . 1 ) ,
The commission to the prophet to address the King o f Tyre
(v s . 2aa)
Introduc tory messenger form ula.
These are in prose.
We can see by the t e x t shewn above t h a t th is Ezekiel passage
does not o f f e r a re g u lar qinah-m eter p o e try , nor a m etric p a tte r n
in i t s c o la. The poem i n i t i a l l y presents seven bic o la (vss. 12 b - 14b)
which are followed by th re e a lt e r n a t i o n s o f t r i c o l a and b ic o la
(v s s . 15a, 16a; 16b, 17a; 17b, 18a) and ends w ith a series o f fo u r
b ic o la . We would say t h a t , as f a r as we can p e rc e iv e , the t e x t as
we have i t in the MT t e x t has three d i s t i n c t q in a h -meter b ic o la (16a,
18a, 18c).
We agree th a t the t e x t shows some unevenness in the flo w o f
its language: ( 1 ) The mentioning o f the nine stones in vs. 13 seems
to separate the p a r a l l e l members - n j d d m p "• ] D and
1 *> s n ; n ? ; ( 2) ■> 3 3 t d o f MT is not a tte s te d in
im portant v e rs io n s ;1 ( 3) 7 2 1 n i P n 7 2 7 2 2 (vs. 1 6 a ), which
du verdarbst deine W e is h e it, (5 )

Deine H e r r l ic h k e i t s t i i r z t e ich zur Erde
ob der Menge d e in e r Sunden. (5 )
'/or den Konigen gab ich dich p r e is ,

ih re Lust au d i r zu schauen, (5 )
Ich machte dich zu Asche auf der Erde
Vor den Augen a l l e r , die dich sahen. (5 )
A l l e , d ie dich kannten unter den V o lke rn ,

schauderten iiber d ic h ,
e in Schrecknis b i s t du geworden
und b i s t dahin f u r immer! (4+4)
^ f. Zimmerli, E z e k i e l, 2 :85.
is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the Tyrian power, seems to be extraneous to
the basic t e x t o f the passage.
However, i f the prophet E zekiel produced his o r a c le in the
f i r s t h a l f o f the s ix th century B . C . , and used some e x t a n t m aterial
about the Cherub, the l a s t two above-mentioned problems disappear.
The prophet would have used T y re 's c h a r a c te r is tic s combined w ith the
s to ry o f the Cherub; and being a p rie s t^ he could have added the l i s t
of the stones which were on the bre as tpie ce o f the High P r i e s t .
Furthermore, I th in k the whole passage— e s p e c ia lly vss. 14-16— shows
us th a t i t was produced under d e sig n , in a kind o f c h i a s t i c stru c tu re
whose elements are p a r a l l e l or a n t i t h e t i c :
Vss. 1 2 b -13 present the s it u a t i o n o f the being before i t s
expulsion from the Mount o f God.
(vs. 14) i n i o n n3DD n i i n ~ n s
(vs. 14) v n n i i
(v s . 14) m ^ r r n ^ n 'z s nn? nrrn
(v s . 14) i n '? i n n ' i n :
(vs. 15) is " .:n c i’ b T 1 " is z ' | , d~
(vs. 15b , 16) s a n m . . . m n n ^ ' v s ^ . m -
(vs. 16) 7 N " -1 n x " in n 2
(v s . 16) n ' , n ’? s in n
(v s . 16) i i n s i
(vs. 16) m o n n i m
Vss. 1 7 - [ 19] present the s it u a t i o n o f the being a f t e r i t s explusion
from the mount o f God.
] Cf. Ezek 1 :3 .
In t h i s second p a r t o f the passage the order o f the elements
230
As we see, almost a l l the main elements found in vss. 12 b - 15
are repeated in inverse order and show the d i f f e r e n t circumstances
in which the f i g u r e fin d s h im se lf a f t e r his s in . The sin or
r e b e llio n o f the Cherub is the climax o f the passage. As P u lle y
has n o te d J the mention o f the unrighteousness is a t r a n s it io n a l
p oint in the t e x t and the climax o f the passage.
Thus, the design o f the poem seems to show th a t i t is a
u n ifie d piece o f l i t e r a t u r e and should belong to th is prophet.
Although we cannot a f f i r m w ith c e r t a i n t y th a t the prophetic auto-

2
graph has come to us r e ta in in g i t s o r i g i n a l dimensions and wording,
i t is unwarrantable to say th a t a main nucleus o f m a te ria l has been
expanded by the prophet's d i s c i p l e or subsequent s c r i b e s . 3 B. Childs
c ritic iz e s Zimmer!i by noting th a t
Z im m e rli's method o f working from a reconstructed Grundtext

to which has been appended commentary runs the danger o f losing
the in n e r dynamic o f the f u l l canonical passage. To d iv id e a
passage h i s t o r i c a l l y in to stages o ften destroys the synchronic
dimension o f the t e x t . A l i t e r a r y e n t i t y has an i n t e g r i t y o f
i t s own which is not to be i d e n t i f i e d w ith the sum o f i t s p a rts .
Z im m erli's method is vu ln era b le to the c r i t i c i s m o f mishandling
the t e x t as l i t e r a t u r e . . . . (H is ) method shares the wide
spread assumption o f h i s t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m th a t the in tr o d u c tio n
o f a h i s t o r i c a l dimension n e c e s s a rily aids in i l lu m i n a t i n g the
b ib lic a l te x t . C o n tin u a lly the reader is in s tru c te d which
verses are h i s t o r i c a l l y l a t e r w ith in the t e x t than o th e rs . At
times some o f these observations are h e l p f u l ; a t oth e r times the
judgments are hypothetical and f r a g i l e . Frequently he has over
estimated the s ig n ific a n c e which t h i s h i s t o r i c a l dimension brings
to the t e x t o f E z e k i e l . 4
is not the same as in the f i r s t one, but what is important is th a t

we have the same elements a f t e r the climax o f the passage as we
have before i t .
^P. 44. ^Cf. E ic h r o d t, E z e k i e l , p. 351.
3C f. Zim m erli, E z e k i e l , 2 :8 7 -8 9 .
4
In t r o d u c t io n , p. 370.
231
Despite the possible problems in the t e x t , we can recognize
the motive o f the c o n tra s t between the past and present c o n d itio n
o f the personage. The poem "has moved f u r t h e r away s t i l l from the
s tr a ig h tfo r w a r d lament over a human death . . . and seems to
d escribe "in the s t y le o f a lament a judgment which had a lr e a d y

2
happened instead o f proclaiming a judgment which is s t i l l to come."
We are going to deal with the t e x t in i t s fin a l form, as
i t comes to us in i t s present form, adopting C h ild 's view o f a
“canonical process in which the experience o f Is r a e l with the use
o f i t s a u t h o r i t a t i v e w r itin g s has been incorporated into the t e x t
i t s e l f as p a rt o f the b i b l i c a l witness.""* Making use o f te x tu a l
c r i t i c i s m we w i l l , where necessary, discuss some possible v a r ia tio n s
which— due to some s tru c tu re s we p erceive in the t e x t — could be
proposed.
Concerning the claim th a t these two oracles (vss. 1-10 and
1 2-19) were w r itte n on d i f f e r e n t occasions and possibly by two
d i f f e r e n t authors, the vocabulary o f these two passages goes

4
a g a in s t such a p ro p o s itio n . I f these two oracles were not w r itte n
in the same epoch and by the same au th o r (and I believe they w ere),
a t the very le a s t one was designed a f t e r the o th e r.
^Zimmerli, E z e k i e l , 2:89. “* Ib id .
Î n t r o d u c t i o n , p. 370.
S a j n occurs only in Ezek 28— three times in vss. 1-10

(v s s . 4, 5, 7) and tw ice in vss. 11-19 (vss. 1 2 -, 17); the word
■> =}'' occurs once in vss. 1-10 (vs. 7) and tw ice in vss. 11-19
(v s s . 12, 17); occurs once in vss. 1-10 (v s . 5) and tw ic e in
vss. 11-19 (vss. 16, 1 8 ); '3 : 1 occurs twice in vss. 1-10
(v s s . 2, 5) and once in vss. 11-19 (v s . 17; l n v s ' 1 occurs in
vss. 7 and 17. Besides these we f i n d an i n t e r e s t i n g p lay on the
words 7 "to p i e r c e , s la y ," and l O n, "to profane, p o l l u t e , "
in both oracles (vss. 7, 8, 9, 16, 1 8 ) .
232
T e x t - - E z e k ie l 28:1-19^
Vs. 1 . And the word o f Yahweh came to me

2 3 4
Vs. 2 . Saying: “Son o f man, say to the prince o f Tyre:
‘ thus says the Lord Yahweh'":** Because** your h e art is presumptuous

7 8
and you have s a id , "I am ( a ) God, I am s i t t i n g on the throne o f
In the notes f o r t h i s Ezekiel t e x t we have r e li e d to some

e x te n t on the e x c e lle n t works on the t e x t by Zim m erli, Ezekiel
2 :7 4 - 7 6 , 8 1-86; and van D i j k , pp. 92-122.
2
The Pesh. p r e fix e s a s u p e rs c rip tio n before several o f the
fo r e ig n oracles of E z e k i e l's book, including t h i s one ( c f . Z im m e rli,
E z e k i e l , 2 :6 , 74, e t c . ) .
^Some MSS (see BHK) o r e f i x n n » s i ( G k . rJ) before the

address.
^The title ' M i " P rin c e , r u l e r , lea de r" is used by E zekiel

only in t h is passage; the t i t l e s « M i ( c f . 12:10; 19:1; 2 2:6;
3 4:24 ; 3 8 :2 , 3; e t c . ) and ' 7 3 (1 9 : 9 ; 21:25; 2 6 :7 ; 2 8:12 , 17; e t c . )
are commonly used— in r e l a t i o n to a fo re ig n p r in c e — in the book.
3m n i m s 3 Q » no is the most fre q u e n t (122 tim es)

in tr o d u c to ry formula used by the prophet. Some MSS (see BHK) omit
the word 33 K. For the d iv in e in tro d u c to ry formulae in E z e k i e l,
see John B. Harford, Studies in the Book o f E zekiel (Cambridge:
U n iv e r s it y Press, 1935), pp. 102-62; Z im m erli, E z e k i e l , 2 :5 5 6 -6 2 .
**The term T V ' 1 introduces several clauses (vss. 2 -5 ) which

lead to the judgment pronunciation through the 7 3 7 clause in vs. 6a;
W. A. Irw in ( The Problem o f E z e k i e l , p. 216) thin k s th a t "the con
ju n c tio n is taken up a b o r t i v e l y by 7 3 7 in vs. 6 . . . but the re al
sequence is in vss. 7 f f . " Zimmerli ( E z e k i e l , 2 :7 5 ) advocates t h a t
vss. 3-5 destroy the "sentence s tr u c tu r e . . . in an i n t o l e r a b l e
way" and considers those th re e verses as a "secondary comment."
7Van D ijk (pp. 9 3 -9 5 ) tr a n s la te s m n m “and you have

thou g h t," because of the monologue's nature o f the c o n te x t, e t c .
I t seems t h a t his view could be a reasonable o p tio n .
Q
Some scholars (such as E i s s f e l d t ["E l and Yahweh," pp.
2 5 - 2 7 ] ; Pope [El_, pp. 9 8 - 1 0 2 ] ; e t c . ) have rendered M X 7 X " I am
El" (th e head o f the Canaanite Pantheon); t h i s is c o r r e c t ly
r e je c te d by theologians such as Zimmerli ( E z e k i e l , 2 :7 7 -7 8 ) and
van D i j k (pp. 9 5 -9 6 ). Zimmerli a f f i r m s , i t is only accepting the
term as an a p p ela tiv e t h a t we can understand the case with w hich,
in the r e p e t it io n (vs. 9 ) , the 0 ' > n 7 X ("gods") o f the p a r a l l e l
in vs. 2 is taken over in to the f i r s t clause and expressed as
233
1 2
God in the heart o f the seas, yet you are man and not God, though
you consider y o u r s e lf as wise as God.3

4 5 6
Vs. 3. Behold, you are w iser than D a n ie l, no s ec re t
is hidden from you.^
^ 3 x m n'? x (p. 7 7 ) . Zimmerli i n t e r p r e t s 1 ] K o' , a' 7X as " I am

a god," and is c r i t i c i z e d by van D ijk (p . 9 6 ) , who a ffir m s th a t
Zimmerli is "forced to render 'p x ~ x> ? □ i x n n x i as though you
are man and not God,” instead o f what most versions r i g h t l y sensed,
"though you are a man and not God." But I agree w ith Zimmerli in
a f f i r m i n g th a t from the p o in t o f view o f form (see Isa 45:22; 4 6 :9 ,
where the formulae 'P x ^ rrx 1 D and ^ x m i K ■>:: are used in
r e l a t i o n to Yahweh), the fig u r e in Ezek 28 "usurps the manner o f
speech which is a p p ro p ria te only to the Creator" (p. 7 8 ); thus we
see no problem in t r a n s l a t i n g the formula as "I am God." Sperber
( H i s t o r i c a l Grammar, p. 654) suggests the t r a n s la t i o n of the bicolon
as " I s i t l i k e a god in the heart o f the seas."
□ 'i n '? x 2 2 M O has been i n te r p r e t e d as: "I s i t in

the seat of the gods" (RSV); "Am G o t t e r s i t z wohne ich" (Z im m e r li);
" I s i t in a d iv in e throne" (van D i j k ) ; " I am s i t t i n g on the throne of
God" (BJ); " I s i t in the seat o f God" (KJV). The RSVs t r a n s l a t i o n
o f a ■> rt'? x as a p lu r a l does not f i t the c o ntext ( M X a ^ n'? x - - v s s .
2 and 9 ) . Cf. van D i j k , pp. 96-97.
2
The JB t r a n s la t e s □ ' ' a ' 1 as "surrounded by the seas."
3Kraetzschmar (p . 215) renders a ' > n ’?x n T o i n ' ? ] n m as

"und doch dich in deinem Herzen diinktest wie ein G o tt," and Zimmerli
follow s h’ m w ith "but in your mind you have thought th a t you were
l i k e a god" (Ger. "Aber du hast dich in deinem Sinn Gott g le ic h
gedunkt"). E h rlic h ( 5 : 1 - 6 ) , on the o th e r s id e , says th a t "the words
could never s ig n if y t h i s " and suggests: "Und m einst, deine Weisheit
komme der W eisheit e in es Gottes g l e ic h . " See Job 1 2 :3 ; 34:10 ; 1 Kgs
5 :9 ; Prov 8:5 f o r the use o f 2 ? in the sense o f "wisdom."
4For MT ~ 3 it, the IXX has Mn, the Pesh. i— and one o f the
L a tin versions (£c ) "nunquid" ( a l l denoting an i n t e r r o g a t i o n ) which
would suggest but there is no reason to emend the MT. (See
CTA 1 : 2 4 .7 , "hi qlmt t l d b[n] "Lo a maid w i l l bear a s [o n ]" ; c f . also
van D i j k , pp. 2 9 - 3 0 ).
3MT I x i t . C. E. Surimgeour (" E z e k ie l and the Phoenician

S c r i p t , " Exptim 20 [ 1 9 0 9 ] : 5 2 6 - 2 7 ) — based on his studies o f the fr a g
mentary Phoenician m a te ria l e x ta n t in his times— suggested the un
fo ld in g o f the word and read 'p x ^ z ? g , e x p la in in g th a t B and D were
so s i m i l a r in the Phoenician s c r i p t t h a t they could be e a s i l y confused
( c f . 2 Sam 23:29-1 Chr 1 1 : 3 0 ); and omission o f the could p o in t to an
e a r l y Phoenician s c r i p t . The t r a n s la t i o n would then read, "Behold thou
a r t w iser than the sens o f God; no s e c re t do they conceal from th e e ."
See above, pp. 1 12-20, f o r more conments on the form o f the term ^ x ^ ' .
234
Vs. 4. By your wisdom and your i n t e l li g e n c e you have

1 2
acquired wealth f o r y o u r s e l f , and have gathered gold and s i l v e r
in to your tr e a s u r ie s .
Vs. 5 . By your wisdom in your tra d e you have increased
your wealth and your h e art has grown presumptuous in your w e a lth .^
MT I T 3 D V 7 31 HD 7 3 is rendered * :ojcL j 'jh ctaC>: jcd-j

'7 ■ - * 2 ’j t i v ( c r "have not the wise in s tru c te d thee w ith
‘ h e i r knowledge") by the LXX. Zimmerli ( Ezekiel 2 : 7 4 ) th in k s th a t
the a d d itio n a l o n D 3 n 3 presupposed by the LXX must have f a l l e n out
by haplography before the 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 in vs. 4 and read q ^ d d h instead
of c i n e . B e rth o le t ( Das Buch H e s e k ie l, p. 148) suggested d ’ d d p " ? : ,
"A ll D iv in a tio n s ." From the end o f the nineteenth century ( c f . Toy,
Ezekiel [H eb], p. 85) and throughout t h i s century (Herrmann, p. 170;
Fohrer, E z e c h ie l, p. 159; e t c . ) , scholars have been a t t r a c t e d by the
s o lu tio n in the LXX. I t seems th a t 3 i n o 7 3 (w ith Zimmerli
[ E zekiel 2:74] who m aintains t h a t , because o f the frequent occurrence
o f the term in vss. 3 -4 a , the root 2 3 n is suspect) should n ot be
emended. The Vulg. ( "secretum") , Targ. and Pesh (:*«-£*=. ) agree
w ith MT. Cheminant (p . 59) mentions a possible p r i m i t i v e t e x t
i s o 1 3 ] K7 n 1 3 b n , "Les sages ne sont pas plus grands que t o i , "
which is a mere c o n je c tu re .
7The Vulg. renders ~ p o o y by "absconditum a t e ," and the

Targ. as 1 1 1 1 3 H D 3 H ' ’ « 7 ( "nothing is hidden from y o u "). Dahood
( Psalm, 1 : 1 13 ) , f o i l owing the BHK suggestion, has linked 3 3 V with
? 3 v and tr a n s la te d i t " is too deep f o r you" ( c f . also van D i j k , pp.
1 0 0 -1 0 3 ). In Ezek 3 1 : 8 , ODV means "to r i v a l , " and in Lam 4 : 1 , "to
be darkened." D r iv e r ( " l i n g u i s t i c , " p. 177) suggests th a t t o solve
the grammatic problem o f vs. 3b (based on the support from cognate
languages; c f . B e r th o le t, Das Buch H e s e k ie l, pp. 147-48) we a l t e r
H i 3 3 V. (Qal P l u r . ) in to Po 3 r n y (o r ' 3 3 T y— c f . GKC § 5 8 f . )
and t r a n s la t e the colon "no hidden thing doth perplex th e e ." In
t h a t he is followed by Zimmerli ( E z e k i e l , 2 :7 4 -7 5 ) who, n e ve rth e
l e s s , does not th in k i t necessary to make the verb. sing.
V o r the use o f iizty in connection with 7 n, see Num 24:18;

Deut 8 :1 7 -1 8 ; 1 Sam 14:48; Ps 118:15; e t c . Cheminant (p. 6 9 ) thinks
i t could have been an in v ers io n ip the MT, 7 n v r ; 7 ' •n would
form b e t t e r the second colon of the q in a h .
^ B ertholet ( Das Buch H e z e k ie l, p. 148) thinks th a t “J 7 n ] is ,

under the influ e n ce o f m y 7 , a corruption o f 3
"*As noted above, p. 232, n. 6, Zimmerli views vss. 3 -5 as a

glos s; the T V clause in vs. 2 should be followed by the 7 3 7 in
vss. 6 f f ; c f . L o r e tz , "Der S t u r z ," p. 456. Cheminant (p . 7 0 ) ob
serves th a t "la kinah de 5b e s t Incomplete: on pourraic essayer de
r e s t i t u e r le second membre en l i s a n t 3 ' , n 7 H 3 7 3 d e 2 e : l a pensee
exprimee dans le premier s tique s e r a i t a lo rs precisee de l a meme
fagon qu'en 2c."
Vs. 6. Therefore thus says the Lord^ God: "Because you
th in k you are as wise as God,

2 3
Vs. 7 . T h e re fo re , behold, I w ill bring barbarians against
A
you, the most cruel o f the natio n s , and they w i l l draw t h e i r swords
against the beauty o f your wisdom and d e f i l e ^ your shining splendor
^ n x is lacking in some MSS; see p. 232, n. 5.

2
I t seems, as Irw in observes ( The Problem o f E z e k i e l , p.
216) , th a t 7 3 7 in vs. 6a is " a b o r t iv e ," and, according to Zimmerli
( E z e k i e l , 2 : 7 5 ) , 7 D —7 y of vs. 6 overloads the sentence and
becomes necessary as a r e s u lt o f the a d d itio n in vss. 3 -5 . He t r i e s
to make his p o i n t , showing th a t 1 3 7 o f vs. 2 is harmonized w ith the
i n i ' ? o f the m a te ria l inserted (vs. 5 ) , but 3 7 3 i s c a r r ie d without
a l t e r a t i o n to vs. 6, and the accusative p a r t i c l e n x is added.
Irw in (op. c i t . ) sees the couplet 3-4a as showing "the marks of
E z e k i e l ’ s th o u g h t," and th a t " i t s concise b r e v i t y has given the sug
gestion f o r the somewhat accurate i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in vs. 2 and . . .
also stim ulated the expansions and r e p e t it io n s in 4b-5. . . . We
may consider ( i t ) the o r ig in a l nucleus o f the passage."
■* * . See van D ijk (p. 110; c f . L. A. S. S n ijd e r s , the

meaning o f 3 r in the Old Testament," OTS 10 [1 9 5 4 3 :2 2 -5 9 ) f o r
reasons f o r the p la u s ib le suggestion to use "barbarians as the best
tr a n s la tio n o f the Hebrew word."
S 1 1 2 ■> s ' 1 "iv is tr a n s la te d as "the usurpers o f peoples,

the t e r r o r i s t s o f nations" by S n ijd e rs (p. 28) , who pays no heed
to the s u p e r la tiv e (see on the s u p e r l a t i v e , GKC, § 132c, 133g, h).
^The expression 1 n a 3 n ’ S '1 3 V h a s since long been con

sidered not o r i g i n a l . Jouon ("N o te s," p. 307) suggested th a t ^ 3
was an a l t e r a t i o n o f 1 3 3 ( c f . Prov 8 - 1 9 , which t a l k s about the
f r u i t of r t 3 3 n ) and thinks 1 3 1 could be "une mauvaise a n tic ip a tio n
of i n y s ' 1 o f the end o f the verse or a suggestion from the i d e n t i
cal term in vs. 17. Zimmerli ( E z e k i e l , p. 75) advocates th a t the
present MT reading is an expansion in place o f the "app a re n tly
superfluous ~ 7 y " which was o r i g i n a l and f e l l out ( c f . also
Eichrodt, E z e k i e l , pp. 3 88 -8 9 ). Since most o f the versions support
the MT t e x t , th e re is no reason to a l t e r i t , although the possi
b i l i t y o f an expansion in th is verse is not ruled out.
^Van D i j k (pp. 1 1 1 -1 2 ), based on (1 ) a p a r a l l e l use o f the

root 7 7 n in Ezek 30:1 ("they w i l l draw t h e i r swords a g a in s t Egypt
and cover the land w ith the s la in [7 7 n ] , and ( 2 ) on the use of the
term in the immediate context (vs. 8— 7 7 n ■> m a D — "the death of a
s la i n " ; vs. 9— 1 7 7 3 n — "those who s la y y o u " ), r e je c t s the usual
rendering "to pro fa n e , or dishonor" and suggests we t r a n s l a t e 7 7 3
in vs. 7 as “s l a y . " But the occurrence o f the ro o t in vss. 16 and
236
Vs. 8 . They w i l l throw you down to the pit^ and you wi l l

2 3
die a v i o l e n t death in the heart o f the seas.
4
Vs. 9 . Wi l l you s t i l l say " I am God" in the presence of
those who k i l l you?^ But you s h a ll be a man, and not God in the
hands o f those who pierce you.^

7 8
Vs. 10. You w i l l die the death o f the uncircumcised a t the
g
hands o f f o r e ig n e rs ; f o r I have spoken, declares the Lord Yahweh.
18 seems to show th a t usual versions are not o f f when they render

“d e f i l e , 11 or “profane"; see S n ijd e r s (pp. 29-30) f o r the suggestion
th a t '7'?n, "to p rofa ne ," could be d erived from 7 7 n, "to p ie rc e ."
n y a 1 appears again in vs. 17 only . Other tr a n s la tio n s

such as "g lo ry " (Z im m e r li), "E xcellency" (van D i j k ) , and "pre
eminent p o s itio n " ( D r i v e r ) have been proposed fo r a y s ' 1 . D riv er
("E z e k ie l: L in g u is t ic and Testual Problems," Bib 35 [1 9 54 ]:1 5 8)
p r e fe r s — based on the Arabic yafa a , "ascended," "grew up," and
w a fcun, “high b u ild in g " — fo r the term a sense o f "heightness"
r a th e r than o f " b r i l l i a n c e " (from v 1 3 i h [y 3 1 ] ) . Cf. T. H.
G aster, "E zekiel 2 8 :1 7 ," ExpTim 62 ( 1 9 5 1 ) :1 24.
^ n n y — sense o f "underworld, gra ve ."
^ m a a (In te n s iv e p i . — c f . GKC, § 124d, e ) . See

Jer 16: 4 f o r the only other pi ace where ■* m a a o ccurs. For 7 7 n,
the LXX has Tjauuaro-jv ( D' , 7 i ? n ) .
3See p. 233, n. 2. 4See p. 232, n. 8.
3LXX (iv a L jc jvT j v ) , Pesh. (<•*■} ) , Vulg. ( i n t e r f i c i e n t i h u s ) ,

and ' of 9b, as well as the p lu r a l subject in vss. 7 and 8
( c f . a ls o Herrmann, p. 170), fa v o r r a th e r than 1 i o f MT.
^MT ^ 7 7 n a — "who profane you." The reading ~ ^ 7 7 n a

has the support’ o f T a r g ., Pesh., and V u l g . , but 1 ^ 7 7 n a t ^ a i s
absent from the LXX.
Âs in vs. 8 (see n. 2, above) ' • m o i s a p lu r a l of i n t e n s i t y .

I t seems th a t the p lu ra l form was employed to s u i t the p lu ra l a 7 7 v .
Cf. Carl Brockelmann, Hebraische Syntax (Neukirchen: Verlag der
Buchhandlung des E rziehungsvereins, 1 9 5 6 ), § 72b, p. 67.
Q
Van D ijk (p. 113) in an i n t e r e s t i n g way contenas fo r
rendering a ^ 7 a y as "castrated ones."
Q
Some versions omit ^ 3 T K ; see above p. 232, n. 5.
237
Vs. 11 . And the word o f Yahweh came to me saying:
Vs. 12. "Son o f man, r a is e a dirge over the King o f Tyre
and say to him, 'thus says the Lord^ Yahweh; you were an examplar
o f p e r f e c t i o n , c f u l l o f wisdom^ and p e r fe c t in beauty.
1 '| 3 ' r « - - s e e above p. 232, n. 5.

?
D1 a n i n has been a crux interpretum f o r the s ch o la rs .
3 r. i n is an obscure term and d i f f i c u l t to i n t e r p r e t and could be
vocalized a n i n ( v e r b ) , 2 n i n (noun ), and a possible cons, n n i n
(see Hugo Gressmann, Der Messias, p. 218). Ir w in , ( Problem, p. 218)
says th a t the word should be v o c a liz e d n n n , " s e a l." The LXX
renders these two words as itccgccrr-aua iuocJcc-jc, "seal o f resem
blance," t h a t p o in t to a n i n (see Jer 22:24, where the LXX tra n s
la te s a n i n as ^gcctyLjua) and n 1 ] a n (see T h e o d o tia n ), who
tr a n s la te s n 1 a a n as ; in Ezek 8 :1 0 , which seems to be the
oresuDDosition o f the LXX in Ezek 2 8 : 1 2 ). The Pesh. has a / : Lv. - s_ -oi
U V v aa i ( i n 1 Chr 28:11 the Pesh. renders a 1 3 a n as
ana / u 1g. "Signacu 1urn simi 1 i t u d i n i s " points out to n ’ i a r , . The
only oth e r place where a -1 3 a n occurs is Ezek 4 3:10 , "where Zimmerli
( Ezekiel 2 : 8 , 410) thinks i t is in an “uncertain te x tu a l con
te x t." He points to the root ] a n (found in 1 8:25, 29; Isa 4 0:12,
13; Job 2 8 :2 5 ; Prov 16:27; e t c . , and rendered in i t s various verbal
forms: "be r i g h t , " "to put r i g h t , " "to t e s t , " e t c . ) as the source
o f a 1 3 a n w ith the meaning o f “c o rre c tn e s s ” (which seems to be KBL
[p. 1029] " V o r b ild " ) and t r a n s la t e s the term as "completed." Several
scholars from the end o f the n in e te e n th century on have thought th a t
a ■> 3 2 n is the AKK ta k n u , t a k n i t u , and rendered i t as: “c a re fu l
p re p a ra tio n , model" (Toy, E zekiel [H eb], p. 8 5 ) ; " p e r f e c t , b e a u t ifu l"
(H. Torczyner, " P re s id e n tia l Address," JPOS 16 [ 1 9 3 6 ] : 4 - 5 ) ; "cor
rectness, p e r fe c tio n " ( D r i v e r , " E z e k ie l: L i n g u i s t i c , " pp. 158 -5 9 ).
Widengren who also believes n "> 3 a n comes from the AKK renders i t
"preserved th in g " and thinks t h a t the AKK source taknTtu has to do
with the keeping o f the d e stin y t a b l e t s ( c f . The Ascension o f the
A p o s tle , pp. 26, n. 18, 95). Follow ing CorniTl ( E z e c h i e l , pp. 359-60)
van D ijk (pp. 114-15) adventures in i n t e r p r e t in g the term a m a as
an i d e n t i f y i n g noun; claim ing an e n c l i t i c o in a ' a i a ( c f . 26:12,
20; 27:3 f o r unsuspected cases o f e n c l i t i c 2, given by van D i j k )
and advocating th a t n =i rv-besides denoting the name "Eve" and the
noun " v i l l a g e " — has the meaning o f "serpent" in Phoenician anu
Aramaic ( c f . Z e l l i g S. H a r r is , A Grammar of the Phoenician Language
AOS 8 [New Haven, CT: American O r ie n t a l S o c ie ty , 1936J, p. 101;
Donner and R o l l i g , 3 : 3 3 ) . Van D i j k renders n 1 3 b n □ m n r r n t f a s
"You, 0 Serpent o f p e rfe c tio n " (see van D i j k , pp. 1 15 -1 6 , f o r d is
cussion on e x t r a - b i b l i c a l m a te ria l to make his p o i n t ) . Although
van D i j k ' s suggestion is very a t t r a c t i v e , e s p e c ia lly because o f the
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a m n with m ' , 3 , his proposal is not supported
by the MT or the versions. Cheminant (p. 74) suggested emmending
2 n i n in to i n n ("p e rfe c t"). And Joiion ("N o te s ," p. 3 0 8 , ) ,
238
Vs. 13 . You were in Eden, the garden o f God, every precious
stone being your cover:^ ruby, topaz and em erald, c h r y s o l i t e , onyx

2 3
and ja s p e r, sapphire, turquoise and b e ryl. Your s e ttin g s and
based on the f a c t th a t in vs. 4 the companion word f o r i i D D n (which

also occurs in vs. 1 2 ) is r n n n , emended in to rr 2 =) 2 D ; and
using Cheminant's □ n n , he tra n s la te s the two words as " P a r f a i t
d 'in te llig e n c e ." But Zimmerli says ( E z e k i e l , 2 :8 1 ) a lt e r a t i o n s l i k e
the la s t two presented, and the one by G. H. Cooke ("The Paradise
Story o f Ezekiel 28," in Old Testament Essays, ed. D. C. Simpson
[London: L. G r i f f i n , 1927J, p. 32) n ■>7 3 n 7 Q 3 n , " p e r f e c t ly w is e ,"
are "not to be commended." C f. also Gaster (" E z e k ie l 28:12," ExpTim
51 [1 9 3 9 -4 0 ]: 1 56) who suggests c o n fid e n tly to v o c a liz e (the term)
m 3 p a and d e riv e i t from the root n i b ( a f t e r the pa tte rn o f n 1 ] b.n
from Tib 2 , or n O b n from ft > 3 , e t c . ) and t r a n s l a t e the bicolon
as " 0 thou t h a t signest t h y s e l f with the t i t l e : f u l l of wisdom and
perfect in b e a u ty ," which is a very a t t r a c t i v e p roposition th a t f i t s
the context very well and does not demand emendation o f the t e x t .
Twenty years l a t e r Gaster ( Myth, Legend . . . , pp. 621, 73) t r a n s la t e s
the expression as “thou wast the crowning achievement o f a r t " ("thou
wast the one t h a t set the seal on [ a l l ] d e s ig n " ); c f . also Kroeze,
p. 21. There are those scholars who give up the expression a l t o
gether ( i . e . , Holscher [see Yaron, p. 35]; G. A. Cooke, Ezekiel ,
p. 316). See Zimmerli ( E z e k i e l , 2:81) f o r o th e r suggestions on the
Lrassslation o f t h i s d i f f i c u l t expression.
^For MT n o 3 n t O a , Pesh. has , "Seal o f wisdom";

the LXX omits i t , except in Codex Marcha nanus which brings
rcauas. Zimmerli thinks t h a t t h i s phrase belongs to the a d d itio n s
concerning the wisdom of the r u l e r of Tyre in chap. 28.
^The term i n b b o has been in te rp re te d in three ways: i l )

As coming from the root p a , being tra n s la te d "Your covering" (so
Yu 1g. Operimenturn Tuum; c f . KBL, p. 657; HAWAT, p. 543; BOB, p. 6 9 7 );
(2) As derived from 3 3 0 0 ( 1 3 0 ) in the sense o f " c lo s in g , e n c lo s e ,"
( c f . KRL, p. 6 5 7 ) , SO LXX 5-;cr:tL, Sym. -tcoucaoctG^ the Pesh.
. "decked w ith "; (3 ) as coming from the root 1 1 o "to a n o in t:
or "to hedge out" ( c f . HAWAT, p. 538; BOB, pp. 6 9 1 -9 2 ). The word
0 2 0 3 (w ith o u t dagesh f o r t e — see BDB, p. 697) would derive then
from th a t ro o t w ith the meaning "to hedge out" ( c f . Gen 33:17; Mic 7 :4 ;
fo r supporters o f th is view, see W. E. Barnes, “E z e k i e l's Denunciation
of Tyre," JTS 35 [1 9 3 4 ]:5 1 -5 2 ; and van D i j k , pp. 116-18, who tr a n s
lates 1 0 3 3 3 as "your defense."
2
For discussion o f the meaning o f the names o f the d i f f e r e n t
stones found in the MT, see B e rth o le t ( H e s e k ie l, pp. 1 4 8 -4 9 ), Cooke,
( E z e k ie l, pp. 3 1 6 -1 7 ), Yaron (pp. 3 5 -3 7 ), and Zimmerli ( E z e k i e l ,
2 :8 2 -8 4 ); we have here follow ed the NIV in t r a n s l a t i n g the names.
The nine stones found in the MT are found among the twelve o f the
high p r i e s t ' s b re a tp la te in Exod 28:17-20, although in d i f f e r e n t
order. The LXX gives twelve precious stones' names, and gold and
239
e n g ra v in g 1 were made o f gold; on the day you were created they were
2
prepared.
s i l v e r are added to those stones ( r i g h t in the middle o f the l i s t ) .

The sequence in 28:13 (LXX) is the same as in Exod 28:17-20 (LXX).
The Targ. and Vulg. have nine names; the P es h ., e ig h t names, of
which three are found in Exod 28:17-20 ( P e s h .) . Cooke ( E z e k i e l ,
pp. 3 1 6 - 1 8 ) , followed by Zim m erli, s tro n g ly believes th a t the
catalogue o f gems was in s e rte d by somebody who t r i e d to s p e c ify
them, using the l i s t s in Exod 28:17-20 and 3 9:10-13.
3For MT, "V 3 n r . D X i s a n r i, the LXX •'

i >nca-JooJs and the Pesh. (<■: *' — ^ •-r s )
have "you have f i l l e d your treasures with gold" reading fo r
n D i O 3 and invented a meaning f o r ~ ”* 3 n . Widengren ( The Ascension
o f the A p o s tle , pp. 9 5-96 ) thinks th a t the rendering in LXX and the
Pesh. is a "corruption in s c r i p t i o continua o f r o t o o in to n n t O D
(see also Yaron, pp. 3 3 -3 4 , f o r discussion on the term ). The Vulg.
( Aurum opus decoris t u i ) sees 11 2 1 behind T > s n (see E. L i p i n s k i ,
"Les conceptions e t couches m erveilleuses de 'A n a th '," Syr 42
[ 1 9 6 5 ] : 4 9 - 5 1 , who, comparing some U g a r it ic words [ t g , from wgy,
e t c . ] and supported by the V u lg ., suggests t h a t i ^ 2 ? 2 and v a n
designate the sexual organs and renders the t e x t as “Ton bean
membre e t tes o r i f i c e s e t a i e n t sur to i des le jo u r ou tu fus c re e " ;
but besides being a fancy i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f the t e x t , th is sug
g e s tio n — in order to f i t the context— discards the word 7 :: 3 i 3;
c f . van D i j k [p . 113] who— although he v o c a liz e s the term ^3 n
[from ' s ' 1] , "Your work o f beauty"— a ffir m s th a t Jerome's comments
on the t e x t and the context do not support L i p i n s k i 's v ie w ). The
Targ. h a s j y p w n 3 rr~r3 , "set in g o ld ." Zimmerli reads n 7 ) 3 : 0 3
(from " iK 1?) "was woven." v a n has, besides the meaning presented
above, been rendered as from q n "tambourine, tim b re l" (so Sym, Cooke
[ E z e k i e l , p. 3 1 6 ], Fohrer [ E z e c h ie l, p. 1 6 1 ], "Handtrommeln," e t c . ) .
D r iv e r ( “Uncertain Hebrew Words," JTS 45 [ 1 9 4 4 ]:1 4 ) in t e r p r e t s i t
as "pendent ornament" ( i n Jer 3 1 :4 , i t seems th a t the term denotes
"an ornament shaped l i k e a tambourine [ c f . Cook, E z e k i e l , p. 3 1 7 ] ) .
Others l i k e Frankenberg and Jahnow ( L e i c h e n lie d , p. 222) suggest
the emendation o f v a n in to v m n a , "Your engravings." See,
f o r o th e r suggestions, Zim m erli, Ezekiel 2 :8 4 ; Gaster, Myth
Legend . . . , pp. 621, 713.
V o r MT i ' , 3 P 3 ' i , the LXX renders -• - -- V

:oCi "and your stores . . . " ; the Pesh, , “and
your chests w ith precious stones," which, ..eems to De a kina o f
expansion to p a r a l l e l the previous expression ( c f . Zim m erli, E z e k i e l ,
2 :8 4 ). G. R. D r i v e r ' s , "Uncertain Hebrew Words," JTS 45 ( 1 9 4 4 ) :1 4 ,
on the basis o f the Vulg. ( " Foramina Tua" ) , and S c h e il's suggestion
(as r e la t e d to AKK. Neauib[umJ) proposes "plaques o f metal hollowed
so as to hold precious stones." Van D ijk (p . 119) suggests— based on
the use o f the "notable" in Amos 6:1 — "and splendor(?) on you."
Other suggestions have been proposed by H. Schmidt ( Die
Erzahlunq von Paradies und S iin d e n fa ll, SGV 154 [Tubingen: J. C. 3.
240
1 2 3
Vs. 14. I created (placed) you as a cherub with outs tre tc h e d
Mohr (Paul S ie b e c k ), 1 93 1 ], p. 4 1 ), 1 n n p ] i ; and A lb r ig h t ("The

E a r ly Alphabetic In s c r ip tio n s from Sinai and T h e ir Decipherment , 11
BASOR 110 [1 9 4 8 ]: 13-15, n. 3 9 ), who omits the i n (saying i t is a
d itto g ra p h y ; c f . also Yaron, p. 3 3 ) , and rendering the root 2 P 1
as "mine" ( c f . KBL, p. 632) t r a n s la te s the t e x t , "and thy mines were
estab lis h ed when thou wast c re a te d ." T u r-S in a i (p. 113) suggests
1 3 l i n n x P a , "thou d id s t f i l l the in s id e o f the mouth" (see
Yaron, p. 3 4 ). For the suggestion to emend " p a n and ~ p n p : i i
to read D ' u D and □ ^ ~n tf, see J u lie n W e il, "Les m o t s - f p s in
dans La complainte d'E ze ch ie l sur le ro i de Tyr XX\/111:11-19,*'
REJ 42 ( 1 9 0 1 ) : 7 - 1 3 . But since these i n t e r p r e t a t io n s demand a d r a s t ic
emendation o f the te x t and hardly f i t the c o n te x t, we are i n c lin e d to
discard them (so Zim m erli, Ezekiel 2 :8 5 ) . Because o f the c o ntext and
the in t e r p r e t a t io n s considered, we th in k the t r a n s la t i o n p r e s e n t s
in t h i s paper i s reasonable.
2
The l a s t word o f vs. 13, n i l - i s not rendered in the
LXX (except in Codex Marchalianus, which renders • i- r ^ n 'ja v ) and
Pesh. (Widengren thinks must correspond to m n , although
the LXX has connected i t to what follow s in vs. 1 4 . ) . For analogy
of ] 1 n next to s i n , see Ps 119:73 and Job 3 1 :1 5 , where “ ”’ V is
used, but concerning d iv in e c re a tio n ( c f . Herrmann, p. 170).
1 For MT 1 ^ n n n , the LXX has V n n i (s-inta j s ) ( c f . Toy,

E zekiel [ H e b . ] , pp. 22, 8 6 ; Yaron. pp. 3 0 - 3 1 ) . Most scholars have
attached th is verb to what precedes in the t e x t ( i . e . , Toy,
B e r th o le t, Cheminant, Herrmann, Fohrer, Yaron, Zim m erli, e t c . ) ;
however, some theologians ( i . e . , Widengren, e t c . ) as well as some
modern versions (NKJV, NIV, e t c . ) read the i n i t i a l 3 and t r a n s l a t e
the word independently (see Widenbren, The Ascension . . . , pp. 96-
97, and Yaron, pp. 28-31 f o r suggestions on the possible s tr u c tu r e
o f the phrases in vs. 1 4 ). Van D ijk (p . 120) views the i as emphatic,
which resembles the emphatic ^ 3 in Hebrew and U g a r i t i c .
2
n tt could be vocalized in a t l e a s t th re e d i f f e r e n t ways.
The MT has a x (see Num 11:15 and Deut 5 :2 4 , which besides the
E zekiel t e x t uses ? x in a place where we expect a masculine form;
c f . GKC, § 32g) which is very improbable because o f the masculine
t h a t fo llo w s ; the LXX reads a x ( ‘ n x ) rendering the expression - c - t.
~o■j (cools c-^nHct ( c f . Pesh ^ •' ) , which has been follow ed by
many scholars ( i . e . , B e r th o le t, p. 149; Toy, Ezekiel [ E n g .], pp. 48,
155; Kraetzschmar, p. 217; Jahnow, pp. 222-23; Cooke, E z e k i e l ,
p. 317; Yaron, pp. 30-31; E ic h ro d t, E z e k i e l , p. 389; Zim m erli,
Eze k i e l . 2:8 5; e t c . ) . A t h i r d view sees in the t e x t the KT g>5
t Q r — njpsJ ( c f . Vulg. TU; NIV, NKJV, e t c . ) . Several scholars have
adopted^ th is rendering- {"cf• Torczyner, " P r e s i d e n t i a l , " p. 4;
Widengren, The Ascension ■ . . , pp. 96-97 ; van D i j k , pp. 93, 119;
see above p. 136 f o r supporters o f t h i s v ie w ). See above pp.
138-39 and below pp. 262-65 f o r reasons why the present w r i t e r
adopts th is l a s t view.
241
1 2 3
s h ie ld in g wings. You were in the (h o ly ) mount o f God, in the
MT Some commentators have questioned the v o c a l i

z a tio n of the term here and in vs. 16. Kraetzschmar (p . 217) has
suggested a m ( c f . McKenzie, Myths and r e a l i t i e s , p. 177).
W i a i o n n a a n is not present in the LXX; n a a n has

been in te r o r e t e d in the sense o f the ro o t n a n , "to a n o in t" ( c f .
Pesh. - _ 3 c ; and Codex Marchal ianus too
Hat 3 o x - . : . . - : ; ) , and in the sense o f n a n "to measure out" (Aram.—

AKK.; c f . D e lit z s c h , AHW, 43a = Assyr. Malahu; BDB, 6 0 3 b ), and seems
to be follow ed by Vulg. extentus e t protegens (Dahood [ Psalms 1:
107-08] th in k s V u lg .'s sense is c o r r e c t and observes th a t the root
n a n [^to measure, extend"] occurs in CTA 1 .1 0 .3 .2 2 -2 3 [ qrn dbatk
b el ymsh b cl ymsh hm bcp , "your powerful wings w i l l Baal s tr e tc h
o u t, Baal w i l l s tre tc h them out f o r f l i g h t " ] ) . Toy ( E zekiel [H e b .],
p. 8 6 ) suggests th a t Jerome had b e fo re him l ' J n n (Pu. P a r t . ) in
rendering e x te n tu s . Widengren ( The Ascension . . . , p. 96) suggests
t h a t n in n a n a is an i n t e r r o g a t i v e p a r t i c l e , t r a n s la t i n g i t "Oh,
what an a n o in te d ," which, as says Zim m erli, is unconvincing. Van
D i j k (p. 119) accepts Dahood's p r o p o s itio n f o r the ro o t n a n and
contends f o r the form m a n n (v o c a liz e d a f t e r the p a r t i c i p l e in
A rabic) which he t r a n s la t e s as "w ing-spread." Having in view the
connection o f n a n w ith the root i n n in i t s common use as described
below, van D i j k ' s suggestion is p la u s ib le ( c f . G aster, Myth, Legend
. . , p. 7 1 3 ). I t seems to me t h a t a l l meanings o f the ro o t n a n ,
" a n o in t, measure up, s t r e t c h ," would, to some e x t e n t , f i t the con
t e x t (see als o NJPS which tr a n s la t e s the f i r s t b i c o l o n o f v s . 14 as
" I created you as a Cherub with o u ts tre tc h e d s h ield in g w ings." We
th in k t h is is a f a i r t r a n s l a t i o n , as f a r as we can i n t e r p r e t th is
obscure t e x t , and we adopt i t in our t r a n s la t i o n of the f i r s t bicolon
o f vs. 14).
Following the LXX many scholars ( e . g . , C o m i l l , Toy, B e r th o le t,
e t c . ) have s tr ic k e n 1 J i o n out o f the t e x t as a secondary a d d itio n ;
but V u lg ., Pesh., and many modern theologians ( i . e . , Bevan, Widengren,
Yaron, van O i i k , e t c . ) consider i t genuine. The root = 133
means to c o v e r, to s h i e l d , to p r o t e c t , and has been commonly used in the
d e s c rip tio n o f the cherubs over the ark in the temple (Exod 25:20;
3 7:9; 1 Kgs 8 : 7 ; 1 Chr 2 8 :1 8 ). B e r th o le t ( Hesekiel [ 1 8 9 7 ] , p. 149)
proposes i l D and o f f e r s c o n j e c t u r e l l y a very a t t r a c t i v e reading fo r
the whole phrase as J j i i i n £ p n ' 3 n x 'm it Keruben p f l e g t e s t
du tra u te n Verkehr' (see Ps 89:8T and 5 5 :1 5 ’ where the ro o t T 1 3 occurs
in the sense B e r th o le t gives to the Ezekiel word. Some scholars have
seen in 1 n l o n the " p r o te c to r ," the "guardian d e i t y , " the A ssyrio-
Babylonian b u l l - d e i t i e s (so Toy, E zekiel [Heb], p. 8 6 ; and Ezekiel
[E ng.] p. 155; c f. also Widengren, The Ascension, p. 9 7 ) .
MT n ■>■> n . I f Cheminant suppressed i t p (see n. 3 below)

to r e t a in n ■> n , Toy ( Ezekiel [ H e b . ] , pp. 22, 8 6 ) suppressed n ' ~ ,
saying i t was a s c r ib a l i n s e r tio n and t h a t n n l n n n says the same
th in g . Widengren ( The Ascension, p. 97) fo llo w in g B e r t h o l e t 1s
( H e s e k ie l, [ 1 9 3 6 ], p. 100) and Jahnow's (p. 222) suggestion, advo
cates th a t z 1 x must be kept to g e th e r with n ■> ' n because, he
24 2
1 2
midst of the stones o f f i r e you walked.
3 4
Vs. 15. You were blameless in your ways from che day you
were crea te d , t i l l e v i l ^ was found in you.
Vs. 16. In the abundance o f your trade you have f i l l e d ^
says, “t h i s statement p e r f e c t ly agrees with the words of the king in

28:2 "I am a god, a seat o f the god(s) I s i t upon/in the midst o^ the
seas,' his t r a n s l a t i o n being "a god thou wast, in the midst o f the
stones o f f i r e thou walked." (C f . also Gaster, [ Myth, Legend ■ ■
pp. 621, 713] who has more or less the same view, saying th a t fo r
“m etrical and s y n ta c tic a l reasons, a ' , n ’?K should be a
separate c la u s e ." ) Yaron (pp. 29-31 ) admits th a t Widengran's reading
of th is verse is the only one possible without a l t e r a t i o n of MT, but
goes on him se lf r e ly in g on the LXX and o ff e r in g a d i f f e r e n t rendering.
Me do not agree w ith every argument Yaron (pp. 2 9 -3 1 ) presents a gains t
Widengren's t r a n s l a t i o n . Having in view the occurrence of the expres
sions 73 (v s . 13) and Q ' T i i n i n o (v s . 1 6 ) , i t seems almost
certain th a t in vs. 14 the combination should be d ip
^ M T 'V rp has f o r long been considered a g lo s s . Cheminant

(p. 77) suggests th a t the meter demands the suppression o f or
n 1 1 ' ( c f . BHK; E h r lic h , 5:109; Zimmerli, Ezekiel , 2 :8 5 ) . Widengren
( The Ascension . . . . p. 97) th in k s th a t £?t p ( c f . Isa 11:9— 7 d :
•> P ~ n j belongs to the o r i g i n a l t e x t ; and Yaron (p . 31) observes
that a ^ riP K ' n p i n n f i t s p e r f e c t ly the phrase 7 ~ r V -
n'i ■> n c n i x 7 3 (vs. 13) and thus belongs to the t e x t .
V o r the meaning o f d x - 1 : : x , see above pp.
^MT n a P r r n n is absent in the LXX; the Pesh. has rCl

but is attached to vs. 15. Zimmerli ( Ezekiel , 2 :8 6 ) follows ;,ie
Pesh. (based on some remarks about the te x t by Qrigen— see Z i e g l e r ,
E z e c h ie l, p. 223) and r e je c ts D r i v e r 's (" E z e k ie l: L i n g u i s t i c , " p.
159) view th a t the word has the same sense as Arab. Tahallaka and
should be rendered "swaggering."
^Zimmerli proposes the d e le c tio n of r m x , which he thinks

"became necessary on ly a f t e r the f a ls e d iv is io n between vss. 14 and
15" ( E z e k i e l , 2 : 8 6 ) .
4For MT “P ^ T r a , LXX has -:-j - a p r j e o a u ; ; r j . Toy ( Ezekiel

[H e b .], p. 86) views th is variance as perhaps a d itto g ra p h y o f the
Greek scribe because o f the fo llo w in g -Vjcjcis. Yaron (p. 55— c f .
also E h r lic h , p. 109) omits the word.
^MT n n P T V , used f o r p r a c t ic a l emphasis (see GKC, § 90;

3DB, 732b), is the same as ’ 7 i y .
®MT =i Pa. Based on the LXX c- a o t ; and Pesh. -Wbo , 8HK

has proposed n x 7 3 , which must have f a l l e n out througn naolography
243
y o u r s e lf w ith v io le n c e , and you sinned. So I expelled^ you as a

2
profane thing from the mountain o f God. And I e xpelled you, 0
“i
guardian Cherub, from the midst o f the stones o f f i r e . ' 1
Vs. 1 7 . Your h e art became proud because o f your beauty,

4
you corrupted your wisdom because o f your splendour. I threw you
to the e a r t h ;^ I exposed you before kings, t h a t they may gloat**
over you.
( c f . Toy, Ezekiel [ H e b . ] , p. 8 6 ; Zim m erli, E z e k i e l , 2 :8 6 ) . Toy

suggests a . Van D i j k (p . 121) suggests and avoids BHK’ s
emendation; O th e rs (Herrmann, Kraetzschmar, e t c . ) proposed
Gaster ( Myth, Legend . . . , p. 73) proposes f o r the whole expression
the reading DQ rp. g i n ■ p x t ’ D , “t r i c k e r y and crime had f i l l e d
th e e ," which is only a guess (see also B e r th o le t [ Hesekiel (1 9 3 6 ),
p. 1 0 1 ], and Fohrer [ E z e c h ie l, p. 163] f o r a suggestion of
[fo r i g t n i > o ] ).
] MT The LXX has -t-jauua-Ta rn- ( > ) ’ m ) , "you

havebeen cast down wounded." See van D ijk (p . 121) f o r reasons
not to use as simply "profane away."
^MT g 7 3 t P , a contracted form o f 1 t n KK 1 (from t —

c f . GKC, § 6 8 K; BLeA § 53m; Davidson, AHCL, p. 2 ) . LXX brings
Tyayc re which corresponds to 1 7 ^ 2 "i ^ i ( f r o m '7 - ’’ ) ,
n 7 2 Xh ( c f . Yaron, o. 3 1 ) , or 7 7 5 h* 1 ( c f . BHK). Zimmerli
( E zek ie l , 2 :8 6 ) suggests we read 1 "i 2 H ■> i . This verb introduces
again the Cherub and makes a g re a t d iffe r e n c e i f we accept the
MT’ s o r the LXX's reading. We accept the MT's reading; the reasons
we do so are discussed throughout th is paper.
"’On ‘Y “ ■> 3 2 K, see above on pp. 131-33.
^Gaster (" E z e k ie l 2 8 :1 7 ," p. 124) c a l l s f o r t h an Arabic root

and Canaam'te t e x t p a r a l l e l s to i n t e r p r e t n y ^ n as " u p s ta rt con
d u c t." The word occurs also in vs. 7 ( c f . p. 236, n. 7 above). The
LXX in s e r ts here ioa -caôs to-j, an expression which
appears a t the beginning o f vs. 18.
3 0n the basis o f Gunkel's ( Schopfung und Chaos, p. 18) sug

gestion th a t denotes "netherworld in several b i b l i c a l passages,
and a fte rw a rd confirmed by Aramaic, Akkadian, and U g a r i t i c l i t e r a
tu re (see Dahood, Psalms 1 : 1 0 6 ) , Cassuto ( Genesis 1:31)
and van D ijk (pp. 93, 121) have tr a n s la te d the word as "s h e o l."
6MT n i r . ) . Ms Ken (BHK) has (c f. the i n f i n .

form, GKC, § 75n).
244
1 2
Vs. 18. Through the abundance of your g u ilt in the
3 4 5
unrighteousness o f your trade you have desecrated my sanctuary
6 7 8
so I w i l l bring fo rth f i r e from the midst o f i t ; and i t w i l l
consume you, and I w i l l turn you to ashes upon the earth in the
s ig h t o f a l l who see you.
Vs. 19. A ll who know you among the peoples w i l l be appalled

g
a t you; you shall become a horror and s h all be no more f o r eve r.
^MT 3 3 3; Vulg. has 3 3 3 ( in m u l t i t u d i n e ) .
V 3 i V is rendered 1 3 l y by m lt MSS Edd ( c f . BHK;

E h r l ic h , V, p. 110; Herrmann, p. 1 72 ). We agree w ith Zimmerli
( E z e k i e l , 2:8 6) th a t since the masc. 7 I V t h a t appears in Ezek
always in the s i n g . , i t should be read in t h a t way here (see 24:23;
36:31 , 33; 4 3 :1 0 , where the fern. p i . form is found). Cooke ( E z e k i e l ,
p. 324) advocates t h a t KT 1 1 3 i y 3 i d should with the LXX be
tr a n s fe rr e d to vs. 17 (see above p. 243, n. 4 ) , which repeats the
words again here in vs. 18.
^Cheminant (p . 82) thinks th a t i n l i i is a corruption or an

e x p l i c a t io n o f a p r i m i t i v e l ’’ ? 3 'T. E h rlic h (p. 1 1 0 ), Jahnow
(pp. 2 2 2 -2 3 ), and Herrmann (p . 172) consider i n ’? 3 3 P i 7 3 to be a
gloss. Yaron (p. 55) e lim in a te s the f i r s t fo u r words o f vs. 18 as
secondary.
4For MT n P P r t , the LXX reads = ■> n ’?'?n.
5For MT 1 ^ '3 3 P o , MSS Edd ( c f . BHK) have 1 ’2/ n p o ; Sym. and

Vulg. ( c f . a lso G as te r, Myth, Legend . . . , p. 6 22 ). BHK’ s
e d i t o r i a l suggestion f o r rendering should be accepted.
5With the LXX, V u l g . , T a r g . , and P esh., we read vss. 18b-19

in the fu tu re tense ( c f . also KJV and van D i j k , p. 9 3 ).
^Morgenstern ("The Mythological Background," p. I l l ) thinks

t h i s vs. contains a re fe re n c e to the q u ite independent myth o f the
Phoenix.
8For MT 1 3 1 n o , we should read w ith E h rlic h (V , p. 110)

and Herrmann (p. 1 7 2 ), I 3 i n 3 .
9For MT n -1 ~ m n ' ? 3 , LXX has 7 - j.Tcoa ■ z y &jc-j , "you are

gone to d e s tr u c tio n " ; Pesh. A _ it l g « o , "you s h all be brought
to d e s t r u c t io n ." Modern versions render . . . h o r r i b l e end"
( N I V ) , "dreadful end" (RSV).
245
H i s t o r i c a l Context
Date o f Composition
The t r a d i t i o n a l view f o r the date of composition o f the
prophecy o f Ezekiel has been challenged by several scholars since
the days o f L. Zung (1832) u n t i l the 1980sJ But reputed modern

2 3 4 5 5
scholars such as P f e i f f e r , Howie, Muilenburg, E llis o n , Archer,
7 8
Z im m erli, H a rris o n , e t c . , have defended the f i r s t h a l f o f the
s ix th century b.C. as a reasonable date fo r the composition o f the
main nucleus o f the prophecy o f E z e k i e l, e s p e c ia lly the oracles
a g a in s t Tyre whose w e ll- e s t a b lis h e d date f o r i t s siege by

. g
Nebuchadnezzar is about 585-572 B.C. We make our own W eir's
See f o r a survey o f main challengers o f the s ix th century

B .C .-v ie w from the seventeenth century u n til the 1960s: P fe iffe r,
I n t r o d u c t i o n , pp. 527-29; R. K. H a rriso n , Introduction to the Old
Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1969), pp. 8 2 3 -3 2 ; C. G.
Howie, The Date and Composition o f E z e k i e l , JBL.MS 6 (P h ila d e lp h ia :
S o c ie ty o f B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e , 1 9 6 0 ), pp. 27-46.
Î n t r o d u c t i o n , p. 521 . ^Pp. 100-102.
4,,Ezekiel ," PCB ( 1 9 6 2 ) , p. 569.
5"The Book o f E z e k i e l , ' 1 NBD (1 9 6 2 ), p. 407.
^Gleason L. Archer, A Survey o f Old Testament In tro d u c tio n

(Chicago: Moody Press, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 357-61.
Ê z e k i e l , 2 :2 3 -2 5 . ^ In tr o d u c tio n , pp. 831-32.

Q
Josephus ( Against Apion 1:5 9) states th a t Nebuchadnezzar
began the siege o f Tyre in the seventh year of his r e ig n ; he is
follow ed by M. Vogel s t e i n , "Nebuchadnezzar's Reconquest o f
Phoenicia and P a le s tin e and the Oracles o f E z e k ie l," HUCA 23/2
(1 9 5 0 / 5 1 ) : 1 9 9-207, who proposes the date of 598-586 B.C. f o r
Nebuchadnezzar' s s ie g e . Fleming, p. 44, thinks th a t “tw e n tie th "
should be read f o r Josephus' seventh yea r. That Josephus and
Vo 1gel s te in are wrong, The Chronicles o f the Chaldean Kings (ed.
Wiseman, 1956) demonstrates, since they do not mention Tyre in the
records o f the years 593-594 B.C. when the chronicles r e f e r e n t to
Nebuchadnezzar end. See a lso E. Linger, "Nebukadnezzar I I und Sein
Sandabakku (Oberkommissar) in T y r u s ,” ZAW 44 (1 9 2 6 ):3 1 4 -1 7 ; idem,
Baby!on (L e ip z ig : W alter de G ruyer, 1931), pp. 36-37; Howie,
words th a t "the Book o f Ezekiel is s u b s t a n t i a l l y from the hand o f
one author who was w ell acquainted w ith events in western Asia
between 592 and c. 570 B .C ., and knew nothing o f l a t e r e v e n ts . " 1

2
Morgenstern has contended th a t these Tyrian oracles
( 2 8 :1 -1 0 and 11-19) are not the utterances o f the prophet E zekiel
h im s e lf, but were produced in the period o f 490-480 B .C .; and the
two sections are p r a c t i c a l l y contemporaneous and r e f e r to the same
king o f Tyre who was r u l i n g t h a t c i t y in 485 B.C. Morgenstern' s
view is f a r from being proved. However, these oracles do not o f f e r
any s p e c if ic clues which could help us to set a date f o r t h e i r o r i g i n
and the ty p ic a l tone o f the m a te ria l as f a r as the king o f Tyre is
concerned makes i t impossible to p inpoint an exact date f o r the
o r i g i n o f the m a t e r i a l . Because o f what precedes and follo w s t h i s
passage (chap. 28), I b e lie v e i t is not unreasonable to th in k o f the
passage as having being produced— in the form we f in d i t in the
book— in the time Tyre was besieged by Nebuchadnezzar.^
pp. 42-43; Otto E i s s f e l d t , K lein e S c h r i f t e n , 6 v o ls. (Tubingen:

J. C. B. Mohr [Paul S ie b e c k ], 1 9 6 2 -7 9 ), 2 : 1 - 3 ; A. Jacob K a tz e n s te in ,
The H is to r y o f Tyre (Jerusalem: Schocken I n s t i t u t e f o r Jewish
Research, 1 9 7 3 ), p p . 322-32.
^ e c i l J. W eir, "Aspects o f the Book o f E z e k i e l, " VT 2

(1 9 5 2 ):9 7 . Howie (p. i 0 2 ) , a f t e r his research on the date and
composition o f E z e k i e l, adds t h a t "the book which bears his
(E z e k i e l ) name is l a r g e l y the product of his mind, even though
w r i t t e n down, in p a r t a t l e a s t , by o th e r s ."
2"Psalm 4 8 ," p. 18, n. 60; idem, "Jerusalem— 485 B . C .,"

HUCA 28 (1 9 5 7 ):1 9 —31; idem, "The King-God among the Western
Semites and the Meaning o f Epiphanes," VT 10 (1 9 6 0 ):1 5 2 .
^26:1 gives the e leven th year (o f Jeboiakim) or the

e ig h te en th y ea r o f Nebuchadnezzar, which would be 587 B.C. Cf.
2 Chr 3 6 : 5 - 8 ; Parker and Dubberstein, p. 26; Wiseman, C h r o n ic le s ,
pp. 32-33.
247
H i s t o r i c a l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the
Prince and the King o f Tyre
The task of i d e n t i f y i n g the main f i g u r e ( s ) o f Ezek 28 is
not simple fo r several reasons: ( 1 ) the passage does not o f f e r
any s u b s ta n tia l clue f o r determining the possible h i s t o r i c a l
personage(s) ; ( 2 ) we do not know fo r sure whether these two
oracles (vss. 1-10 and 12-19) were produced in the same epoch;^
and (3 ) we do not know whether they belong to the whole block o f
the Tyrian oracles (chaps. 2 6 -2 8 ).
But as we have discussed before, the chances o f d a tin g th is
o ra c le during or immediately before Tyre's siege by Nebuchadnezzar
are g re a t. Thus, i f the ora cle s in chap. 28 belong tog e th e r w ith
chaps. 2 6-27, and i f the personage is to be i d e n t i f i e d h i s t o r i c a l l y
as an i n d i v i d u a l , th a t r u l e r should be Ithobal III. According to
Josephus, when Nebuchadnezzar besieged T y re, Ithobal III (Ith o b a a l
or E thbaal— ca. 5 9 1 /0 -5 7 3 /2 B .C .) was king o f T y re .^ Baal II (ca.
5 7 3 /7 2 -c . 564 B .C .) would be too la t e to f i t the probable d a te .
I t is very improbable, however, th a t the Tyrian r u l e r received
the message o f E z e k i e l . ^
Zim m erli, E z e k i e l , 2 :7 3 , says t h a t “the d i f f e r e n t ways of

addressing the r e c i p i e n t in vss. 2 and 12 suggest th a t the two
oracles were not composed a t the same tim e ." B. Mazar, “The
P h i l i s t i n e s and the Rise o f Is r a e l and T y r e ," PIASH 1 ( 1 9 6 4 ) : 7 : 2 1 ,
thinks th a t Ezekiel wove in to his prophecy (Ezek 26-28) excerpts
o f a Tyrian poem, which he had “learned from the in h a b ita n ts o f B it
S u r r a ia , a colony o f Tyrian e x ile s in the neighbourhood o f Nippur
on the Cheoar. The poem was apparently composed in the te n t h - n in t h
c e n tu r ie s , a t the time o f T y re 's greatness."
2
Against Apion, 1:21 ( t r a n s . L. C. Thackeray, 1 :2 2 5 ).
^Cf. E l l i s o n , E z e k ie l: the Man . . . , p. 99, who a ffir m s

th a t "the prophets' m in is t r y was almost always to I s r a e l , and i f they
spoke to I s r a e l ' s neighbors, i t was to enforce and e x p la in t h e i r
message to I s r a e l .
"There is no reason a t a l l f o r th in k in g t h a t E z e k i e l's
248
Exeqesi s
vss. 1-10
The f i r s t thought which comes to mind in i n t e r p r e t in g
th is passage is whether the o r ig in a l author had in view, in using
the expressions ~t '£ ~ 1 2 (vs. 2 ) and 1 1 if *]> a (v s . 12 ), the
same or d i f f e r e n t personages.
Scholars are d iv id e d between those who b e lie v e th a t the
terms are used i n d i f f e r e n t l y ^ and those who th in k the passage is

2
ta lk in g o f two d i f f e r e n t personages or e n t i t i e s . Some i n t e r p r e t e r s
3 4
view the ~r 1 3 3 as a man, others as a d iv in e being.
The term T 3 3 , "p rin c e, r u l e r , " is used more than f o r t y
times in the OT and is found in connection w ith charism atic leaders,"’
I s r a e l i t e kings,® e t c . As we see in the quoted t e x t s , the term is
interchangeable w ith “p o , and the word is used f o r fo re ig n r u le r s
messages in these chapters were ever c a r r ie d to the countries

mentioned, and i t is most improbable t h a t they could have been."
E llis o n adds th a t chaps. 2 6-28, while prophecies against T y re , could
be v e ile d reference to the f a t e o f Babylon i t s e l f (pp. 1 00 -1 0 1).
^Cf. Davidson and Streane, p. 224; Redpath, p. 149, who

notes: "The prophet now turns to the r u l e r o f Tyre c a lle d 'p r in c e '
in vs. 2 and king in vs. 12"; E l l i s o n , E z e k ie l: The Man. . . . ,
p. 108; Kroese, p. 20; Zim m erli, E z e k i e l , 2 :9 0 : who thinks th a t
"the ju x ta p o s itio n of i m j and " p a . . . is to be explained . . .
on the basis o f the separate o rig in s o f the two o r a c l e s ' ; Yaron,
pp. 45-46 ; P u lle y , p. 30.
“Cf. S kinner, E z e k i e l , pp. 252 -5 3 ; Mackay, pp. 239-41;

Dus, pp. 179-82; Feinberg, pp. 158-59; e tc .
^Cf. S kinner, pp. 252-53; Mackay, p. 239; Habel, p. 517; e tc .
Slay, "The King in the Garden," p. 168.
bCf. 1 Sam 9 :1 6 ; 1 0:1.
5 Cf. 1 Sam 13:14; 2 Sam 5 :2 ; 6 :2 1 ; 7 : 8 ; e tc .
249
1 2
as w e l l . A lt b e lieves th a t the t i t l e 7 ■» a 2 has a r e lig io u s
c onnotation, one who is designated by Yahweh; and Zimmerli a ffirm s
th a t "alongside the more m a t t e r - o f - f a c t t i t l e ‘ k in g ,' whicn
is used in vs. 12 . . . seems to have a more solemn r i n g , " J and
th a t t h i s d if f e r e n c e in the t i t l e s should not be explained on the
"basis o f a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between the human and d iv in e r u l e r o f

4
Tyre. . . . 11 E llis o n be lie v es "the two t i t l e s are d e l i b e r a t e l y
chosen to f i t the contents o f the two p o rtio n s " 8 to show th a t the
r u l e r o f Tyre was "merely Jehovah's na gid . " 8
The authors o f the books o f the Former Prophets seem to have
understood the terms i n ] and ~i V o, in the beginning o f the
I s r a e l i t e monarchy, as connoting ru le r s h ip on two d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s .

7 8
Several times the w r i t e r s present God as saying th a t S aul, David,
g
or oth e r I s r a e l i t e leaders would be the i m : over His people,
w hile the tru e King o f I s r a e l was the Lord, ". . . w e want a king
to ru le over us— even though the Lord your God was your k i n g . " ^
] Ps 7 6 :1 3 ; Dan 9:26 (some scholars th in k th is prophecy r e f e r s

to a Jewish p r in c e , not a f o r e i g n e r ) .
2
"Die S ta a te n b ild in g der I s r a e l i ten in P a la s tin a ," in
Kleine S c h rifte n zur Geschichte des Volkes I s r a e l , 3 v o ls . (Munich:
C. H. 3eck, 1 9 5 3 -5 9 ), 2 :2 3. C f. also E l l i s o n , E z e k ie l: The Man, p. 108.
Ê z e k i e l , 2:77. ^ E llis o n , E z e k ie l: The Man, p. 108.
8I b i d . , p. 109. 8 Ib id .
71 Sam 9 :1 6 ; 1 0 :1 ; 13:14.
82 Sam 5 :2 ; 6:21 ; 7 :8 ; 1 Chr 11:2.
^Solomon (1 Kgs 1 : 3 5 ) ; Jeroboan (1 Kgs 1 4 : 7 ) ; Jehu (1 Kgs

2 0 : 5 ) ; Hezekiah (2 Kgs 2 0 : 5 ) ; 2 Chr 32:21 r e f e r s to the leaders
( z: t ■ > j j ) in the Assyrian camp.
101 Sam 12:12.
250
I b e lie v e th a t in the same way the prophet used these two terms in
the Ezekelian oracles to denote two d i f f e r e n t ru le r s in d i f f e r e n t
realms. I t is also very i n t e r e s t i n g th a t C h ris t is c a l l e d a K~inq
in His a c t i v i t i e s in heaven (Rev 1 5 :3 ; 17:14; 1 9 : 1 6 ), but in the
Messianic prophecy o f Dan 9 (v s . 2 5 ) , He is re fe rre d to as prince
(T > n ). This could be a manner to d is tin g u is h C h r i s t 's e a r t h ly
and heavenly a c t i v i t i e s .
Although these two t i t l e s in Ezek 28 are fr e q u e n t ly used
interchangeably, i t seems th a t in t h is p a r t i c u l a r passage they were
used d e l ib e r a t e ly to denote two d i f f e r e n t personages, as we show
in t h i s study.
Vs. 2b. " I am (a ) God. ' 1 Since the prophet is voicing an
o ra c le on the r u l e r o f Tyre, whose pantheon had at i t s head,
i t has not been easy to determine w ith c e r t a in t y whether > « means
the Phoenician god3 o r — i f used in an a p p e lla tiv e sense— has to do

2 3
w ith Yahweh. As was discussed above, there are reasons to b e lie v e
t h a t vs. 2 is not an a llu s io n to Canaanite mythology. In any event
the r u l e r presents an a t t i t u d e o f h y b r is , boasting h im s e lf to be a
god. Habel c it e s Isa 1 4 :1 2 f f . as a close p a r a l l e l to Ezek 2 8 :2 -1 0 ,
ta k in g both passages as "arrogant humans tr y in g to storm the heavens

4
and usurp d iv in e a u t h o r i t y in some way." Although these two
passages have several elements in common, the spheres where the
fig u r e s act are q u ite d i f f e r e n t .
' w i t h E i s s f e l d t , "El and Yahweh," p. 29. See also Pope,

E l, p. 98, who thinks 7 s is used in an a p p ela tiv e sense, but a t
the same time i t is an a llu s io n to the U g a r itic E l.
^Cf. Zim m erli, Ezekiel 2 :7 7 ; van D i j k , pp. 9 3 -9 6 .
3Pp. 110-13. 4 P. 517.
251
Vs. 2c . “ I am s i t t i n g on the throne o f God in the heart
o f the seas." Due to alleged mythological elements in the passaged
scholars tend tn view th is phrase as r e fe r r in g to the dwelling

2 3
place of the gods, but that seems improbable.
Ohler 4 b e lie v e s th a t t h i s mythological name o f the "height"
of Tyrus' pride i s tra n s fe rre d a t the same time to the natural
geographic s i t u a t i o n of the is la n d c i t y ; but he a lso adds th a t a
special myth need not stay in the background. I t seems reasonable
to believe th a t the l a s t part o f the phrase r e fe r s to the position
o f the c i t y o f Tyre on an is la n d .^
The expressions d i d '1 2 ^ 2 and 3 ^ rr ' i n : are used
several times** in the oracles a g a in s t Tyre (chaps. 25-28) and
connote the c i t y ' s island p o s itio n . Furthermore the passage makes
See above, pp. 111-14; Pope, El_, pp. 9 8 -9 9 , also notes

th a t the a s s o c ia tio n o f the netherworld (nnt?) and the "heart o f the
seas" in vs. 8 suggests ra th e r s tro n g ly that the author had in view
E l 's in fe rn al sea. But see Z im m e rli, E z e k ie l, 2:79 f o r c r i t i c i s m
o f Pope's view. C f. Gray, "The Hebrew Conception," pp. 272-73, on
the idea of the powers of chaos t y p i f i e d by the u nruly waters.
^See Pope, El_, pp. 9 8 -9 9 ; Gray, Legacy, p. 114; Mullen,

pp. 150-51.
■^See above, pp. 114-16.
4 P. 173; see also van D i j k , pp. 97-99, f o r s o lid defense

o f the view t h a t a '> n '? K should be tr a n s la te d "the seat"
r a th e r than "d w e llin g place” o f a god.
^Tyre was both an is la n d Tyre and a mainland Tyre; but in

time of war the in h a b ita n ts used to crowd onto the isla n d to p r o te c t
themselves and to r e s i s t the s ie g e .
6 I . e . , Ezek 26:5, 17-18; 2 7 :3 , 4, 26, 27, 32; c f . also

Mullen, p. 150; c f . Zimmerli, E z e k i e l , 2:78; Pope, El_, p. 98,
who present some a ncie nt sources which depict Tyre as "a c i t y
in the sea," and a c i t y whose king Baal "dwells in the midst o f
the sea."
252
c le a r th a t the personage is a "man and not a god"^--"you w i l l be

2
but a man."
Vss. 3 - 5 . Some i n t e r p r e t e r s 2 consider these verses as an
expansion to explain the o r ig in o f the " p rid e of heart" and present

4
T y re 's increase in wealth as a r e s u lt o f her wisdom and s k i l l in
tr a d in g . This success in commerce made her heart grow proud.
Vss. 6-10 describe the kind o f death fore igne rs w i l l impose
upon the r u l e r o f Tyre. Because o f his h y b r is , pride o f h e a r t , he
would s u f f e r v io le n t death "in the heart o f the seas . " 2 As f a r
as the relevance o f the oracles against Tyre f o r the I s r a e l i t e s
is concerned, the s e t t in g in which they were produced could e x p la in
it. As was said b e f o r e , 2 the f i r s t t h i r d o f the s ix th century B.C.
is a reasonable epoch to assign fo r the o r i g i n o f the Tyrian o ra c le s .
I t would have been e s p e c i a l l y re le v a n t a f t e r the 586 B.C. f a l l of
Jerusalem, because a f t e r conquering and destroying Jerusalem,
Nebuchadnezzar turned his a tte n tio n next to Tyre. The same a t t i t u d e
o f p rid e and s e lf-c o n fid e n c e which was in the mind o f the Tyrians
was in some aspects shared by the I s r a e l i t e s , who in h a b ited the
southern kingdom, e s p e c i a l l y Jerusalem. Gowam has noted th a t
2 Vs. 9; c f . Skinner, E z e k i e l , pp. 252-53.
2I . e . , Z im m erli, E z e k i e l , 2 :7 5 , 79.
^See Prov 3 :7 ; 26:12; Isa 5:21; J e r 9 :2 2 , f o r the idea

about those who possess wisdom.
2See above pp. 114-16 f o r comments on th is expression. For

d e t a il e d commentary on vss. 1-10 see Z im m erli, E z e k i e l , 2 :7 6 -8 0 ,
and van D i j k , pp. 93-113.
2See above p. 247.
253
Tyre probably became a symbol o f r e s is ta n c e fo r the Judeans

as news came to them o f her stubbornness, and hence i t became
a symbol to Ezekiel o f the misplaced f a i t h o f his com patriots.
This may be why so much is said about so small a s ta te (th r e e
chapters, 2 6 - 2 8 ) , f o r not only did he fin d i t necessary to
t r y to undermine a f a i t h inadequately based on the i n v i o l a b i l i t y
of Jerusalem, but he also had to s e t the celebrated impregna
b i l i t y , w ealth and prid e of Tyre in i t s proper pe rsp e c tive .^
Vss. 11-19
2
This o ra c le a gains t the king o f Tyre i s , as noted above,
f u l l o f te x tu a l d i f f i c u l t i e s and o b s c u r it ie s which produce some
f r u s t r a t i o n in i n t e r p r e t i n g i t . The e lu s iv e language o f the passage
makes i t s exegesis d i f f i c u l t .
As in the preceding oracles a g a in s t Tyre,^ th is passage
is introduced by a formula which determines the i d e n t i t y o f the
o ra c le . The o r a c le is described as a qinah concerning the king
of Tyre. The s ubjec t o f che qinah is m s p 2 . Some scholars
think th a t here the same personage who in vs. 2 is c a lle d

4
~s "t ^ 3 3 . O thers, however, i d e n t i f y him as a d i f f e r e n t per
sonage." Besides t h a t , b i b l i c a l scholars are divided between those
who th in k the passage r e f e r s to an i n d iv id u a l^ and those who take
] Pp. 7 1 -7 2 . 2 Pp. 224-29.
32 6 :1 -2 1 ; 2 7 : 1 - 2 ; 2 8 :1 -1 0 . The name Tyre (Egyptian Or,

Hebrew U g a r i t i c Sr-m, Babylonian S urru, Arabic $ u r,
Greek 7 -jcc;) means rock. Z f . A. S. Kapelrud, "Tyre," IDB (1 9 6 2 ),
4:721; Nina J i d e j i a n , Tyre Through the Ages (B e ir u t: Oar El-Mashreq
Pub., 1969), p. x v i .
4
See above p. 248.
JS k in n e r, E z e k i e l , p. 252, Dus, pp. 179-82; Feinberg,

160-64.
^ K e il, p. 408; B e r th o le t, Hesekiel , p. 147; S kin n e r,

E z e k i e l , pp. 253-57.
254
i t as a p e r s o n if ic a t io n of T y r e J Already in the n in e te e n th
century F a ir b a ir n observed th a t vss. 11-19 are "cast in an e n t i r e l y

?
d i f f e r e n t mould" than vss. 1 -1 0. Skinner added th a t "the point
o f view is very d i f f e r e n t in these two sections"'* and suggests
th a t " i t almost seems as i f the prophet had in his mind the idea
4
o f a t u t e l a r y s p i r i t or genius o f T y re ." Mackay shares a s im ila r
idea, saying th a t "the prophet's words reveal the two characters
as separated by the width tha t d iv id e s the natural from the
s u p e rn a tu ra l";^ and the prophet reserves the name "king" f o r the
second o ra c le to i d e n t i f y the patron d e it y o f Tyre Mel k a r t (melek
K a r t, "king o f the c i t y " ) . ®
V a i r b a i r n , p. 306; Z im m erli, E z e k i e l , 2 :7 7 , 80; Kroeze,

p. 20; H a b e l, p. 516.
2 P. 260.
3
E z e k i e l , p. 252; Skinner adds, "In the f i r s t the prince is
s t i l l conceived as a man; . . . in the second, however, the king
appears as an a n g e lic being . . . s in less a t f i r s t , and f a l l i n g from
his high s ta te through his own transgression" (pp. 2 5 2 -5 3 ).
4 Ib id ., p. 253.
^"The King o f Tyre," p. 239. Mackay presents several d i f f e r

ences between these two pasasges such as:
The Prince (vss. 1-10) The King (vss. 1 1 -1 9 )

- Arrogant mortal - Superhuman being o f p r i s t i n e per
f e c t i o n , whose f a u l t is not in
what he claims to be, but in what
he no longer i s .
- Is "above him self" - Is f a l l e n
- Deals w ith the r u l e r of - Looks beyond f l e s h and blood to
Tyre the s p i r i t or angel o f Tyre
P. 241; see Mackay's exten s ive explanation in an e f f o r t to

f i t Mel k a r t in to the Ezekiel passage (pp. 2 4 1 -5 8 ). See also
Steinmann, p. 147, who asks "si Ezechiel n'a pas en vue i c i ce que
les apocalypses u l t e r i e u r e s a p p e lle r o n t T a n g e de Tyv-e ‘ , c ' e s t - a - d i r e
le p ro te c te u r c e le s te de la v i l l e ou mieux ce que nous a p p elle rio n s
a u jo u rd 'h u i 'son ame'."
255
J. Dus^ has discussed these two sections o f Ezek 28 (vss.
1-10 and vss. 11-19) and argued f o r t h e i r d is t in c t iv e n e s s as well
as t h e i r r e la t io n s h ip in the f a c t th a t they are not in tension but
they confirm and complete each o th e r r e c i p r o c a l l y . He also i d e n t i
f i e s the Ezekiel passage with Ps 82, saying th a t the " G o tt-V o lk -
Vorstellung'* is the key to i n t e r p r e t in g Ezek 2 8 :1 2 -1 9 and in
support o f Mackay’ s view, he suggests th a t " . 'i s 1 '? " o f vs. 12

2
could be a tra n s fe re n c e of the name o f the Tyrian c i t y god Mel k a r t .
Among the passages presented to support th is idea are Isa 30:33 and
57:9 in which is vocalized molech.^

4
This view has received severe c r i t i c i s m by Zim m erli, who
presents the fo llo w in g points as m i l i t a t i n g a g a in s t equating
' Ti '7 3 w ith Mel k a rt:
1. The use o f the t i t l e "king" elsewhere in the book of

5
Ezekiel disallow s th is theory. They are always e a r t h l y r u l e r s .
2. In the oracles a g ain s t Tyre and Egypt, the c i t y or the
nation is addressed when the r u l e r is described as ' 7 2 . I t would
be very strange to apply 28:11-19 as r e f e r r i n g to M e lk a r t; the
evidences are not strong enough.
\l Dus, “Melek Sor-Melqart? (Zur I n t e r p r e t a t i o n von Ezek

2 8 : 1 1 - 1 9 ) ," ArOr 26 (1 9 5 8 ):1 7 9 -8 5 .
^M e lk a rt had as e p i t h e t "Ba’ al Sor," "Lord o f T y re ," and

was connected as the god o f the underworld. C f. A l b r i g h t ,
Archaeology and the Religion . . . , p. 81; Dussaud, Les Religions
. . . , p. 366; H. W. Haussig, G o tte r und Mythen im Vorderen O r i e n t ,
WM 1 ( S t u t t g a r t : Ernst K l e t t V e rla g , 1965), pp. 297-98.
^This p ropos ition had a lre a d y been presented by de Vaux,

"Recensions," RB 45 (1 9 3 6 ):2 8 2 .
Ê z e k i e l , 2:90.
^1 agree w ith Zimmerli th a t Ezek 28:12 -1 9 r e fe r s not to

the god M e lk a rt, but think the t e x t does not t a l k o f any e a r t h ly
r u l e r e i t h e r ; see below pp. 268-70.
Although Mackay and Dus are wrong in saying th a t the passage
is t a l k i n g about M e lk a rt, they are c o rre c t in discerning the
d i f f e r e n t realms o f vss. 1-10 and vss. 12-19 and, consequently, th a t
the beings r e fe r r e d to in vss. 2 and 12 are two d i f f e r e n t onesJ
Vs. 12b. "You were an exemplar o f p e r fe c t io n . . . " con
ta ins a l i n g u i s t i c a l l y obscure and enigm atic expression which has

2
puzzled the i n t e r p r e t e r s , who have suggested several te n ta tiv e
tra n s la tio n s .^ Although we are not able so f a r to know the
d e fin itiv e t r a n s la t i o n or meaning o f the words :: m ~ ,
the c o n te x t in d ic a te s a special being who was a model or a pattern
who had a special function in the realm where he l i v e d . The fig u re
here depicted is presented as having ( a t his c r e a t io n ) a l l the marks
o f a p e r f e c t being. He is portrayed as owning a g re at degree of
e x c e lle n c y and " f u l l o f wisdom and p e r fe c t in b eauty." I f in
vss. 2 - 4 , 6 mention is made concerning the wisdom o f the i 1 ! :
o f T y re, and vs. 7 re fe rs to his "beauty and wisdom," vs. 12
portrays the ~ T 0 of Tyre as being " f u l l o f wisdom and p e rfe c t in
beauty." Both fig u re s (the i ■> 1 3 and the 1 ^ 3 o f Tyre) convey
Âgainst Zimmerli, E z e k i e l , 2 :9 0 , who thinks th a t the

j u x t a p o s it io n o f ~ ' , 3 3 and ~i > a is due to "the separate o rig in s
o f the two o r a c le s , the f i r s t o f which has been s econdarily pre
fix e d to the second with a v a r i a t i o n in the t i t l e applied to the
ru le r."
2See above, pp. 237 (n . 2 ) , 238.
3 I . e . , "ein Weiser von hochster Vollendung" (Kraetzschmar,

p. 2 1 6 ); "a c u rio u s ly wrought s e a l-r in g " ( H i t z i g [ c f . CHSL, 1 3 :2 6 1 ])
"Seal o f Completion" (Ewald [ c f . CHSL, 1 3 : 2 6 1 ] ) ; "Der Siegelabdruck
des Ebenbildes" (Hermann, p. 171); "Siegelbewahrer" (Gressmann,
Der Messias, p. 166 ); "Der Abdruck eines models" (F o h re r, E z e c h ie l,
p. 1 6 1 ); "a completed signet" (Z im m e rli, E z e k i e l , 2 : 8 1 ) ; e tc .
257
some s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r is t i c s , but the l a t t e r in a f u l l e r amount.
Vs. 13a. "You were in Eden, the garden o f God” ; the mention
o f Eden he re, as well as a "guardian Cherub" (vss. 14 and 15) and the
expulsion o f a being from a good place (v s . 1 6), have led commen
ta to r s to think th a t our t e x t derived from the Paradise s to r y of
Gen 2 - 3 , or perhaps from a more m ythological version o f t h i s story.
But as noted aboveJ the s i m i l a r i t i e s are s u p e r f ic ia l and the

2
divergences remarkable. We have to i n t e r p r e t th is passage without
the a p r i o r i thought th a t i t derives from Gen 2-3. I t could oe
admitted t h a t because o f the nature o f the m aterial and t h e i r con
te x ts they have some d i s t a n t r e la t io n s h ip s to each o th e r. However
we cannot say, to begin w it h , th a t both passages r e p o rt the same
event and r e f e r to the c r e a tio n , s i n , and f a l l o f the f i r s t man. The
term ] ~y^ is used several times in Genesis in connection w ith the

4
garden God planted f o r our f i r s t p a r e n ts , and as a country c a lle d
5
Eden. Besides several occurrences o f the word in the OT denoting a
r e g io n ,^ i t appears as connoting a place o f beauty and d e l i g h t , 7
which r e f l e c t s the q u a l i t y of the garden planted by God a t the beginning.
] Pp. 134-39.
2
For d e ta ile d discussion o f the s i m i l a r i t i e s and d iffe re n c e s
between the two s t o r i e s , see also H a b e l, pp. 522-23; G as te r, Myth,
Legend and Custom in the OT, pp. 5 2 2 -2 4 ; McKenzie, “The L i t e r a r y , "
p. 552; idem, "Mythological A ll u s io n s , " p. 324; Cassuto, Genesis,
pp. 7 4 -8 1 ; May, "The King in the Garden," pp. 168-69.
S n the o r ig in o f the word, see G. C a s t e l l i n o , "Les origines

de la c i v i l i z a t i o n selon les te x ts b ib liq u e s et les te x te s cunei-
form es," VTSup 4 (1 9 5 7 ):1 2 2 -2 3 .
Sen 2:15; 3 :2 3 -2 4 . 5Gen 2 : 8 , 1 0 ; 4 :1 6.
S e e 2 Kigs 19:12 ; 2 Chr 2 9 :1 2 ; 31:15; Isa 37:12; Ezek 27:23.
7 Isa 51:3; Ezek 36:35; Joel 2 :3 .
258
Of the seven uses Ezekiel makes of the term, fo u r r e f e r to the

1 2
"trees of Eden" and r e l a t e Eden with the "garden o f God." In
28:13 the tre e s are absent, but Eden is p a r a l l e l to "garden of
God. " 3 Although the term 7 t y is sometimes r e la t e d to the "garden
o f God," the root o f the word means " d e l ig h t , " “l o v e l i n e s s , " "to
4
make g la d ," and could connote any " d e l ig h t f u l " p lace.
We fin d some points which would make i t d i f f i c u l t to i d e n t i f y
the garden of God in Eden o f Ezek 28:13 with the "garden o f Eden"
where Adam and Eve were p u t,^ f or example: (1 ) In Ezekiel the garden
is c a lle d n ‘i rr ' ? « - 7 3 ("garden of God"); in Genesis i t is reported
th a t the Lord God planted a garden in Eden . . . and there put
man . . . “ ;® (2 ) the garden i n Ezekiel is loc ate d on the "mount o f
God," w h ile in Genesis i t is "in the East"; (3 ) the mention in
Genesis^ o f precious stones and gold is r e la te d to the land o f
Havilah which had those t h i n g s , while Ezekiel

seems to r e f e r to gold
g
and precious stones as being the adornment o f the f i g u r e .
Mackay, based on Ezek 3 1 :3 8 -9 , 16 and some old sources,
has said th a t " f o r the prophet the Lebanon was Eden the garden of
^ l^ , 16, 18. 231 : 8 - 9 — a n '? k “ 7 3 .
3Isa 51:3 presents the p a r a l l e l between "Eden" and the

"garden o f the Lord" (n 1 n ^ “ 7 3 ).
4Cf. Cook, The Book o f E z e k i e l , p. 316.
^See above, pp. 1 36 -3 7 ; c f . also H a b e l, pp. 522-24.
5Gen 2 :8 ; c f . a lso Cassuto, Genesis, p. 76, f o r a defense

of the view here presented.
7 3 : 1 1 , 12 .
®Cf. Cassuto, Genesis, pp. 79-80.
God" but the prophet is only comparing the trees o f Lebanon
with the trees o f Eden, not i d e n t i f y i n g Eden w ith Lebanon.
Some scholars b e lie v e th a t the prophet is d e s c rib in g the

2
temple o f Tyre. I th in k i t is l e g it im a t e to ass o c iate 7 7 7
3
w ith temple, but th a t Ezekiel is r e f e r r i n g to the pagan temple
is f a r from being proved.
Vs. 13b. "Every precious stone being your cover. . . . "
The function o f these precious stones has been i n te r p r e t e d in two
ways: ( 1 ) as r e f e r r i n g to the adornments o f the royal or p r i e s t l y
garments; ( 2 ) a pplie d as belonging to the ornament o f the w a lls
o f the sanctuary where the splendid Being walked. A l l depends
on the way we i n t e r p r e t the word i n D o n , as f a r as i t s o r ig in a l

4
root is concerned. The t r a d i t i o n a l rendering has been the one
th a t presents the stones as p a r t o f the f i g u r e 's d re s s .^ But
othe r in t e r p r e t e r s ^ who b e lie v e i n n on should be pointed w ithout
^"The King o f Ty re," p. 250.

2
Barnes, " E z e k ie l's D enunciation," p. 51; c f . also Yaron, p.
^See above, p. 136.
4See above, p. 238, n. 1 , f o r discussion o f th e m a tte r.
^The versions seem to render t h a t . C f. F a i r b a i r n , p. 319;

Kraetzschmar, p. 216; Schroder, p. 258; Cheminant, pp. 75-76;
Herrmann, p. 170; B e r th o le t, H e s e k ie l, p. 100; Widengren, The
Ascension, p. 97; Weaver, p. 23; Fohrer, E z e c h ie l, p. 161; Cassuto,
Genesis, p. 79, who makes a d i s t i n c t i o n between the precious
stones (vs. 13) which "c o n s titu te d the covering o f the cherub" and
the stones o f f i r e (vss. 14, 16) “in the midst o f which the cherub
walked"; Yaron, pp. 37-38 ; Habel, p. 518; Zim m erli, E z e k i e l , 2:82;
c f . also Haag, p. 8 6 .
5See W. E. Barnes, " E z e k ie l's Denunciation o f T y re ," p. 51;

van D i j k , pp. 116-17.
26 0
dagesh fo r t e in the ; — as found in some v a r i a n t s ^ - - d e r i v e the
word from the ro o t i 1 o and t r a n s la t e the word as "to hedge o u t."
Advocating t h i s view, Barnes says th a t
The connexion between temple and garden is q u ite obvious to

the Eastern mind. A 'te m ple 1 in the a n c ie n t East was not a
b u ild in g but a sacred enclosure round a (s m a ll) s h rin e . The
e a r l i e s t S em itic sanctuaries were gardens planted in oases
where the unexpected f e r t i l i t y o f the s o il suggested to the
Semite the presence o f a b e n e fic e n t d e i t y . The Solomonic
temple preserved the memory o f Eden the g a rden-sanctuary,
f o r i t s w a lls were adorned w ith fig u r e s of guardian Cherubim „
( c f . Gen. i i i 2 4 ) , palm -tre es , and flow ers (1 Kings vi 29, 32).
Passages such as Ps 116:19; 135:2; and 9 2 :1 2 -1 3 stre ss f u r t h e r
the connection between "temple and garden."^ Yaron has demon
s tra te d the interchangeable use o f heaven, Eden, the sides o f the
n o rth , and the tem ple , 4 which, w ith expressions l i k e "guardian
cherub" (vss. 14, 1 6 ) , "my (your) s an ctuaries" (vs. 1 8 ) , and " f i e r y
stones" (vss. 14, 1 6 ) , seem to i n d ic a t e t h a t the “garden o f God"
mentioned in the passage under discussion should be i d e n t i f i e d
w ith a s anctuary.^ As f a r as the context is concerned our passage
is re la te d to a sanctuary and would j u s t i f y the a p p lic a t io n o f the
Yaron, p. 38, says th a t the vow el-points i h d o o found in

most v a ria n ts are "strange" and a g a in s t a l l grammatical Taws" and
suggest t h a t the o r i g i n a l version could have been ' n o : 2 (from
n o s "to c o ver") and not - j n D D Q .
2JTS 35 (1 9 3 4 ):5 1 .
2 Cf. van D i j k , p. 117; van D i j k a ls o c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to

the U g a r i t i c suggestion fo r an analogous i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f “house
o f god" and “c o u r ts ,"
in b t l b ' 1 km ilm
whzr kbn a t r t
There is no house to Baal l i k e to the gods,
no court (= no house) l i k e to the sons o f A t h i r a t .
( CTA 4 .4 .5 0 -5 1 ).
4 Pp. 4 0 -4 5 . ^Cf. also van D i j k , p. 118.
261
term - ; r i D : : n , both as re la te d to the w a lls of the temple ar.d/or to
the c lo th in g o f the mentioned f i g u r e . Although the versions support
the former view, and the precious stones in Ezekiel resemble the
ones found in the wall o f the new Jerusalem in Rev 2 1 :1 8 -2 4 , there
are reasons to b e lie v e th a t the l a t t e r is more c o r r e c t: ( 1 ) the
p a r a l l e l passages (Exod 2 8:15 -2 1 : 39:8-13 )^ speak o f the stones as
belonging to the breastpiece o f the high p r i e s t , which is adornment
or c o v e rin g , and(2 ) as Zimmerli observed, the term can be a
"p re p ara tio n l i k e a motto fo r the fo llo w in g -j 3 1 c n: i '.3 (vss.
14, 1 6 ) . 2
Vs. 13c. "Your s e ttin g s and engraving were made o f gold"
(~!2 1 n p j i v sn n d XJ 0 :n n ). As noted above , 3 t h i s
phrase is v ery obscure and our t r a n s l a t i o n is t e n t a t i v e . In view
of the co n te xt we suppose i t has to do w ith the b r e a s tp la te where
the precious stones were mounted.
Vs. 13d. “On the day you were created they were prepared."
The word used f o r "create" is and occurs also in vs. 15 and
is the term used in Genesis concerning man's c r e a tio n . Morgenstern
^See above, pp. 238-39, f o r a comparison between the Ezekiel

l i s t o f stones and the ones in the Pentateuch. C f. also Zim m erli,
E z e k i e l , 2 :8 2 -8 4 .
p
E z e k i e l , 2 :8 2. Cassuto, Genesis, pp. 7 9-80 , has c o r
r e c t l y r e je c te d the schola r's idea t h a t the precious stones o f vs.
13 should be i d e n t i f i e d with the " f i e r y stones" o f vss. 14, 16.
3Pp. 238-39.
V h e word occurs f o r t y - n i n e times in the OT and is used

e x c l u s iv e ly to denote div in e c r e a t i o n . Cf. K. H. Bernhardt, H.
Ringgren, "b a r a 1," TDOT (1 9 7 4 ), 2 :2 4 5 -4 6 . Charles R. Smith ( c f .
P u lle y , p. 38) has noted th a t x ~in in t h i s Ezekiel passage could
r e f e r to the"enthronement or b i r t h o f the king o f Tyre, or even the
founding o f Tyre i t s e l f " ; and H. H. Esser c a l l s our a t t e n t i o n to
the f a c t t h a t x t n "is also used to express God's new work o f
262
understands "] K i 2 n in these verses (1 3 , 15) as " s e l f - c r e a t i o n "
and i d e n t i f i e s the " q u a l i t y o f s e l f - c r e a t i o n . . . or s e l f -
generation or s e l f - r e g e n e r a t io n . . . ( o f ) th is Tyrian god-king
w ith the Phoenix who rose . . . from the ashes o f his former being,
s e l f - c r e a t e d , s e lf - g e n e r a t e d , as i t were, to e n te r upon a new
life -c y c le ," ^ but his proposal is baseless. The niphal form is
b e t t e r regarded as passive.
Vs. 14. " I created (placed) you as a cherub w ith o u t
stretched s h ield in g wings. . . . " C rucial f o r the c o r r e c t under-

2
standing of th is passage is the ro le we a t t r i b u t e to the Cherub:
( 1 ) as the subject o f the dirge^ or ( 2 ) as playing the same r o le

4
as the cherubim in Gen 3 :2 4.
As we have seen in chap. 2 ,^ we can a r r i v e a t one or the
c re a tio n extending in to h i s t o r y , or r a t h e r , the h i s t o r i c a l con

tin u a tio n of His c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y " ( " C r e a t io n ," NIDNTT [1 9 7 5 ] : 1:
379); c f . Ps 1 0 4 ( 1 0 3 ) :30; Eccl 12:1; Ps 51:10; 102:18, e t c . How
e v e r, n e ith e r o f these views should o f nece s sity be imposed upon
the t e x t . The c o ntext o f the passage seems to re q u ire God as the
d i r e c t subject o f the term K i n and the f ig u r e a created being
(a g a in s t P u lle y , pp. 3 8 -3 9 ).
^"The King-god," p. 154. ^Cf. Yaron, p. 28.
^With Cassuto, Gene si s , p■ 75; T u r - S i n a i, pp. 1.13-14;

Widengren, The Ascension, pp. 9 4 -9 7 , who reads vs. 14 as
,yip i n n - p n n m , p i on rrnnn m m
nmnnn 3 k mnK "inn mniK,
t r a n s la t i n g i t : “Thou wast a cherub, oh, what an anointed o f the
Snadower, and I placed thee on the holy mountain. A god thou
wast, in the midst c f stones o f f i r e thou walked" (p. 9 7 ) . C f. also
Feinberg, pp. 161-63; G as te r, Myth. Legend, p. 621. See a ls o Yaron,
pp. 2 8-30 , f o r c r i t i c i s m o f Widengren's view.
4With Cooke, E z e k i e l , p. 317; Zim m erli, E z e k i e l , 2 :8 5 - 8 6 ;

Yaron, pp. 303.
263
othe r conclusion depending on which t e x t we adopt. The MT makes
the cherub the subject o f the d irg e J and the LXX sets the cherub
as the companion o f the garden's d w e l l e r . 4' Yaron gives several
reasons why he p re fe rs the LXX reading: (1 ) "the s t y l e is c le a r
and f l u e n t " ; ( 2 ) a b e t t e r "phrase combination" in the c onte xt;

3
(3 ) the very small d iffe r e n c e s between the LXX and the MT. His
observations are more or less p la u s ib le f o r vs. 14, but not f o r vs.
16 where in the MT God is the subject or the one who punishes,
and in the LXX the cherub is the subject in punishing the king.
Several reasons can be presented f o r accepting the MT reading:
(1 ) as van D i j k n otes, "the s t y l i s t i c and idio m atic s i m i l a r i t y
o f vss. 12-13 and vs. 14 suggests s tro n g ly the v o c a l i z a t io n of
ja tti instead o f j e t 'w ith ,' favored by many sch o la rs " ; 4 ( 2 ) the
only way to p a r a l l e l vs. 16 w ith vs. 14 w ithout major a l t e r a t i o n
o f the t e x t is to have the cherub as the one who was punished by
God; (3 ) the ascendancy o f the MT t e x t over the LXX in most of the
disputed te x ts i n c li n e s us toward the r e l i a b i l i t y o f the Hebrew

5
te x t.
n qo
■ -"x * 3 ;j xzzo 'ji cdr:<a ~z ~' j ->o g g 17^*1 -je c j,

( n ' i ', rr 'n ? 'n p -p n n 3 m "O [ jc-r-i] n « ).
^Yaron, p. 31. 4 P. 119.
^See a ls o P u lle y , p. 40, who adds,

"In each o f verses 17 and 18, an indictm ent is follow ed by a
d e s c rip tio n o f judgment which is comprised o f two p a r a l l e l
statements. In each of these statements, God is the subject.
I t follow s t h a t verse 16, p a r a l l e l i n g , as i t does, verses 17
ind 18, should r e f l e c t the same p a tte r n . T h e r e f o r e , such
emendation as Yaron and others propose is unacceptable. Since,
then, the king o f Tyre is in verse 16 described as a : i ' j ,
verse 14 may also be understood to address him in such a fa s h io n ."
264
The term cherub^ ( p i . cherubim) has been used in the OT
connoting two th in g s : ( 1 ) as a c u l t i c o b j e c t , where i t is represented
by the fig u re o f an angel w ith outstretched wings s h ie ld in g the

2
ark in the ta b e rn a c le o r the temple; ( 2 ) as l i v i n g c e l e s t i a l
beings who execute God's orders."^ Although the passage under
discussion uses the verb 1 d o — which is used in the OT in r e la t i o n

4
to the action o f the c u l t i c obje ct o f " s h ie ld in g " in the sanctuary - -
and the Ezekiel passage connotes a sanctuary environment, i t seems
th a t the passage c l e a r l y speaks of a l i v i n g c reature in a very
sublime place.
Vs. 14b. "You were in the (h o ly ) mount o f God." For
e a r l i e r Is ra e l "mountain o f God" designated Sinai (Horeb).® A fter
the establishm ent o f the temple, Mount Zion was considered God's
holy mountain.® Some scholars b e lie v e th a t '.n o f vss. 14, 16
is id e n tic a l w ith the "mount o f assembly in the recesses o f the
north" ( ] t 3 ■> n o i 1 ) o f Isa 14:13 and has to do w ith the Phoenician
gods’ sacred mountain.^ I be lie v e t h a t both passages speak o f the
^ e e above, pp. 138-39.

2
See Lisowsky, pp. 698-99, f o r uses o f the term in the OT.
®Cf. Gen 3 :2 4 ; Ezek 10; e tc . See Yaron, p. 32. on the boundary

between animate and inanimate objects in r e l a t i o n to E z e k ie l.
4 Cf. Exod 25:20; 37:9; 1 Kgs 8 : 7 ; e t c .
5 Cf. Exod 3 :1 ; 4:2 7; 18:5; 2 4 :1 3 , e t c .
6Ps 4 8 : 1 - 3 . Scholars ( i . e . , Kraus, Psalmen, pp. 342-43;

Zim m erli, Ezekiel , 2 :9 2 -9 3 ; c f . also E i s s f e l d t , Baal Zaphon, pp.
14-16) think t h a t the d e s c rip tio n "Mount Zion in the f a r north" is an
"amalgamation w ith Canaanite-Phoenician t r a d i t i o n which knows Saphon
in north Syria as the mountain o f God" (Z im m e r li, E z e k i e l , 2 :9 2 ) .
^Cf. E i s s f e l d t , Baal Zaphon, pp. 20-21 ; Dussaud, "Les

Pheniciens," p. 40; see also pp. 93-95 above.
265
same lo c a t i o n , but there are no s o lid arguments to compel me to
th in k th a t the Ezekiel passage has anything to do w ith Mount Cassius
or any other sacred mountain o f the Phoenicians or Babylonians.^
On the other side there is some evidence t h a t in ancient Is ra e l
"garden o f God," “Eden," "mountain o f God," "recesses o f the n o r th ,"
and "Temple" are p a r a l l e l or can be equated w ith “heaven" the

2
d w e llin g place o f God. The context o f the passage favors th is
in te rp re ta tio n .
Vs. 14c. "In the midst of the stones o f f i r e you walked."
This phrase has a lre a d y been discussed in chap. 2,^ where i t was
concluded t h a t 3 K - '1 3 2 S could ha rd ly be r e la t e d to the U g a r i t i c
abn b rq . Several suggestions as to i t s meaning were: (1 ) " lig h t n in g
stones," (2 ) w a lls o f precious stones fused by f i r e ; (3) the expression
should be emended to ? « ’ 33 and means the in h a b ita n ts
of the p la c e ; 4 ( 4 ) or the s ta rs .
It is very improbable th a t these "stones o f f i r e " should
be i d e n t i f i e d w ith the gems l i s t e d in vs. 1 3 .'’ In any event the
expression under discussion denotes the g lo r io u s environment from
which the cherub, because o f his s in , was e x p e lle d .
^See above, pp. 93-95.
^See G. W. Ahlstrom, Psalm 89 (Lund: C. W. K. Gleerups,

1 9 5 9 ), pp. 7 3 -7 5 , who a ffir m s th a t "id e o lo g is c h gesehen i s t es n ichts
Besonderes, dass Zaphon, der G o tte rb e rg , auch der Himmel sein kann,
der j a Wohnsitz der G o tth e it i s t , denn G o tte rb e rg , Tempel und Himmel
sind ja a l l e Ausdriicke f u r ein und d ie s e l be Sache, den Gotterwohnsitz"
(p. 7 4 ) ; and Yaron, pp. 4 0-45, who a r r i v e s a t the conclusion t h a t i t
is le g it im a t e to equate "the (holy) mount o f God" with "heaven."
^Pp. 131-33. 4 Cf. Z im m e rli, E z e k i e l , 2:93.
^See Cassuto, Genesis, pp. 7 9 -8 0 .
266
Vs. 15. "You were blameless in your ways from the day you
were created t i l l e v i l was found in you . . . and you sinned." At
t h i s p o in t we a r r iv e a t a tu rn in g p o in t in the passage.^ The climax
o f the passage is reached when th e unrighteousness o f the cherub
is presented. What follows next is an explanation o f his sin and
a d e s c r ip tio n o f his judgment.
Vs. 16 . "In the abundance o f your trade you have f i l l e d
y o u r s e lf w ith v io le n c e , and you s inned." The f i r s t p a r t o f vs. 16—

2
along with vs. 18a — f i t s w ell the s it u a t i o n o f Tyre as a trade-minded
power. The second p a rt of the verse repeats the elements o f vs. 14
w ith d i f f e r e n t verbs, showing the cherub's expulsion from the
mount o f God. 3ome scholars view the formula o o n o (" fu ll of
v io le n c e " ) as a l a t e r hand's i n s e r t i o n in to the t e x t , r e f e r r i n g to
the "violence which arose as a r e s u l t of Tyre's tr a d i n g . " ^
Vss. 17-18 o ff e r s a double p resentation of the c a u s e -e ffe c t
consequence in r e la t i o n to the cherub's a t t i t u d e .
Vs. 17— Because o f beauty— h e a r t became proud— throwing
and splendor c o rru p tin g unclean to e a rth
Vs. 18— Many sins and Desecrated consumed and recuced to
dishonest tra a e sanctuary ashes by h is own f i r e
Vs. 17 deals w ith the p r id e o f the i n d i v i d u a l , because of
which his beauty, vs. 18 w ith th e c o rrupt tra d e , strengthens Zim m erli's
^See above, p. 229 f o r comments on the p o s itio n o f th is

verse in the s tr u c tu re of the passage.
2
Z im m erli, E z e k i e l , 2 : 9 4 , thinks they are a secondary
expansion.
3 I b i d . , pp. 93-94. C f. also E ich ro d t, E zekiel , p. 394;

Wevers, p. 216.
267
view th a t fa c ts concerning T y r e 's a tt it u d e s were in s e r te d in the
basic te x t-w h ich d e a l t with the "creature o f surpassing beauty.
Eichrodt holds th a t “the d e s c r ip tio n o f the a n g e lic being on the
mount of God is employed m erely as an a lle g o r y f o r the king of
Tyre and did not c a r r y w ith i t any force to compel Ezekiel to

2
f o llo w s la v i s h l y the lin e s o f the myth"; on the o th e r s id e ,
he adds th a t " i t would be perverse to assume, in view o f the new
fo rm ulation o f the punishment, th a t the d e s c rip tio n departs from
its subject in order to deal w ith the f a t e of the c i t y o f Ty re."^
Morgenstern b e lie v es t h a t
th is B i b l i c a l passage i d e n t i f i e s t h i s Tyrian god-king with

the phoenix in both stages o f his l i f e - c y c l e , in his s e l f
cremation in f i r e ^ which comes f o r t h from his own body and
reduces him to ashes, and in his s e l f - c r e a t i o n or s e l f
regeneration in t h a t he r i s e s from these ashes in rejuvenated
form® to begin t h i s new l i f e - c y c l e ; ®
but there is nothing in the t e x t th a t s u b s ta n tia te s t h i s view.^
Vs. 19 is a kind o f summary s t a t e m e n t - r e f r a i n which was
a lre a d y used a t the end o f the previous Tyrian o ra c le s (26:21 and
2 7 : 3 6 ). This conclusion "und e rlin es the i r r e v o c a b i l i t y and

g
transcendence o f Yahweh's d e c is io n s ," and D 7 r ; stresses the
g
f i n a l i t y o f the d e s tr u c tio n .
' I b i d . , pp. 9 3 -9 4 ; c f . also Wevers, p. 218.
^ E ic h ro d t, E z e k i e l , p. 394. ^ I b i d . , p. 395.
4Ezek 2 8:18. 5Ezek 2 8 :1 3 .
^"The King-god," p. 154; Ir w in , E z e k i e l , p. 221, also

b e lieves the t e x t r e f e r s to the phoenix.
7 C f. Zim m erli, E zekiel , 2 :9 4 -9 5 .
®Cf. van D i j k , p. 122.

9 - -
E. J e n n i, "Das wort colam im Alten Testament," ZAW 65
( 1 9 5 3 /5 4 ) : 1 4 .
26 8
P re lim in a ry Conclusions
I t seeis c le a r th a t the chapter under dis cu s s io n , as we
have . t today, is r e la te d to the Phoenician Tyre. The in tro d u c tio n

1 2
to the o ra cle as w ell as o f the Qinah heading c l e a r l y declare
th a t what fo llo w s r e fe r s to th a t nation or her r u l e r s . Elements
of the passage a lso present c h a r a c t e r is t i c s which, from the geo
graphical and h i s t o r i c a l inform ation we have both from b i b l i c a l
and e x t r a - b i b l i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , i d e n t i f y them w ith Tyre: i.e .:
1. "In the heart o f the seas1’ '*--th e lo c a tio n o f the

4
old i n s u la r Tyre as w ell as her maritime a c t i v i t y .
2. "You have increased your w e a lth . " 3
3. "Wisdom in your t r a d e ," "abundance o f your t r a d e ,"
"unrighteousness o f your tra d e .
4. "Beauty . . . and shining splendor . " 7
5. "P rid e o f h e a rt.
] Vss. 1 -1 0 . 2 Vss. 12-19.
3 Vss. 2, 8 ; 2 6 :5 , 17-18; 2 7 :9 , 25-29, 3 2 -3 5 ; Zech 9 :4 .
4See Isa 2 3 : 1 - 3 ; Jer 25:22. Cf. Fleming, pp. 4 2-47,

133-45; J i d e j i a n , pp. 39-57.
5 Vss. 4 - 5 ; 26:12; 2 7 :1 2 -2 5 , 33:34; 35c. C f. Flemming,

pp. 133-45; J i d e j i a n ' s and K a tz e n s te in ' s h is t o r ie s o f Tyre.
6 Vss. 5, 16, 18; 26:12; 2 7 :3 , 1 3-27, 33-34. Cf. Fleming,

pp. 133-45; G. Rawlinson, Phoenicia (New York: New World Book
Manufacturing C o ., 1 889), pp. 149-64; D. Harden, The Phoenicians
(London: Thames and Hudson, 1 962), pp. 157-79; Sabatino M oscati,
The World o f the Phoenicians, tra n s . A l a s t a i r Hamilton (London:
Weidenfeld and Nicol son, 1 96 8 ), pp. 8 4 -8 7 ; K a tz e n s te in , p. 329.
7 Vss. 7, 12, 17; 2 7 :4 , 11. Jerome, Ezekiel 2 7 . 3 , PLS 25.

303-304, describes Tyre as "most noble and most b e a u t i f u l . " The
t r a v e l e r , Benjamin o f Tudela ( t w e l f t h century A . D . ) , The I t i n e r a r y
of Benjamin o f Tude la , ed. and tr a n s . Marcus Nathan A d le r (London:
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 907), p. 18, v i s i t i n g Tyre said: "Tyre
is a b e a u t ifu l c i t y . "
o
Although we would not say t h a t "pride o f h e a rt" was a
269
Although T y re's power came to an end, we do not know i f it
happened in the dark way Ezekiel portrayed in vss. 7 -1 0 , 18. A fte r
a t h i r t e e n - y e a r s ie g e , Nebuchadnezzar did conquer T y r e J b ut, as the

9
prophet n o te s ," the e f f o r t would not be w o rth w h ile, and Nebuchadnezzar
would conquer Egypt as a recompense f o r the e f f o r t against Tyre.
It seems th a t as f a r as the h i s t o r i c a l connotations are
concerned, these passages describe the c i t y o f Tyre in her p o l i t i c a l
a t t i t u d e , not a s p e c if ic king ( I t h o b a a l ? ) . Although the passages
deal w ith T y re , whose pantheon's head was > h , the use in t h i s
chapter o f the d iv in e designation > K seems to be employed in an
a p p e l l a t i v e sense. I t is not c e r t a in whom the prophet wants to
i d e n t i f y w ith the name , but as we saw in th is study, the
I s r a e l i t e prophet Daniel o f the Neo-Babylonian period f i t s the
Ezekiel hero b e t t e r than the Phoenician wise man o f the Aqhat epic."^
In vss. 1 -1 0 , we have a case o f nybris where man wants to
take possession o f God's p re ro g a tiv e s . Because o f beauty, wisdom,
w ea lth , and s k i l l f u l n e s s in tr a d e , Tyre developed a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t
and proud a t t i t u d e . T h is , we are informed, is an abomination to

4
Yahweh, and He w i l l put an end to i t . This o ra c le seems to be
devoid o f any mythical elements.^
d i s t i n c t i o n o f Ty re, i t seems th a t her success in tra d e , her m aritim e

business dominion, and her beauty must have caused some amount o f
p r id e , which j u s t i f i e s E z e k i e l's and I s a i a h 's mention o f T y r e 's p r id e .
^Cf. E. Unger, "Nebukdnezar I I , " pp. 314-17; K. S. Freedy

and D. B. Redford, "The Dates in Ezequiel in Relation to B i b l i c a l ,
Bbylonian and Egyptian Sources," JAOS 90 (1 9 7 0 ):4 6 9 , 483-85.
Êzek 2 9 :1 8 -1 9 . ^See above, pp. 116-24.
4See Isa 2 :1 1 , 12, 17; 13:11; 2 3 :9 ; Job 22:29; Jer 5 0 :3 2 .
Âgainst A. May, "The King in the Garden . . . ," pp. 167-68;

Morgenstern, "The King-god," pp. 1 52-54, who i d e n t i f i e s the T yrian king
with Baal Shamen and M elqart.
270
Vss. 12-19 are o f a d i f f e r e n t nature than the previous
verses. This is a lament th a t t a lk s about a once p e r fe c t being
who l iv e d in Eden, the Garden o f God, which is i d e n t i f i e d w ith a
place w ith f i e r y stones and c a lle d the "Mount o f God." S cholars'
e f f o r t s to i d e n t i f y — because o f the mention o f Eden— th is lament
s to ry with t h a t o f the paradise o f Gen 2-3 have not succeeded, f o r
the d iffe r e n c e s are too great to say th a t they are p a r a l l e l or
come from the same source.
The fi g u r e described in th is lament is more than human and
l i v e d in a higher place than the e a r t h l y realm. The passage does
not a llo w us to view the T yrian king as the “l i v i n g embodiment"
or the " in c a rn a tio n " o f the T yrian s o la r d e i t y Baal Shamen-Melearth.^
On the o th e r hand, t h i s marvelous being who liv e d in a heavenly
realm seems to have his fu n c tio n s r e la t e d to a temple or sanctuary.
Although we cannot f in d a myth which would match th is story o f
E zekiel in i t s d e t a i l s , scholars who observe th a t we have in t h i s
passage some mythic s tr a ta seem to be r i g h t . The prophet seems
to use a s to ry o f a being o f the remote past which Tyre p e r s o n i f ie s .
We can perceive in the passage adaptatio ns o f o ld e r m aterial to
the present Tyrian context or s i t u a t i o n . ^
Âgainst Morgenstern, "Jerusalem-485 B .C .," p. 30, i t can be

said th a t th e re is nothing o f the Phoenician polytheism in the passage.
p
Myth in the sense o f something a n c ie n t, which is not
n e c e s s a r ily " u n h i s t o r i c a l " or "u n in te re s te d in h is to ry " ( B a r r , "The
Meaning," p. 8 ) but has d e s c r ip tio n s o f some events which b r in g
about the a c t i v i t y o f gods o r heavenly beings and which, in some
sense, happens not according to the o r d in a ry course o f n a tu re .
^ P u lle y , p. 47, thinks th a t " E z e k i e l's imagery stems from a

v a r i e t y o f sources, in c lu d in g c r e a tio n t r a d i t i o n , mythology, and
fe a tu re s o f T y re 's r e l i g i o n and c u ltu r e w ith which the Hebrews
( E x i l e s ) would have been f a m i l i a r . "
271
Isaiah 1 4:12-15 and Ezekiel 2 8 :1 2 -1 9 —

A Comparison
Although scholars, ever since the time o f the Church
F a th e rs, have seen some s i m i l a r i t i e s between Isa 14:12-15 and Ezek
2 8 :1 2 -1 9 , a major comparison between these two passages has not been
madeJ In the l i g h t o f what has been discussed in th is t h e s i s , we
would l i k e to compare these passages, noting the s i m i l a r i t i e s and
d i f f e r e n c e s , and consider whether we can draw some conclusions
which could help in the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the passages.
S im ila ri tie s
2
1. Both passages have a prophet as s u b jec t.
2. Both have a fo r e ig n king as o b j e c t , 3 and appear in the
sections on foreign ora cle s in t h e i r books. Babylon, in I s a i a h ,
appears a t the very beginning o f the fo re ig n o r a c le s , and T y re ,
in E z e k i e l , comes a t about the center.
3. Both passages a re prominent in the book to which they
belong.
Lohmann, Die anonymen Prophetien, pp. 76-77, has made a

comparison o f these two passages in the aspect o f s tru c tu re and some
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m o tifs , but did not go f a r enough.
2 Isa 13:1; 1 4:3, 4; Ezek 28:11, 12.
3The King of Babylon— Isa 14:4, 22; the king o f Tyre—

Ezek 2 8 :1 2 .
4There are f i v e chapters (13, 14, 21, 46, 47) in the Bock of
Is a ia h t h a t deal with o r a c l e s , prophecies, gods, and the f a l l o f
Babylon. Chaps. 13 and 14 open the section on the fo re ig n o r a c l e s ,
and chap. 14 presents one o f the most impressive poems in the OT in
form, c o n te n t, and p o e tic beauty. Concerning the prominence o f vss.
12-15 in chap. 14, see above, pp. 207-13. E z e k i e l's o ra c le s
a g a in s t the foreign nations s t a r t with the th re e chapters on Ty re.
Chap. 28 w ith i t s r u l e r o f Tyre and his hy b ris and the King o f
Tyre p e r s o n ifie d in th a t m isterio u s being i s the climax o f the
Tyrian o ra c le s .
272
4. Both nave a mythological c o lo r in g , and i f , on one hand,
they are d i s t i n c t from the context in which they are found J on
the o th e r , they are in te rm in g le d with elements th a t belong to the

2
human e n t i t i e s to whom the context r e fe r s .
5. Both passages c ontain elements s i m i l a r to the elements

■j
o f the immediate context o f the o t h e r . ”
6. The immediate con te xt of each o f these passages contains

4
elements s i m i l a r to the immediate context o f the oth e r passage.
7. Both passages d e p ic t a being who is singled out because

c
o f his e x c e l l e n c e . ”
As we have seen above, pp. 109, 143, 202-13, these two

passages seem to r e f e r to beings dw elling in a realm d i f f e r e n t
from the e a r t h l y one.
Îsa 14:12b "You who l a i d the nations low": vss. 6 , 16 b - 17

"Smote the peoples . . . ," "Shook the e a rth . . ."•, Isa 14:15 "but
you are brought down to S h e o l, to the recess o f the p i t " ; vss. 9-11
"the grave below . . Ezek 28:12, 17 " f u l l o f wisdom and p e r fe c t
in beauty"; vss. 3, 4, 6-7 "wisdom," "understandTng , ' 1 "wise as god,"
"beauty and wisdom"; Ezek 2 8 :1 6 , 18 “abundance o f your t r a d e , "
"unrighteousness o f your t r a d e " ; vs. 5 "your he art has grown proud";
Ezek 28:17 "splendor"; vs. 7 "shining s p le n d o r."
■^The hybris a t t i t u d e o f the being in Isa 1 4:1 3 -1 4 , "you

said in your h e a rt, I w i l l ascend to heaven . . . set my throne . . .
s i t enthroned . . . ," resembles the hybris behavior of the r u l e r of
Tyre in Ezek 2 8 :2 , "in the p rid e of your h e a rt you say, ' I am god, I
s i t on the throne of god . . . " ; Ezek 28:16 " f i l l e d with v io le n c e ,"
vs. 19 " a l l the nations . . . are appalled a t you . . . ," resembles
Isa 1 4 :4 -6 "oppressor," "a n g e r," " fu r y ," "unceasing blows," " r e l e n t
less p e r s e c u tio n ," vss. 19, 16 "All . . . the kings o f the nations
. . . s ta re a t you, they ponder your f a t e . "
4
Isa 14:16, 19 ". . . they ponder your f a t e . . . you are
clothed w ith the s la i n , w ith those pierced by the sword, who go down
to the stones o f the p i t . " Ezek 28:7-10 "you w i l l die a v i o l e n t
death . . . , those who s la y you . . . w i l l b rin g you down to the p i t . "
^Tn Ezek 28:12-16 his q u a l i t i e s are more e x p l i c i t . In Isa

1 4:12 f f . we have the expression of a d m ira tio n , "how are you f a l l e n
from heaven, 0 shining one, son of the dawn!" and the f a c t t h a t he
aspired those pretentious o b je c tiv e s demonstrates his q u a l i t i e s .
273
8. In both passages the fi g u r e dwells in a place r e la te d
to the mount o f God, or heaven.^

2
9. Both were thrown to the e a rth by God.
10. Both were w r it t e n in poetry o f c h i a s t i c form; the
Ezekiel passage w ith a chiasm in the passage i t s e l f , and w ith the
climax d e p ic tin g the sin o f the Cherub; the Is a ia h passage (vss.
12-15 t h i r d stanza) being the climax o f the chiasm in the whole
poem with the attempt to become l i k e the Most High being the
tu rn in g p o in t in the chiasm.
D iffere nc es
1. In the case o f H e le l, the emphasized sin is his s e l f -
s u ffic ie n c y and his d e s ire to make h im s e lf l i k e the Most High in

3
power. In the Cherub's case i t was th a t his h e art became proud
4
because o f his wisdom and p e rfe c tio n in beauty. However, these two
d i f f e r e n t empnases do not m i l i t a t e a g a in s t each o th e r, but are
c h a r a c t e r is t i c s which can belong to the same f i g u r e .
2. The Cherub seems to be r e la t e d to a sanctuary . 3 Nothing
is said about H e l e l 's fu n c tio n .
3. The Helel s to ry seems to be presented in a more w h o lis tic
way; in o th e r words, in a more o r i g i n a l way w ith respect to the form
in which the s to r y must have c ir c u la t e d in the days when the o ra cle
was w r i t t e n . The Cherub story seems to have been adapted to f i t
Îsa 1 4 :1 2 -1 4 ; Ezek 28:13-16. See above, pp. 2 6 0 ff .

f o r equation o f "garden o f God" and “mount o f God" with heaven.
2Isa 14:12; Ezek 28:17. 3Isa 1 4:13 -1 4 .
4Ezek 28:17.
3Ezek 2 8 :1 3 -1 6 , 18. See above, p. 264.
274
the c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f the Tyrian power . 1
In summary, we may say chat the s i m i l a r i t i e s between these
two passages are remarkable not only in r e l a t i o n to the two main
pericopes ( I s a 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 , Ezek 2 8 : 1 2 - 1 9 ) , but c o n c e rn in g th e
2
immediate c o n te xt as w e l l . Each o f these passages focuses upon
the f ig u r e in view as central to the a c t i v i t i e s of those fo re ig n
kings.
The Story o f Helel and the Story o f the

Cherub in Isa 14 and Ezek 28
The d iffe r e n c e s are the r e s u l t o f d i f f e r e n t inform ation about
the f i g u r e 's person and a t t i t u d e s , which do not in any form support
the assumption th a t Helel and the Cherub are two d i s t i n c t f i g u r e s .
I t seems c le a r th a t Isa 14 and Ezek 28 were d ir e c te d to
Babylon and T y re , r e s p e c tiv e ly , whether having in view an in d iv id u a l
or the nation as a whole, as the o ra c le s themselves in fo rm . 3 But
as we have seen, a t a c e rta in p o in t the mood o f the o ra c le changes
and the language o f myth seems to be introduced. In the face o f
t h i s phenomenon we have been asked several questions such as:
1. I f indeed the prophet made use o f myth, which myth was
used? Was i t taken from the neighboring nations or was i t some
th in g which was in c i r c u l a t i o n in Is r a e l during a long time?
2. Could i t be th a t the prophet was only using mythological
^ z e k 28:16a, 18, and probably p a r t o f vs. 13.

2
See Bruce K. Waltke, "The C re ation Account in Genesis 1 :1 3 ,"
BS 132 (1 9 7 5 ):1 4 3 , and Meadors, pp. 3 5-36 , f o r comments on the
r e l a t i o n between these two passages.
3Isa 1 4 : 3 - 4 , 22; Ezek 2 8 : 2 , 12.
275
elements in order to convey his message, and, th e r e fo r e , was not
dependent upon any p a r t i c u l a r myth?
3. What was the w r i t e r ' s main purpose in using f i g u r a t i v e
or m ythological language? Was he pe rso n ifyin g in the person o f
the King o f Babylon or the King o f Tyre the a t t i t u d e of some
mythological hero? Or was the prophet r e f e r r i n g to the r e l i g i o -
h is to ric a l context of the p a r t i c u l a r nations?
Based on the research completed so f a r , I present my
deductions on those m atters.
As pointed out in chpater 2 J u n t i l now no myth has been
found from which we could say the s to rie s in these two passages
came. A ls o , some elements found in these passages are indeed
found in the mythological m a te ria l o f o th e r an cie n t c u ltu r e s .
This does not ne ce s sa rily prove th a t the prophet got them from
fore ig n m a t e r i a l , since these elements could have been common to
the whole a n c ie n t Near East as a “r e s u l t o f d i f f u s i o n from an
o r ig in a l source somewhere. Besides t h a t , a l l the main myth-
resembling elements found in the passages are found also in the
OT.^ Several suggestions have been proposed to explain the use o f
the d i f f e r e n t nature o f m a te r ia ls in Isa 14:12-15 and Ezek 2 8 :1 2 -1 9 :

4
1. Gunkel says th a t Isa 1 4:12-15 deals with a n ature myth
^See above, pp. 109-10, 144-45. ^Cf. Gowan, p. 53.
^See above, pp. 134-39. For the problem o f myth in r e l a t i o n

to the OT, see Barr, "The Meaning," pp. 1 -1 0 ; Henton Davies, "An
Approach," pp. 83-91; Ringgren, "Remarks . . . ," pp. 407-11;
Rogerson, Myth in OT I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , pp. 174-89.
4
Schopfunq und Chaos, pp. 133-34. In face o f the study done
by G re lo t ( “ Is a ie 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 ," pp. 2 5 -3 2 ), i t seems probable t h a t a t
le a s t vs. 1 2 re fe rs to a nature myth or a na tu ra l phenomenon in
which the morning s ta r Venus is superseded by the sun in e a r l y morning.
276
which was perso n ifie d to represent the King o f BabylonJ

2
2. S. Childs agrees w ith Gunkel and notes that the prophet
took the myth and reworked i t in to his d i r g e , comparing i t to the
a t t i t u d e and fa te of the King o f Babylon. For him the sto ry o f
He!el has become an i 11u s t r a t i o n of what happened to the King o f
Babylon. ^
3. M. Terry views Isa 14:9-20 as an example of apostrophe,
a l i t e r a r y device in which tne w r i t e r or speaker turns away from
his immediate hearers and addresses an absent and imaginary person

4
or th in g .
4. J. D. Pentecost says, concerning Ezek 28, "so as the
prophet pronounces judgment upon the enemy o f Is r a e l in vss. 1 -1 0 ,
he moves on to speak a word o f judgment upon the one who con
t r o l l e d these g e n tile p rin c es ."®
With these suggestions theologians e la b o ra te d t h e i r views
on the in t e r p r e t a t io n o f these two passages. I would l i k e to comment
b r i e f l y on these main views.
Is a ia h 14:12-15
The N o rm a l-H is to ric a l View
The N o rm a l-H is to ric a l view,® which has been expounded by a
g re a t number o f b i b l i c a l s c h o la rs , affirm e d th a t the passage
^See M ilton S. T e r r y , B i b lic a l Hermeneutics (Grand Rapids:

Zondervan Pub. House, 1 9 6 9 ), p. 251, f o r e xp la n a tio n of the l i t e r a r y
p r i n c i p l e o f p e r s o n i f ic a t i o n .
^Myth and R e a l i t y , pp. 68-69. ^ I b i d . , p. 69.
^B i b l i c a l Hermeneutics, p. 252. C*. also Meadors, pp. 60-62.
®Your Adversary the Devil (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Pub.

House, 1 9 6 9 ), p. 11.
®This phrase has been used by Meadors in his monograph.

See a ls o above, p. 17-21.
Ill
d epicts the end o f the king o f Babylon.^ Although the w r i t e r o f
the t e x t uses a v ery f i g u r a t i v e and what seems to be a mythological
language, the proponents o f th is view say the prophet makes use of
the na tura l phenomenon o f the appearing o f the morning s ta r in the
sky, f i g u r a t i v e l y adapted in a p r i d e - m o t i f and a pplie d to the King

2
o f Babylon in apostrophe. The holders o f t h i s view admit th a t the
language o f myth is used, but only as a v e h ic le to portray the
Babylonian King’ s p re te n sio n s .^

4
A ll the trends o f th is view cannot be reviewed here, but
we may say th a t the holders o f th is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f a i l to give heed
to the fo llo w in g p o in ts :
1. Even though a g re at p a rt o f chap. 14 speaks about the
immediate h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t, th a t does not impede the idea th a t
p a r t o f the passage could mean— through p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n , i l l u s t r a t i o n ,
or apostrophe— somebody e ls e . The change o f language and realm in
vss. 12-15 suggests the p o s s i b i l i t y .
2. The change o f language, mood, and realm in vss. 12-15
seems to go beyond mere f i g u r a t i v e language and to a t t r i b u t e th a t to
"po e tic lice ns e"^ i s to s tr e tc h i t too much.
3. The N o r m a l-H is to r ic a l View omits the p o s s i b i l i t y th a t the
^Cf. Erlandsson, pp. 139-40.

2
Cf. Meadors, p. 83; Erlandsson, pp. 150-66.
^Sec Young, 1:441.
4For defenders o f the N o rm a l-H is to ric a l View and t h e i r p o in ts ,

see Vandenburgh, pp. 119-21; Young, 1 :4 3 5 -4 6 ; Alden, pp. 35-39;
Meadors, pp. 8 2 -8 8 . Meadors discusses the view more e x te n s iv e ly .
^Meadors, p. 83.
278
passage could be speaking a "word o f judgment upon the one who
c o n tr o lle d these g e n t i l e p rin c e s ." Vss. 12-15 could be r e f e r r i n g
to the o r i g i n o f the power im pelling the Babylonian monarch.
Meadors a ffir m s :
I t is c e r t a i n l y easy to see the c h a ra c te r o f Satan in

the language found in p r id e -m o tif passages, but th a t is no
basis f o r demanding th a t the passages be in te r p r e te d to Satan.
That Satan in s p ire d the wick'ed k in g , even as he rules a l l
degenerate men, is undeniable, but th a t is q u ite d i f f e r e n t from
saying L u c i f e r is S a ta n .2 I f th is kind o f hermeneutic was
applied c o n s i s t e n t l y , every passage in the B ible which speaks
o f e v i l could be a t t r i b u t e d to Satan, because a l l o f the acts
o f degenerate men r e f l e c t him to some degree-* . . . Isa ia h
14:3-20 is c l e a r l y a song o f v i c t o r y over Babylon. The te n o r o f
i t s d e t a i l s [ i s ] c ontra ry to the f a l l o f Satan but c l e a r l y
describes the f a l l o f an e a r t h ly p o t e n t a t e . 4
However, the Isa ia n passage not only c a r r i e s the p r id e -m o tif but
also contains elements which show t h a t the p rotagonist ( i n vss. 12-15)
is more than a human being.^ I cannot see how "the tenor o f i t s
(the passage's) d e t a i l s . . . c i a a r l y describes the f a l l o f an
e a r t h ly p o te n ta te ," as Meadors says. Furthermore, we cannot a f f i r m
th a t "every passage in the Bible which speaks o f e v i l could be
a t t r i b u t e d to Satan . . . , but also we cannot deny the fo rc e
th a t one would have in applying a passage l i k e t h i s to p o r tra y a
struggle th a t goes on between good and e v i l as portrayed in the
B ib le .
In summary, i t can be said t h a t Isa 1 4 :4 -2 1 , broadly
speaking, can be concerned witn Babylon and her monarch(s); however,
Pentecost, p. 11. Pentecost is r e f e r r i n g to the E zekiel

passage, but his comment is also a p p lic a b le here.
6,
^See above, pp. 199-203. Meadors, p. 8 6 .
279
t h is research has shown th a t i t is very d i f f i c u l t to i n t e r p r e t ,
e s p e c i a l l y vss. 12-15, as r e f e r r i n g to an event th a t occurred in
the immediate h i s t o r i c a l context o f the whole oracle.
The Mythological View
As noted in chapter 1, many theologians from the end o f
the nin e te en th century on have viewed Isa 14:12-15 as r e f e r r i n g to
an a n cie n t pagan myth. Part o f chapter 2 o f th is d i s s e r t a t i o n has
been dedicated^ to the examination o f the o r i g i n s - a n d - p a r a l l e l s
hypothesis concerning the Isa ia h and Ezekel passages under study

2
as r e la te d to some ancient myths. The research has demonstrated
t h a t , although a myth o f Helel ben Shahar has not been found which
corresponds to the Isaian passage in i t s t o t a l i t y , elements o f the
passage can be found in the c u ltu r e s c f the ancient Near East—
e s p e c i a l l y U g a r i t — and i t s mythology. But those elements are also
found in the b i b l i c a l l i t e r a t u r e in a context free from the
p o l y t h e i s t i c nature o f the e x t r a - b i b l i c a l m a te r ia l, which could
have happened because o f " c u lt u r a l c o n tin u ity " or "common elements '1
in the a n cie n t Near Eastern a re a .
I t could also be th a t the prophet used a myth^ which was
known to Is r a e l as well to the neighboring cultures to i l l u s t r a t e
or to exp la in the a t t i t u d e of the Babylonian power. At t h i s p o in t
the Mythological View would s t a r t overlapping with the L u c i f e r -
1 2
See above, pp. 60-110. See a ls o , Meadors, pp. 66-73.
■^Myth here is used in a sense o f some event v ery p r i m i t i v e

but not n e c e s s a r ily u n h is to r ic a l which describes something r e la te d
to the a c t i v i t y o f heavenly beings in r e l a t i o n to h i s t o r i c a l
events (see Henton Davies, "An Approach," p. 84).
280
Equals-Satan View which is discussed below^ when both passages
( I s a 14:12-15 and Ezek 2 8:12 -1 9 ) are analyzed in r e l a t i o n to the
above-mentioned view.
Ezekiel 28:12-19
?
As considered in chapter 2, several views have been
proposed through the years in i n t e r p r e t i n g th is Ezekiel passage.
At l e a s t fo u r main views are worthy o f considering b r i e f l y here in
the l i g h t o f what has been said in t h i s th e s is .
The Immediate H i s t o r i c a l and

R elig ious Context View
The Immediate H i s t o r ic a l and Relig ious Context View which
had Mackay and Dus as main proponents^ has some good i n s i g h t s ,
such as the d i s t i n c t i o n between the Prince and the King o f T y r t
as d i f f e r e n t fig u r e s and the d is ce rn in g o f the two d i f f e r e n t realms
o f vss. 1-10 and 1 2-19 . But on the o the r s id e , there i s nothing
th a t s o l i d l y supports i t s contention th a t ~ 'S is a
tra n s fe re n c e o f the name o f the Ty ria n c it y - g o d , Mel k a r t ; fo r,

4
besides the arguments Zimmerli presents against th is v ie w , i t is
doubtful th a t such d e t a i l s o f the Tyrian r e li g i o n would be known
and r e le v a n t to E z e k i e l 's audience in the e x i l e . Despite the f a c t
th a t th is view i n t e r p r e t s the passage in i t s S itz im Leben, as
P u lle y says, t h i s "approach a r b i t r a r i l y l i m i t s the purview o f
E z e k i e l's prophetic thought.
1 2
P. 282. See above, pp. 36-49
Ê z e k i e l , 2 :9 0 ; see also above, pp. 255-56.
5 P. 24.
281
The Mythological View
Besides G a s te r's suggestion th a t the Ezekiel account o f the
Cherub who l i v e d upon the Mount o f God came from the Prometheus
m y t h j no myth has been c ite d by those who say th a t E zekiel is

?
using an a ncie nt myth to w r ite his o r a c le . Examining the alleged
mythological phrases in the passage,^ I discovered th a t they are
expressions which, although present in the l i t e r a t u r e o f the
ancient Near E a s t, can be found in the b i b l i c a l m a te ria l as w e l l ,
expressing fa c ts p e r t in e n t to I s r a e l ' s r e lig io u s experience and
theology.
The Paradise S to ry View
The Paradise Story View, which has as i t s proponents

4
respectable s c h o la rs , holds t h a t the Ezekiel passage is a v a r ia n t
o f the story o f the primal man in Gen 2 -3 . As noted above,^ i f
on one hand there are s i m i l a r i t i e s hptween these two passages, the
d iffe re n c e s are s t r i k i n g .
No e x t r a - b i b l i c a l p a r a l l e l s have been found from which the
Ezekiel and the Gen 2-3 accounts could be d e riv e d , d espite the
f a c t t h a t , as McKenzie says, " i t appears th a t Ezek 2 8:1 -1 9 has more
points of contact w ith the Paradise sto ry than w ith any oth e r
^ e e above, p. 129.
^Cf. McKenzie, "Mythological A llu s io n s ," pp. 322-23.
■^See above, pp. 110-40.

4
See above, pp. 42-45; 134-37. Morgenstern, "Mythological
Background," pp. 110-13, advanced the view th a t a myth f o r a long time
c u rre n t in Judaism is behind the Ezekiel and the Is a ia h passages;
th is is discussed here along w ith the Satan-View.
3 Pp. 134-37.
282
b ib lic a l passage or with any known mythological p a t t e r n . " 1 To

2
say t h a t Ezekiel depicts the same event as Genesis is unwarranted.
The Satan View
As we have seen in chapter 1 ,^ the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Isa 14:
12-15 and Ezek 28:12-19 as r e f e r r i n g to Satan is one o f the oldest
approaches to these texts and was a lre a d y held by some Church

4
Fathers. Despite the fa c t th a t most o f the i n f l u e n t i a l scholars
C
of the tw e n tie th century do not espouse th is v ie w ,”' we fin d quite
a number of theologians in conservative C h r i s t i a n i t y who f i r m l y
b e lie v e th a t these two passages describe how r e b e llio n against
God s ta r te d among the created beings.^ Some other reasons why
these passages have been applie d to Satan are:
1. The language o f the passage seems to r e f e r to a more-than-
human f i g u r e . 7
2. The p o s s i b i l i t y th a t there is a connection between Isa
14:12 and Luke 1 0:18, where Jesus ta lk s about Satan's f a l l from

p
heaven,"' and a ls o Rev 9 :1 , which mentions a s ta r seen f a l l i n g from
9
heaven unto the e a rth .
^'M ythological A llu s io n s ," p. 327.
See above pp. 1 34-37, Cf. also P u lle y , p. 17.
3 Pp. 6ff . 4See above, pp. 6 -9 , 36-38.
^See above, pp. 17-35 , 41-45.
^See above, pp. 1 5-17 , 48-49. See also Meadors, pp. 51-60.
7 C f. The Hew S c o fie ld Reference B i b l e , ed. E. Schyler

E n g lis h , e t a l . (New York: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 196 7 ), p. 725;
Archer, p. 622; Kluger, pp. 115-17; Unger, B i b l i c a l Demonoloqy,
p. 15; Feinberg, p. 163; C h a fe r, 2:40.
®See K. L. Schmidt, " L u c i f e r , " pp. 173-75, f o r discussion

of Luke 10:18 in r e la t i o n to Isa 14:12.
Q
Cf. J. B. Payne, The Theology o f the Older Testament (Grand
Rapids: Zondervan Pub. House, 1 962), p. 294.
283
3. Both passages give evidence of c a rry in g in themselves
an a n c ie n t myth concerning the r e b e llio n o f an angel against God and
his f a l l . ^ Ana when the Isaiah and the E zekiel passages are compared
w ith passages about Satan in the OT, NT, and Inter-Testam ent
lite ra tu re , i t seems t h a t they are r e la t e d . Kluger notes th a t " i t
th e r e fo r e might not be going too f a r to see in them the real germ

2
c e l l s o f the l a t e r concept o f Satan as the f a l l e n L u c if e r ."
As already mentioned , 3 since the time o f the Reformation
and e s p e c i a l l y from the end o f the nineteenth century to the
p re s e n t, scholars have re s is te d the a p p lic a tio n o f Isa 14:12-15
and Ezek 28:12-19 to Satan. They j u s t i f y t h i s r e je c tio n on the
fo llo w in g main points:
l. I t is admitted th a t Satan i s — according to the B ib le — a
f a l l e n angel and opposer o f God's plans; however, since the B ib le
does not prpsent when, how, and why th a t angel became the E vil One,
it is unwarranted to i d e n t i f y the King o f Babylon or the King o f
Tyre w ith Satan merely because one could assume some analogy between
4
the d e s c rip tio n s o f those personages. Passages such as Obad 2-4
and Isa 4 7 :8 , 10 are presented as examples o f te x ts "which speak to
human kind in language which is beyond t h e i r c a p a b i l i t y . The p o in t
is not what they can do, but what they are a t t r i b u t e d as d e s ir in g
to do by the prophet . " 3 Isa 14 could be c l a s s i f i e d in the same
^Cf. Morgenstern, "Mythological Background," pp. 10-112.

2
P. 117. Kluger adds t h a t "the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Satan w ith
the ' L u c i f e r ' o f Isa 14 by T e r t u i l i a n and Gregory the G rea t, based on
the comparison with Luke 1 0:18 , is th e r e fo r e an e r r o r only from the
h i s t o r i c a l point o f view; p s y c h o lo g ic ally i t should be eva lua ted as
a genuine i n t u i t i o n . "
4 Cf. Meadors, pp. 56-61; P u lle y , pp. 19-25. 3 I b i d . , p. 61.
284
manner. Besides t h a t , these scholars a f f i r m , one should not
fo r g e t th a t the b i b l i c a l poet could be using the l i t e r a r y
devices o f p e r s o n if ic a t io n or apostrophe which is used several
times in the Ot J
2. Those who see in those two passages the fi g u r e o f Satan
"fa il to give reasonable c onside ra tion to l i n g u i s t i c and h i s t o r i c a l

2
exegesis"; t h e i r "s o rt o f approach to discovering the s ig n ific a n c e
of the t e x t is in c o n s is te n t w ith the g ra m m atic o -h is to ric al method"^

4
and "lacks s u f f i c i e n t c o n tr o ls ."
3. The Satan View suppresses or ignores the c o n te x t of the
passages, which are " p l a i n l y h i s t o r i c a l . " ^
4. The defenders o f the Satan View are moved by "th e o lo g ic a l
pressures" such as the " o rig in o f sin" and the "gap theory" o f
Gen 1 :1 , 2,^ which are not s u f f i c i e n t reason to advocate th a t
Isa 14 and Ezek 28 r e f e r to Satan.
I t is a consensus among most scholars th a t there is in the
universe a s tru g g le between the forces o f e v i l and the forces o f
good. 7 God and Jesus C h ris t and His angels a re , o b v io u s ly , those
who contend f o r order in the crea te d w orlds, and peace and love
among created beings; and Satan and his angels the ones who t r y
^See above p. 276; also T e r r y , pp. 251-52.
^Meadors, p. 62. ^ P u lle y , p. 21. 4 1 b id .
^ I b i d . , p. 22; Meadors, pp. 6 2 -6 3 ; E l l i s o n , E z e k i e l, p. 109;

Alden, pp. 38-39.
®Cf. Meadors, pp. 6 3 -6 6 ; C hafer, 2:139; G. H. Pember,

E a rth 's E a r l i e s t Ages (New York: Fleming H. P,evel , n . d . ) ,
pp. 33-80.
7See above, pp. 1-2; c f . 1 John 3 :8 .
285
to d is tu rb the order God has e stablished in the u n iverse, and to
disseminate discord, h a te , and a l l sorts o f e v i l among the created
b e in g s .1' I t seems, according to the OT and the NT, th a t the one
who opposes God belongs to the heavenly host, and th a t he must
have been a t peace w ith God in the beginning since God did not
c rea te e v i l . ^ There have been some disputes concerning the epoch
when Satan made war a g a in s t God (through Michael and His a n g e ls ) , 4
but based on passages such as 2 Cor 11:3; Rev 1 2 :9 , 14-15; 2 0 :2 , the
serpent who deceived Eve as reported in Gen 3 :1 -1 5 was Satan. Ihus
Satan had a lre a d y f a l l e n by th a t time, f o r he was acting a g a in s t
God and His c rea tio n by tr y i n g to carry Eve and Adam to disobedience.
This research has shown th a t Isa 14 and Ezek 28— d e s p ite
having been w r itte n in the form o f poetry and in q u ite f i g u r a t i v e
language— were produced as a whole, having in view a real h i s t o r i c a l
c o n te xt. Besides the tension between the e a r t h l y and the cosmic
realms e x ta n t in -he passages as whole, a t a c e r t a in point in the
account, the prophet^ seems to abandon the h i s t o r i c a l or e a r t h l y
] Cf. 1 Chr 2 1 :1 ; Job 1 -2 ; Zech 3 : 1 - 2 ; Matt 12:26; Mark 3:23;

Luke 22:3; Acts 26:18; Rom 16:20; 2 Thess 2 :9 ; 1 Tim 1:20; 1 John
3 :8 ; Rev 2:1 0; 12:12.
21 Kgs 2 2 :1 9 -2 3 ; Job 1 -2 ; Matt 25:41 ; 2 Ccr 11:14; Jude 1 :9 ;

Rev 1 2 :7 -9 .
"^There are d i f f e r e n t views concerning whether Satan was a t

the beginning a messenger o f God to te s t created beings, o r whether
he s ta rte d tempting people a f t e r his war a g a in s t God; see f o r t h a t ,
Kluger, pp. 118-32; P a p in i, pp. 69-71.
4 C f . Luke 1 0 :1 8 ; John 8 :4 4 ; Rev 1 2 :7 -9 . The Rabbinic

t r a d i t i o n o f f e r s some views concerning the reasons and epoch of
Satan's f a l l ; see on t h a t , Morgenstern, "Mythological Background,"
pp. 98-100; P a p in i, pp. 35-37; Chafer, 2 :39.
În I s a ia h 's case, see vss. 12-15.
286
realm and s t a r t s to describe events in a d i f f e r e n t sphere or realm.
In E z e k i e l's case, the prophet presents his description of the
things belonging to the h i s t o r i c a l or e a r t h ly realm in one o racle
addressed to the prince ( i 1 ] ] ) or Tyre; but the d e s c rip tio n of
the events r e la t e d to what seems to be a heavenly realm is
addressed to the King ( T > a ) o f Tyre and is introduced as a
lam entation.
The examination of the l i t e r a t u r e o f the F e r t i l e Crescent
has not provided us with any myth from which Isaiah and Ezekiel
could have borrowed m a te ria l f o r t h e i r o racles. Notwithstanding
th is f a c t , we have found th a t elements o f both passages ( I s a 14:12-15
and Ezek 2 8 :1 2 -1 9 ) can be found in e x t r a - b i b l i c a l and b i b l i c a l
lite ra tu re . These s i m i l a r i t i e s in the use of terms and p ic tu re s
could be the r e s u l t o f c u l t u r a l c o n tin u ity or common elements in
the a ncie nt Near Eastern a r e a J

2
Morgenstern's study has shown, in our view, with some
success, t h a t a myth o f the f a l l e n angels is in the background of
both the Is a ia h and Ezekiel passage. A comparison of these two
passages has convinced me t h a t they speak of the same f i g u r e , and
th a t he is more than human. Why Is a ia h and Ezekiel used the story
o f th a t arrogant personage is not e x a c t ly known, but i t could be
as suggested by the fo llo w in g :
1. The King of Babylon and the King of Tyre could be a
D e r s o n ific a tio n o f the mentioned f ig u r e
'See above, p. 110.

2
"Mythological Background," pp. 108-12; see also E ich ro d t,
Theology o f the Old Testament, 2:208.
287
2. The myth could be an " i l l u s t r a t i o n dramatizing the
splendor"^ and the f a l l o f those two pagan r u le r s
3. I t could be th a t the prophet, a t a c e r ta in point o f his
message, wanted to c a rry the mind of his readers to the source of
the s p i r i t o f tyranny, v io le n c e , arrogance, a.id p r id e , so evident
in those heathen r u l e r s . He could have taken the ancient myth,
undressed from the p o l y t h e i s t i c elements, and used the elements—
which p o s sib ly came from a m onotheistic source— in a new frame-

2
work to p ic tu r e "the r e a l i t y o f the e s c h a to lo g ica l age." In
discussing the Church f a t h e r s ' combination o f Luke 10:18 with Isa

3
14:12, K. L. Schmidt concludes th a t in the S i t z im leben in which
Jesus pronounced the words found in the Lukan passage, the f a l l
of the mighty angel is a p p lie d te m p o r a r ily , so to speak, to the
h is to r y o f humanity— in the same way Is a ia h used the f a l l of
L u c ife r in pronouncing his o ra c le on the f a l l o f Babylon. Schmidt
adds:
In der i s r a e l i t i s c h e n P ropheten zeit i s t der Babelkonig

ebenso gesehen und n ic h t anders-von Jesus Christus sein
Widersacher. Dies a l l e s hat aber seine p ra e x is te n te Vorge-
schichte und seine p o s te x is te n te Nachgeschichte. Erst wenn
w ir Anfang und Ende der Geschichte u n te r dem Gesichtspunkt
'Von E w igkeit zu E w ig k e it'd h. von der e in s tig e n Ewigkeit
Gottes zur kommenden E w igkeit G ottes, e in b ez ic h en , wird die
genannte Ambivalenz L u c ife rs in unserer geschichtlichen
E xistenz d e u t l i c h . Es handelt sich urn den T e u fe l, der am
Anfang einmal L u c ife r gewesen i s t und de r das am Ende der Tage
n i c h t mehr sein w ir d , der das aber zwischendrin bis zu einem
gewissen Grade doch noch i s t . Als der g e fa lle n e und ge sttirzte
Oberste der Engel h e i f s t der Teufel dennoch noch L u c ife r . Und
es sei u n t e r s t r i c h e n , dafs es sich dabei immer wieder urn d ie
Frage nach der rechten Macht h a n d e lt . 4
1C f . C h ild s , Myth and R e a l i t y , p. 70.

2
C f. i b i d . , p. 71. I f we have some survivors of mytn they
a re , as Barr says ("The Meaning," p. 8 ) , " c o n tr o lle d by the
h i s t o r i c a l sense."
3,1 L u c i f e r , " pp. 173-75. ^ I b i d . , p. 175.
288
Next I would l i k e to propose what I c a ll a Typological
In te rp re ta tio n . I t is tru e th a t t h i s view blends aspects and
elements o f the a lre a d y presented view— e s p e c ia lly the Satan View,
but i t o f f e r s a new solution f o r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f these two
passages.
The Typological View
Despite the f a c t th a t the word typology has been overloaded
in i t s use in b i b l i c a l hermeneutics, t h i s method of exegesis^ has
been proved l e g it im a te by several modern i n f l u e n t i a l b i b l i c a l
sch o la rs . Although most ty p o lo g ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t io n s have d e a l t
w ith the E a rly Church i n t e r p r e t in g the OT in order to b e t t e r under
stand Jesus, and the Gospel, and the church i t s e l f , ^ It seems t h a t
th e re are o the r dimensions in which the ty pologica l in te rp re ta tio n
could be a p p lie d . Bible i n t e r p r e t e r s have recognized the presence

4
o f types in the OT, and von Rad notes th a t the prophets were the
Typology as a method o f exegesis has been used from the

beginning o f the C h r is tia n Era to the present; f o r a survey o f
l i t e r a t u r e on the use o f t h i s method o f exegesis see: G oppelt,
Typos; Richard M. Davidson, Typology in S c r i p t u r e , AUSDDS, 2
(B e r r ie n Springs, MI: Andrews U n iv e r s it y Press, 1 9 8 1 ), pp. 15-114.
2
I . e . , Douglas W. F r ie d e ric h s e n , "The Hermeneutics o f
Typology," (Th.D. th e s is , Dallas Theological Seminary, 197 0 );
G oppelt, Typos; von Rad, "Typological I n t e r p r e t a t io n o f the Old
Testament," h i t 15 (1 9 6 1 ):1 7 4 -9 2 ; Old Testament Theology, 2 :3 1 9 -3 5 .
See also R. M. Davidson, Typology in S c r i p t u r e , pp. 4 6 -9 3 , f o r a
survey o f scholars who adopt ty p o lo g ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as method
o f b i b l i c a l exegesis, as w ell those who c r i t i c i z e the method, and
a discussion on t h e i r reasons f o r doing so.
S e e von Rad, Old Testament Theology, 2 :3 19 -3 5 .
S e e Charles T. F r i t s c h , " B i b l i c a l Typology," BSac 104

( 1 9 4 7 ) : 9 1 - 2 ; F r its c h notes,
Already in the Old Testament there is what we might c a l l a
nascent 't y p o l o g y . ' C ertain personages and events are r e la te d
to a higher realm in which the tr u t h s and r e la t io n s e x h ib ite d
289
f i r s t to use typology in the f u l l e s t senseJ
Geerhardus Vos has a ffirm e d th a t "a type can never be a

2
type independently o f i t s being f i r s t a symbol," and J. B. Payne
f u r t h e r s Vos' thought by saying th a t "perhaps the most important
s in g le p r i n c ip l e in d e l im i t i n g o f typology i s , namely, th a t a
given item must be symbolical to i t s contemporaries before i t can
be considered ty p ic a l f o r the fu t u r e . " ^
Is a ia h 1 4 : 4 b -21
In examining Isa 14, we fin d three main reasons which sug
gest t h a t we should make use o f typology to speak about a la r g e r
tr u t h than the one th a t f i r s t appears: ( 1 ) the use o f the word
masal, (2 ) the use of the word Babylon, and (3 ) the several
dimensions o f the poem and the content o f vss. 12-15 in the context
of the whole poem.

4 - v- ,
1. As discussed above the term masal is used to mean
lik e n e s s , resemblance, and comparison; and, in a sense what is typo
logy i f not lik e n e s s , resemblance, and a kind o f comparison to
in them were again to meet and obtain a more p e r f e c t develop

ment. The word 'Egypt' becomes a symbol o f c a p t i v i t y , as seen
in Hosea 8:13 (note the LXX h e r e ); 9 : 3 , 5; 11:5 (where the w r i t e r
makes sure t h a t the term ‘ Egypt 1 be not taken l i t e r a l l y ) . Also
in Is a ia h the experiences o f the Exodus are used to describe
the g re a te r re tu rn o f the e x i l e s ( c f . 4 8 : 2 0 f f . ) .
C f. a lso Horace D. Hummel, "The Old Testament Basis o f Typological
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , " BR 3 (1 9 6 4 ):3 8 —50.
^01d Testament Theology, 2:319 f f .
^ B ib lic a l Theology, Old and New Testaments (Grand Rapids:

Eerdmans, 1959), p. 1'62.
Êncyclopedia o f B i b l i c a l Prophecy (New York: Harper &

Row, 1 9 7 3 T 7 T 5ZT
4 Pp. 160-66.
290
- V -
something else? i-urthermore, i f the term masal in vs. 4 has the
sense o f paradigm, i t would even strengthen the ty pologica l in te r-
p r e ta tio n o f the t e x t proposed.'
2. As f a r as the use o f the term Bbylon is concerned,
i t has been used, besides designating an a ncie nt c i t y and an empire,
with several d i f f e r e n t connotations: (a ) in Gen 11:11 i t means

2
confusion; (b) a f t e r the f a l l of Babylon (B a b e l), i t represents
f o r l a t e r Jewish readers o f S c r ip tu r e , the very epitome and type of
an ungodly and domineering c i t y ( S i b y l l i n e oracles 5 :143, 158;
2 Baruch 11:1; 4 Ezra 2 a l l three describe the Roman power using the
term Babylon);^ (c ) in the Mew Testament (1 Pet 5:13; Rev 14:8;
16:19; 17:5; 1 8 : 2 , 10, 21) i t is used in r e l a t i o n to the Roman
empire, but going beyond th a t power, i t describes a r e lig io u s power
which is r e b e l l i o u s a gains t God. In the words o f P. J. Mi ne ar,
[Babylon] was the fountainhead o f a l l e a r t h l y r e b e llio n against

God. . . . In the prophet's [J ohn], the name Bbylon is a mystery
and an aspect o f the u ltim a te mystery of God's v ic t o r y over e v il
(Rev 1 7 :5 , 7 ) . . . . Babylon is an eschatological symbol of
Satanic deception and power; i t is a heavenly mystery, which is
to be comprehended p r o p h e t i c a l l y , and which is never w holly
reducible to e m p iric a l e a r t h ly i n s t i t u t i o n s . 4
3. We have seen abovs^ th a t one o f the c h a r a c t e r is t ic s of
the poem in Isa 14 is the d i f f e r e n t dimensions or realms o f the passage.
^See above pp. 163-64.
^Some scholars see the Tower o f Babel n a r r a tiv e (Gen 1 1 :1 -9 )

as having an e t i o l o g i c a l , th ru s t (see f o r th a t H. Ringgren, "badhel,"
TDOT (1974) 1 :4 6 7 .
^Cf. a ls o S ieg b e rt U h lig , "Die typologische Bedeutung des

B e g g riffs Babylon," AUSS 12 (1 9 7 4 ):1 2 0 -2 2 .
4 "Babylon," _IDB (1 9 6 2 ), 1:338. 5See pp. 207-9.
291
The h i s t o r i c a l , underworld, and heavenly realms are depicted in
the passage and have been detected long ago by several B ible
in te rp re te rs . The h o rizo n ta l and v e r t i c a l dimensions are c l e a r l y
portrayed in the passage. Vss. 12-15 include several c h a r a c t e r is t i c s
which i d e n t i f y the Isa ia n passage as having an a p o c a l y p t i c - li k e
v e r t i c a l dimension. The prophet is t a l k i n g about a power th a t
goes beyond the h i s t o r i c a l l e v e l , y e t a t the same time th e re is
i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p between the h o riz o n ta l and v e r t ic a l dimensions.
Taking in to account the use o f the terms masal and babhel
as discussed above, the c le a r v e r t i c a l dimension of vss. 1 2-15 ,
as w ell as the tension between the e a r t h l y and cosmic realms in the
Book o f Is a ia h , i t is sound to say t h a t the King of Babylon is
more than a human f i g u r e . He is a type o f someone who is presented
as H elel ben Shahar in the middle o f the poem (vss. 1 2 - 1 5 ). The
prophet c a r r ie s the mind o f the re a d e r /h e a r e r to the cower who is
behind the e a r t h l y power, to the source or fountainhead o f a l l e v i l
impulses. But a t the same time the h i s t o r i c a l dimension o f the
passage is so embedded in to the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the master mind
behind i t th a t i t leads us to b e lie v e th a t the o b je c tiv e o f the
author was to p o r tr a y the beginning, the c a r e e r , and the end of
the o r i g i n a t o r o f e v i l .
In summary we would say t h a t in using the term m asal, the
prophet had in view not only to make a comparison or to lend to the
passage a paradidmatic. sense but also to show in a ty p o lo g ic a l way
the im p e lle n t fo rc e behind the e v i l a c t i v i t i e s o f the world n a tio n s .
292
E zekiel 28:1-19
As noted aboveJ the E z e k ie lia n passage has two d i s t i n c t
sections (vss. 1-10 and 12-19) whose c h a r a c t e r is t i c s show th a t they
belong or r e f e r to two d i f f e r e n t realms. The o ra c le a g ain s t the
Prince ( ji) o f Tyre r e f e r s , in my view, to a c t i v i t i e s and matters
r e la t e d to human or e a r t h ly r u l e r s . The oracle a g a in s t the
King ( T ? 3 ) o f Tyre has to do w ith a being in a cosmic or heavenly
sphere. These two s ec tio n s , w ith t h e i r own c h a r a c t e r is t i c s and
belonging to d i f f e r e n t realms, f o r a kind of h o r iz o n ta l as w ell as
v e rtic a l typology. The Prince o f Tyre is an antetype or paradigm
on the h o riz o n ta l le v e l to powers such as, f o r example, the one
mentioned in 2 Thess 2 : 3 - 4 , 8 ^ and Rev 17-18. On the o the r hand,
the Prince o f Tyre is a kind o f type of the King o f Tyre in the sense
t h a t both fig u re s or powers are h o s tile to God— the Prince o f Tyre
because o f his Dride and p r e te n tio n to be l i k e God; the King o f Tyre
because o f the wickedness found in him which developed in to pride
on account o f his beauty and wisdom. The one had his a c t i v i t i e s
in the e a r t h l y l e v e l , the o th e r in the heavenly or cosmic realm.
At th a t time the archtype or King of Tyre was, in r e la t i o n
to the type or Prince of T y re , a f ig u r e o f the past (vss. 12-17)
and o f the fu tu r e (vss. 1 8 - 1 9 ) . " In using the terms Prince and
King o f Tyre^ the prophet wanted to convey th a t they were r e la te d
] pp. 221-31; 269-70.
2 Zim m erli, E z e k i e l , 2 :9 5 , thinks th a t "In the prid e and f a l l

o f the Prince o f T y r e , , th e re i s repeated the s to r y o f 'primeval
man'. This is 'Every-man s t o r y ' ; in other words, i t is more than
a mere episodic occurrence."
^See above, p. 244, n. 6 .
4See above pp. 248-50 f o r OT use o f each term in a d i f f e r e n t

dimension.
293
in some way. But since the c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f the Prince o f Tyre
ana the terminology to describe him denote an e a r t h l y dimension,
w hile the King o f Tyre is described in terms o f a heavenly being,
i t is my view th a t one s o lu tio n is to view one as the archtype
or p ro p e llin g fo rc e behind the o th e r.
Conclusions
A fter a ll th a t has been said in th is d i s s e r t a t i o n , i t is
my view th a t th e re are enough fa c ts which j u s t i f y the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f Isa 14:12-15 and Ezek 28:12 -1 9 as applying to the c h i e f Fallen
Angel known as Satan. Besides the f a c t th a t these passages o f f e r
a d e s c rip tio n which transcends the e a r t h l y or human realm. (1 )
They f i t an a n g e lic context^ where a r e b e llio n against God wouTd have
occurred. (2 ) The context o f the Is a ia n passage presents
e sc h a to lo g ica l fe a tu r e s and a tension between immediate h i s t o r i c a l
events and a u n iv ers a l event w ith the t e x t s tr a d d lin g two words.
( 3 ) The Isaian Apocalypse^ shows th a t the prophet was aware o f the

4
sin o f ang elic beings and t h e i r f a l l , as well as of t h e i r punishment.
(4 ) The Book o f Is a ia h presents a kind o f emphasis on the c o n tra s t
between Babylon and Jerusalem (o r Zion) and t h e i r f i n a l f a t e —
which re in fo rc e s the p o in t I am tr y in g to make. In s o -c a lle d F i r s t
I s a ia h , we fin d the oppression suffered by the people o f God and
Jerusalem and a promised happy end^ in c o n tra s t to Babylon's
Êzek 2 8 :14 -1 6 even uses the term Cherub(im) which is used in

the S c r ip tu re to i d e n t i f y a n g e lic beings: Gen 3 :2 4 ; Ezek 10.
2
^Chaps. 24-27 ; see above pp. 219-20.
42 4 :2 1 -2 2 . 5 Chaps. 1 -1 0 :1 1 ; 11-12, e t c .
294
( A s s y r ia 's ) tyranny and her f i n a l de fe at and d e s t r u c t io n .* In
the Book o f Comfort, chaps. 4 0-45, 4 8 -6 4 , i t is spoken about God's
people; in chaps. 4 6 -4 7 , about Babylon— chap. 47 is f o r Babylon

2
what chap. 54 is f o r Jerusalem. I t seems c l e a r t h a t Is a ia h , in a
ty p o lo g ic a l fa s h io n , picked up the term Babylon ( ’P a n ) , which in
Genesis is used in the sense o f confusion, and through his masal
(comparison, lik e n e s s , paradigm) depicted the c a re e r o f a fig u r e
which is behind every s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t , s e l f - g l o r i f y i n g , and
God-opposing power.^ Babylon which was a constant enemy o f God's
people, becomes from the time o f Isaiah and on a symbol o f powers
h o s t i l e to God and His people.** Thus i t would be f a i r to admit th a t
the prophet introduced in the middle o f his poem on Babylon the
real source o f the enemies o f God and His people. ( 5 ) The P rid e -
M o t if is emphasized in the Book o f Isa ia h and fought by God who

5
humbles the proud ones. I t is also c l e a r t h a t "the P rid e-M oti f
is . . . the connecting m o tif in Isa 1 3 : 2 - 1 8 , 1 9 -2 2 , and
* Chaps. 1 0 :1 2 -3 4 ; 13-14.
p
C f. Remi Lack, La Symbolique, p. 103.
^See above pp. 164-66. **Rev 1 4 :8 ; 16:19; 17:5; 1 8:1, 21.
Îsa 2:11 “The prid e o f man s h all be humbled";

Isa 2:17 "The haughtiness o f man s hall be humbled, and the pride o f
men s h all be brought low";
Isa 5:15 "the eyes o f the haughty are humbled";
Isa 9 : 9 f f . God " ra is e s adversaries" a g ain s t those who speak “in
pride and in arrogance o f h e a r t " ;
Isa 1 0 :1 2 f f . God f i g h t s a gains t "haughty p rid e " of A ssyria:
Isa 13:19 "God f i g h t s a g ain s t 'splendor ana p r i d e ' o f the Chaldeans";
Isa 1 6 :6 ; 25:11 God w i l l la y low the " p rid e " o f Moab;
Isa 23:9 God has purposed "to d e f i l e the p rid e o f a l l g lo r y ” ;
Isa 3 7 : 2 2 f f . "The p r i d e - m o t i f pervades the o r a c le a g a in s t Sennacherib"
(E rlai'dsson, p. 141; c f . Erlandsson, pp. 139-42 f o r
discussion o f the p r id e - m o t if in I s a i a h ) .
295
1 4 :1 -2 1 . " 1- Furthermore, the supreme examples o f pride and humble
ness in Is a i a h 's prophecy seem to be shown in Isa 14 and Isa 52-53
r e s p e c tiv e ly . Assuming th a t (a ) the S u ffe r in g Servant song is

2
M essianic; (b) Jesus is the antagonist o f Satan in the controversy
between good and e v i l , and he came "to destroy the works o f the
O e v i l , " 3 to disarm the p r i n c i p a l i t i e s and powers, and to make a
p ublic example o f them and triumph over them;** and (c ) the two
supreme examples o f prid e and humbleness in Isaiah are found in

5
chaps. 14 and 52-53 and belong to the personages o f these passages,
not to am immediate h i s t o r i c a l realm but to a heavenly one, the
f ig u r e portrayed in Isa 14:12-15 can be i n te r p r e t e d as being Satan.
( 6 ) The language used to describe the King o f Babylon and the King
of Tyre is s im i l a r to t h a t used to describe or p o rtra y Satan:
(a ) he a t t r i b u t e s to him self God's pre ro g ativ e s^ and (b ) his sin
has to do w ith the beginning o f s i n . 7 (7) F in a lly , i t is my con
v ic t i o n t h a t t h i s research has demonstrated th a t the use o f Typology
is a r e a l i t y in Isa ia h 14 as w ell as in E zek ie l 28, and th a t both
passages were w r i t t e n w ith the same purpose: (a ) To show— in a
prophetic way— to fu t u r e generations th a t these nations (Babylon
[o r A s s yria ] in Isa ia h and Tyre in E z e k ie l) in t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
wickednesses were a type o f every power— p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o n s —
Êrlandsson, p. 149. 3Sae above, pp. 210-13.
3! John 3 :8 . 4Col 2 :1 5 .
5See also Phil 2 :5 -1l.
6 C f. Isa 1 4 :1 2 -1 4 ; Gen 3 : 1 - 5 ; Matt 4 : 8 - 9 .
7 C f. Ezek 2 8:1 5 -1 6 ; 1 John 3:8.
296
which in r e b e llio u s way are h o s t i l e to God and His Deople. This we
c a l l h o riz o n ta l typo lo g y , (b) To show the power which is behind
a l l wicked a c t i v i t i e s and to present the o r i g i n a t o r o f the sins
which are the source or fou n tain i ad o f every h o s t i l i t y a g ain s t
God and His government. This is introduced as Helel ben Shahar
and the Guardian Cherub, which are the archtype o f the King o f
Babylon and the King o f Tyre as presented in these passages.
This we c a l l v e rtic a l ty p o lo g y , ( c ) To give the c e r t a i n t y th a t
e v il is an extraneous element in God's u n iv ers e , and th a t i t
w ill have an end which is a lre a d y determined; t h a t a t the end s in ,
i t s o r i g i n a t o r , and those who accept his p o l i t i c , w i l l have no

1 2
"name or su rviv o rs" and " w i l l be no more f o r e v e r."
] Isa 14:22. 2Ezek 28:19; c f . Mai 4 : 1 - 3 .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This research endeavored to study Isa 14 and Ezek 28 in
order to c e r t i f y b e t t e r the nature and i d e n t i t y o f the fig u re s
mentioned in the two p rophetic o ra cle s (e s p e c i a l l y Isa 14:12-15
and Ezek 2 8 : 1 2 -1 9 ). Since f o r a long time both passages have
been i n t e r p r e t e d as having to do w ith the o r i g i n o f sin in heaven—
in idea which has been r e s is te d by many notable scholars— th is
i n v e s t i g a t i o n attempted to examine the p e r tin e n t m a te ria l from the
beginning o f the C h r is tia n era to the present time to a s c e rta in
the l e g i t i m a t i o n of the claims on both sides.
In the f i r s t chapter we surveyed the m a te ria l w r i t t e n on
the m a tte r , examining the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f the passages through
the y e a rs . The pseudepigraphic m a te ria l o f the second century
A.D. seems to be the f i r s t to i d e n t i f y the Is a ia h passage w ith the
fa ll o f the c h i e f an g el. That idea was picked up by some o f the
Church Fathers such as O rigen, T e r t u l l i a n , Augustine, and Gregory
the G re a t, who connected Isa 14 w ith Luke 10:18 and applie d them to
Satan. On the o th e r hand, some o f the fa th e rs such as Aphrahat,
Chromatius A q u i l e ie n s i s , and Chrysostom applied the passage to
the immediate h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t, the ty r a n t being Nebuchadnezzar
or a "barbarian k in g ." Hippolytus r e la te d the passage to the
A n t i c h r i s t and saw i t as d e p ic tin g an event to happen in the
f u t u r e ; he also quotes Ezek 28 side by side w ith Isa 14.
297
298
The Jews o f the Talmudic period in te r p r e t e d the Isaiah
passage as having to ao w ith immediate h i s t o r i c a l eve n ts ,
Nabuchadnezzar being the "oppressor"; the E zekiel passage they
a p p lie d to Hiram, King o f T y re , or even to Nebuchadnezzar.
During the Middle Ages the S atan:C herub:Lucifer view
p r e v a ile d , having as i t s main exponents Dante A l i g h i e r i , Thomas
Aquinas, and John W y c l i f f .
The two g re a t re fo rm ers , Martin Luther and John C a lv in ,
broke w ith the t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n held by the fa th e r s and
the scholars in the Middle Ages. Luther held t h a t Isa 14:12 speaks
not about the f a l l e n angel who once was thrown out o f heaven (Luke
10:18; Rev 1 2 : 7 - 9 ) , but o f the King o f Babylon, in f i g u r a t i v e language.
But Ezek 28 he viewed as r e f e r r i n g to the Devil under the name of
Tyre. C alvin considered the a p p lic a tio n o f Isa 14:12 -1 5 to Satan
as “v ery gross ignorance" and "useless f a b l e s " ; he in te r p r e t e d the
passage in h i s t o r i c a l terms, w ith the t y r a n t being i d e n t i f i e d
w ith Sennacherib or Nebuchadnezzar.
In the seventeenth c en tu ry, Puritan John M ilto n and John
Bunyan used the "method o f accommodation" in i n t e r p r e t i n g the
Is a ia h a^d Ezekiel passages, applying them to Satan. Using some
m a te ria ls from the NT, Semitic sources, views and comments o f the
Church Fath e rs, and from the Renaissance, they enlarged the v ision
concerning L u c i f e r . U n t il the middle o f the n in e te e n th century the
tra d itio n a l view was held by many scholars; the h i s t o r i c a l view,
by a few w ith the Isaiah and the Ezekiel passages always being
i d e n t i f i e d w ith each o th e r .
At the end o f the n ine te enth century, some new developments
299
occurred in the study and in t e r p r e t a t io n o f Isa 14 and Ezek 28.
When serious Bible students began i n t e r p r e t in g the B ible with
c r i t i c a l methods and theologians had more comparative m a te ria l to
i n t e r p r e t the OT, scholars began to see m ythical elements in both
passages. From then on the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Isa 14:12-15 was
g e n e r a lly c l a s s i f i e d by three main views: the Satan '/iew, the
H i s t o r i c a l View (sometimes blended with the previous one), and the
Mythological View. Concerning Ezek 2 8 :1 2 -1 9 , four main views have
been proposed since the beginning o f the tw e n tie th century: the
Satan View, the Immediate H is to r ic a l and R e lig io u s Context View,
the Mythological View, and the Paradise S tory View. The Mythological
View has proposed several myths as being p a r a l l e l to Isa 14:12-15.
These inc lude the I s h t a r , Innana, Etana, and Zu myths from
Mesopotamia; Kumarbi and Ullikummi myths from the H i t t i t e s ; the

V V
Phaeton myth from the Greeks; and Ashtar and Shr and Sim from
Phoenicia. Scholars have suggested Babylonian and U g a r i t i c sources
f o r some elements o f the passage, and the Prometheus myth as a story
p a ra lle l to the p ro p h e t's o r a c le . The Paradise Story View holds th a t
the Ezekiel passage was a v a r i a n t form o f the t r a d i t i o n which
appears in Gen 2 -3 .
In chapter 2 we examined the various myths (a myth o f Helel
ben Shahar and o f the Guardian Cherub could not be f-.und). A
comparison of the a v a i l a b l e myths with the b i b l i c a l passages demon
s tr a te d remarkable d iffe r e n c e s . N e v erth e le ss , i t seems th a t in
Isa 14:1 Z the prophet used f o r a moment the n a tu ra l phenomenon of
Venus, the morning s t a r , which vanishes by the time the sun r is e s .
A knowledge of the behavior o f Venus is w ell a tte s te d in some
300
c u ltu r e s o f the ancient world and i t has been taken up in to the
expression o f t h e i r myths: i e . , Greek (P haeton); U g a r i t i c ( A t t a r ) .
Elements were also found which are present in Isa 14 and Ezek 28
th a t make one th in k o f them as the r e s u l t o f " c u ltu r a l c o n t i n u i t y ”
or having common elements from the a n cie n t Near East area.
B ib lic a l passages such as Gen 6 : 1 - 4 , Ps 82, e t c . , which
scholars have said a r e , in some aspects, p a r a l l e l to Isa 14, were
examined. I t seems th a t Ps 82, Job 1 -2 , 2 Kgs 2 2:19 -2 2 ,
Isa 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 , and Ezek 28:12 -1 9 mention fig u r e s which are r e la te d to
the heavenly council and behind Ps 82 and the Isaiah and Ezekiel
passages there must have been an a n c ie n t Jewish myth o f the f a l l e n
a n g e l ( s ).
As f o r the Paradise sto ry as the source f o r the Ezekiel
o r a c l e , our study shows th a t d e s p ite some s i m i l a r i t i e s between the
two accounts, remarkable d iffe r e n c e s are noted, thus i t seems
impossible to say th a t the two passages speak o f the same event.
Chapter 3 examined the p oetic s t r u c tu r e o f the two passages,
discussed t h e i r form o f m a t e r i a l , made a d e t a il e d a n a ly s is of the
two t e x t s , and proposed a t r a n s l a t i o n . An exegesis o f the c e n tra l
parts o f the passages was c a rrie d out.
The Is a ia h passage seems to have been produced a t the end
o f the eig h th century a t the time o f the death o f an Assyrian monarch,
probably Sargon I I . The poem seems to have been o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n
in f i v e p e r fe c t stanzas, each o f seven pentameter verses. The
c le c r d e l i m i t a t i o n o f the stanzas and the change o f realms among
them show the t h i r d stanza (vss. 12-15) to be o f d i f f e r e n t nature
than the r e s t o f the t e x t . The c e n tr a l stanza is set in a prominent
301
position and presents an event which must have occurred in the
heavenly realm.
Analyzing the Is a ia h passage in i t s context in the whole
oracle a g a in s t Babylon and in the e n t i r e book o f I s a i a h , we perceive
the prominence o f the t h i r d stanza o f the poem as d e p ic tin g a power
which opposes God's people and is h o s t i l e to God. It has been
noted th a t in the book o f I s a i a h , Isa 14:12-15 and Isa 52-53 are
the supreme examples o f p rid e and humbleness, r e s p e c t iv e ly .
Assuming the S u ffe rin g Servant Song to be messianic, i t seems th a t
Isaiah 1 4 :1 2 -1 5 is r e f e r r i n g to a more-than-human f i g u r e .
The views presented by the scholars through the years in
i n t e r p r e t in g Isa 14:12 -1 5 have been f a u l t y , except f o r one— the
Satan View, which, d e sp ite the problems we face in adopting i t , is
the one t h a t has gotten the c lo s e s t to what I consider the t r u t h .
This view admits a heavenly realm f o r the passages; i t is supported
by the p ro p h e t's awareness o f the e xistence o f heavenly beings who
a s s is t God in heaven ( I s a 2 4 :2 1 ; Ezek 1, 1 0 ) , and among whom are
some who disobeyed and would have to be punished.
In order to present a view which would be more f a i r in the
in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Isa 14, and would help to analyze the passage in
i t s several dimensions, I proposed what is c a lle d the Typological
View. This view admits t h a t the passage has to do w ith something
on the h i s t o r i c a l le v e l which is considered a type f o r something
more u n iv e rs a l s t i l l in the h i s t o r i c a l le v e l, i.e ., h o r iz o n ta l
typo lo g y . On the o th e r hand i t sees in the passage a v e r t i c a l
typology where the f i g u r e d epicted in the c e n tra l stanza o f the
poem is an archtype o f the p o l i t i c a l and r e lig io u s powers which
through the ages are h o s t ile to God and His people, and i s , as
w e l l , the im p e lle n t force behind every e v i l a c t i v i t y . The use of
the terms masal and babhel, as well the d i f f e r e n t nature o f vss.
12-15 demonstrate th a t the prophet is ta lk in g about a being who is
the im p e lle n t fo rc e o f e v i l behind the human a c t i v i t i e s and f u l f i l l s
his r o le in the controversy between good and e v i l .
The Ezekiel passage must have been produced between the time
o f the d e s tr u c tio n o f Jerusalem and the beginning o f the siege of
Tyre (587-585 B . C . ) . The t e x t shows more signs o f te x tu a l
disturbances and redaction than Isa 14 and does not have i t s parts
d e lim it a t e d by stanzas; but the d iv in e formulae used make the f i r s t
two pa rts o f Ezek 28 very d i s t i n c t . Vss. 1-10 seem to speak of a
human f i g u r e , but vss. 12-19 speak about a d i f f e r e n t realm , a heavenl
one. A comparison between Isa 14:12-15 and Ezek 28:12 -1 9 shows
major s i m i l a r i t i e s which make us b e lie v e they speak o f the same
fig u re .
As in the case o f the Isaiah passage, we proposed the
Typological View which sees vss. 1-10 as p o rtra y in g a c t i v i t i e s
c a r r ie d out in the h i s t o r i c a l or e a r t h l y l e v e l , in a h o riz o n ta l
typology where the Prince o f Tyre is the archtype f o r powers such
as the one found in 2 Thess 2, e t c . , and other cases o f h y b ris .
A v e rtic a l typology is also present in which the Prince o f Tyre is
the type o f the King o f Tyre (vss. 12-19) who u l t i m a t e l y represents
the o r i g i n a t o r o f e v i l .
Isa 14:12-15 and Ezek 28:12-19 are compared and the con
clusions are t h a t both o f them d e s c rib e , with s l i g h t nuances, the
303
same event which gave o r ig in to sin in God's universe. Concluding,
we would say w ith K. L. Schmidt,
The Is a ia n L u c ife r D ec la ra tion [and I add Ezek 28] wins

richness and power when one understands i t in i t s complexity
o f heavenly and e a r t h l y , o f demonic and human, o f enigmatic
and foregrounding. . . . Behind such a lle g e d only i l l u s t r a t i v e ,
tr a n s fe r a b le phrases there is much more. . . . Such a myth
a p p lie s to a f i n a l l y enigmatic i n c id e n t , to a demonic, a godly
e v e n t, which illu m in a te s the foreground and background o f the
h i s t o r y o f the doings o f mankind.^
God, through his prophets, chose the expressions, King of
Babylon and King o f Tyre to p o rtra y the being who was the o r i g i n a t o r
o f e v i l and the p r o p e llin g force behind e v e ry e f f o r t to d is tu rb
order in God's universe. These two passages also p r o p h e tic a lly
give us the c e r t a i n t y th a t e v i l is destined to be exterm inated, and
Satan and his fo llo w e rs w i l l be no more fo r e v e r .
^ ' L u c i f e r , " pp. 166, 173. T ra n sla te d by J. B e r to lu c i.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A b e l, P. F e l ix M. Geographie de la P a l e s t i n e , 2 v o ls. P aris:

J. Gabalda e t C ie , 1933-38.
Ackerman, J. "An Exegetical Study of Psalm 8 2." Th.D. d is

s e r t a t i o n , Harvard U n i v e r s i t y , 1966.
Ackroyd, Peter R. "The Meaning o f Hebrew ~i i ~ Considered."

Journal o f Sem itic Studies 13 (1 9 6 8 ):3 -1 0 .
A d le r , Marcus Nathan, ed. and tr a n s . The I t i n e r a r y o f Benjamin

of Tudela. London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1907.
Ahlstrom , G. W. Psalm 8 9 . Lund: CWK Cleerups, 1959.
A l b r i g h t , W. F. Archaeology and the R e lig io n o f I s r a e l . B altim ore

Johns Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1942.
___________ . "Baal-Zaphon." F e s t s c h r i f t f u r A lfr e d B e r t h o l e t .

Edited by W alter Baumgartner e t a l . , pp. 1-14. Tubingen:
J. C. S. Mohr, 1950.
___________ . "The Ancient Near East and the Relig ion o f I s r a e l . "
Journal o f B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e 59 (1 9 4 0 ):8 5 -1 1 2 -
___________ . “Book Reviews." The Journal o f the P ale s tin e O r ie n t a l

Society 14 ( 1 9 3 4 ):1 5 2 - 5 6 .
___________ . "The E a rly A lphabetic In s c r ip tio n s from Sinai and

T h e ir Decipherment." B u l l e t i n o f the American Schools o f
O rie n ta l Research 110 (1 9 4 8 ):6 —22.
___________ . "TheChaldean In s c r ip t io n s in P roto-A rabic S c r i p t . "

B u l l e t i n o f the American School o f O rie n ta l Research 128
(1 9 5 2 ):3 9 —45.
___________ . "The North-Canaanite Epic o f 3 AL* EYAN BACAL and MOT."

The Journal o f the P a le s tin e O rie n ta l Society 12 (1 9 3 2 ):
186-208.
___________ . "The Old Testament and Canaanite Language." C a th o lic

B i b l i c a l Q u a r t e r ly 7 ( 1 9 4 5 ) : 5 - 3 1 .
___________ . "The Seal o f E lia k im and the Latest P r e - E x i l i c H is to r y

o f Judah, w ith some Observations on E z e k ie l." Journal o f
B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e 51 (1 9 3 2 ):7 7 -1 0 6 .
304
305
___________. "The T r a d i t i o n a l Home o f the Syrian D a n ie l." 3 u lle tin

o f the American School of O r ie n ta l Research 130 (1 9 5 3 ):2 6 -2 7 .
. “What Were the Cherubim?" B i b l i c a l A rc ha eologis t 1

[T 9 3 8 ):1 -3 .
___________ . Yahweh and the Gods o f Canaan. Jordan Lectures in

Comparative R e l ig io n , 7. London: Athlone Press, 1968.
___________ . "The Old Testament and Canaanite Language and

L ite ra tu re ." C a th o lic B i b l i c a l Q u a rte r ly 7 ( 1 9 4 5 ) : 5 - 3 1 .
Alden, Robert L. " L u c i f e r , Who or What?" Journal of E vangelical

Theological S o c ie ty 11 (1 9 6 8 ):3 5 -3 9 .
Alexander, Joseph Addison. Is a ia h . New York: Charles S c r ib n e r 's

Sons, 1851.
A l f r i n k , B. "Der Versammlungsberg im Aussersten Norden ( I s 1 4 ) ."

B ib lic a 14 (1 9 3 3 ):4 1 -6 7 .
A l t , A lb re c h t. "Die Staatenbildung der I s r a e l i t e n in P a l e s t i n e . "

In Kleine S c h r if t e n zur Geschichte des Yolkes I s r a e l .
3 v ols. Munich: C. H. Beck, 1953-59.
Ambrose, . " P a r a d i s e . ” In The Fathers o f the Church. V ol. 42.

New Trans. E dited by Roy J. de F e r r a r i . New York:
Fathers o f the Church, 1961.
Ambrosius Antpertus. Expositious in A p p e a ly p ts in . In Corpus

Christianorum , Series L a tin a . T u rn h o lti: Typographii
Brepols E d ito re s P o n t i f i c i i , 1954. 27:1-46 0 ; 27A: 1 -7 5 .
Andreasen, N i e l s - E r i k . "Adam and Adapa: Two Anthropological

C h aracters." Andrews U n iv e r s it y Seminary Studies 19 (1 9 81 ):
179-94.
Aphrahat Demonstrations. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. 2nd

S erie s. New York: C h r is tia n L i t e r a t u r e Company, 1890-
1900. 1 3 :3 4 5 -4 1 2 .
Archelaus The D is p u ta tio n with Manes. Ante-Nicene Fathers.

6:179-236.
Archer, Gleason L. A Survey of Old Testament In t r o d u c t io n .

Chicago: Moody Press, 1964.
___________. " I s a i a h . " W y c liffe B ib le Commentary. Chicago:

Moody Press, 1962.
A ris to tle . M e te o ro lo q ic a . Translated by H. 0. P. Lee. Loeb

C la ss ica l L ib r a r y .
306
Astour, Michael C. H e lle n o s e m itic a . Leiden: E. J. B r i l l , 1965.
Augustine Expositions on the Book o f Psalms. Nicene and Post-Nicene

F ath e rs. 1st S erie s. New York: C h r is tia n L i t e r a t u r e
Company, 1886-1890. 8 :1 -6 8 3 .
The C i t y o f God. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. 1st

S e r ie s . New York: C h ris tia n L i t e r a t u r e Company, 1886-
1890. 2 :1 -5 1 1 .
The Confessions. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. 1st

S e r ie s . New York: C h r is tia n L i t e r a t u r e Company, 1886-
1890. 1:4 5-20 7 .
"The C h r is tia n Combat." In The Fathers o f the Church.

Vol. 2. A New T ra n s la tio n by Robert P. Russel. New York:
Cima P ublishing Company, 1947.
" C h r is tia n I n s t r u c t i o n ." In The Fathers o f the Church.

Vol. 2. A New T ra n s la tio n by John J. Gavigan. New York:
Cima P ublishing Company, 1947.
The E n c h irid io n . Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. 1st

S e rie s . New York: C h r is tia n L i t e r a t u r e Company, 1886-
1890. 3:237-276.
Homilies on the Gospel o f John. Nicene and Post-Nicene

Fa the rs. 1st S erie s. New York: C h r is tia n L i t e r a t u r e
Company, 1886-1890. 7 :7 -4 5 2 .
On the T r i n i t y . Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. 1st

S e r ie s . New York: C h r is tia n L i t e r a t u r e Company, 1886-
1890. 3 :1 7-22 8 .
A ureliu s Cassiodorius Expositio Psalmorum. In Corpus Christianorum,

S eries L a tin a . T u r n h o lti: Typographii Brepols Editores
P o n t i f i c i i , 1 9 5 4 ff. Vols. 97, 98.
Aus, Roger D. "God's Plan and God's Power: Isa ia h 6 6 and the
R e s tra in in g Factors o f 2 Thess 2 : 6 - 7 . " Journal of B i b l i c a l
L i t e r a t u r e 96 (1 9 7 7 ):5 3 7 -5 3 .
AuVray, P aul. IsaTe 1 -3 9 . P a ris : J. Gabalda e t c i e , 1972.
Babylonian Talmud. 34 v o ls. T ra n sla te d in to English w ith notes

under the E ditorship o f I . E o s te in . London: Soncino
P ress, 1938-52.
Barnes, A l b e r t . Notes on the Old Testament, I s a i a h. Vol. 1. Grand

Rapids: Baker Book House, 1950.
Barnes, W. E. " E z e k ie l's Denunciation o f Tyre." Journal o f

Theological Studies 35 ( 1 9 3 4 ) :5 0 -5 4 .
307
B a rr, James. :!The Meaning o f 'Mythology' in Relation to the Old

Testament." Vetus Testamentum 9 (1 9 5 9 ):1 -7 0 .
___________ . " D a n ie l." Peake's Commentary on the B i b l e . Hong Kong:

Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1977, pp. 591-602.
B a r r ic k , W. Boyd. "The Rich Man from Arimathea (Matth 2 7 :5 7 -6 0 ) and

IQ Isa3 ." Journal o f B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e 96 (1 9 7 7 ):2 3 5 -3 9 .
B a rth , Hermann. Die Jesaja-Worte in der J o s i a z e i t . Wissenschaft-

lic h e Monographien zum A!ten and Neuen Testament, 48.
Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener V e rla g , 1977.
B a rth , K a r l. Church Dogmatics. E dited by G. W. Bromiley and T. F.

Torrance. 12 vols. Edinburgh: T. and T. C la r k , 1958-
1969.
Barton, G. A. The Royal In s c r ip tio n s o f Sumer and Akkad. New Haven:

Yale U n iv e r s ity Press, 1929.
Bauer, G. L. Hebraische Mythologie des A lten and Neuen Testaments

m it P a r a lle le n aus der Mythologie anderer V o lk e r, vornehmlich
der Griechen und Roner. 2 v o ls . L e ip zig : Weyand, 1802.
Bauer, Hans. "Die G ottheiten von Ras Schamra." Z e i t s c h r i f t fu r

d ie a lt te s t a m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft 51 (1 9 3 3 ):8 1 -1 0 1 .
Bauer, Hans, and Leander, Pontus. H is to ris c h e Grammatik der

Hebraischen Sprache. Hi 1desheim: Georg 01ms, 1962.
Baumgartner, W a lte r. " Is r a e l it is c h - G r i e s c h is c h e Sagenbeziehungen."

In Zum A lten Testament and s e in e r Umwelt. Leiden:
E. J. B r i l l , 1959.
Becker, Joachim. Is a ia s — der Prophet und sein Buch. S tu ttg arter

B ib e l-S tu d ien 30. S tu ttg art: Katholisches Bibelwerk,
1968.
Bentzen, Aage. In tro d u c tio n to the Old Testament. Copenhagen:

G. E. C. Gad P u b lis h e r, 1952.
___________ . King and Messiah. London: Lutterw orth Press, 1955.
___________ . "King Id e o lo g y -' Urmensch' - 'T r o o n s b e s t ijg in g s fe e s t' . "

Studia Theoloqica 2 (1 9 5 0 ):1 4 3 - 5 7 .
B ernhardt, K a r l-H e in z , e t a l . “b a r a ' . " Theological D ic tio n a ry

o f the Old Testament, 1974. 2 :2 42 -4 9 .
B e r t h o l e t , A lf r e d . Das Buch h 'e s e k ie l. Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum

Alten Testament. L e ip z ig : Verlag von J. C. B. Mohr, 1897.
B e r t h o l e t , A . , and G a llin g , K. H e s e k ie l. Handbuch zum Alten

Testament. Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr (Paul S ie b e c k ), 1936.
308
Sevan, A. A. "The King o f Tyre in E zekiel X X V I I I . " Journal o f

Theological Studies 4 (1 9 0 2 -1 9 0 3 ):5 0 0 -0 5 .
Bewer, J u liu s A. The Book o f Ezekiel I I , Harper's Annotated B ible

S eries. New York: Harper & B roth ers , 1954.
Beyse, K. M. " f t f ’o . " Theoloqisches Worterbuch zum Alten

Testament*. r Edited by G. T. Botterweck and H. Ringgren.
S tu ttg art: Kohlhammer, 1984. 5 :6 9 -7 3 .
B i c k e l l , G. "Aus einem B r ie fe des Herrn P r o f . 1 G. B i c k e l l . "

Z e i t s c h r i f t der Deutschen Morgen!andischen G e s e lls c h a ft
33 (1879):701 —6 .
Biel l a , Joan Copeland. D ic tio n a ry o f South A r a b ic . Harvard

Semitic S tu d ie s , 25. Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1982.
Boer, P. A. H. "An In q u ir y into the Meaning o f the Term t f S O . "

Oudtestamentische Studien 5 (1 9 4 8 ):1 9 7 -2 1 4 .
3 o u tflo w e r, Charles. The Book of I s a i a h . New York: Macmillan

Company, 1930.
Box, G. H. The Book of Is a ia h . London: S i r Isaac Pitman and Sons,

1908.
B r ig h t, J. “ Is a ia h I . " Peake's Commentary op. the B i b l e . London:

Nelson, 1962, pp. 489-515.
Briggs, C. A ., and B riggs, E. G. The Book o f Psalms. I n t e r n a t io n a l

C r i t i c a l Commentary. 2 v o ls . New York: Charles S c r ib n e r 's
Sons, 1906-07.
Brockelmarin, C a r l. Hebraische S yntax. Neukirchen: Verlag der

Buchhandlung des Erziehungsvereins, 1956.
Budde, C. “B r i e f Communications (Ps 8 2 : 6 f f . ) . “ Journal o f B i b l i c a l

Li te r a tu r e 40 (1921 ) : 3 8 -4 2 .
___________. "Poetry (Hebrew)." A D ic tio n a r y o f the B i b l e . Edited by

Jamps Hastings. New York: Charles Scribner s, 1911.
4 :2 -1 3 .
___________. "Das Hebraische K la g e lie d ." Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r d ie

a lt te s t a m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft 2 ( 1 8 8 2 ):1 -5 2 .
Bunyan, John. The Complete Works o f John Bunyan. Edited by John

P. G u l l i v e r . P h ila d e lp h ia : Bradley, Garretson S C o . ,
1873.
Burrows, M i l l a r . An O u tlin e of B i b l i c a l Theology. P h ila d e lp h ia :

Westminster Press, 1946.
C a ird , G. B. The Language and Imagery o f the B i b l e . P h ila d e lp h ia :

309
Callaghan, T. 0. "A Note on the Canaanite Background o f Psalm

8 2." C a th o lic 8 ib 1 ic a l Q u a rte rly 15 (1 9 5 3 ):3 1 1 -1 4 .
C a lv in , John. Cotranentaries on the Book o f the Prophet I s a i a h .

4 v o ls . Tra nsla te d by W illia m P r in g le . Grand Rapids:
Eeramans, 1948.
. Commentary on the Book o f Psalms. 5 v o l s . Trans

_
la te d by James Anderson. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1949.
. Theological T r e a t is e s . Translated and e d ite d by

_
J. K. S. Reid. P h ila d e lp h ia : Westminster Press, 1954.
Caquot, A. "Le Dieu 'A t h t a r el les tex te s de Ras Shamra." Syria

35 (1 9 5 8 ) : 4 8 - 5 7 .
___________ . "Les Rephaim O u g a r it iq u e s ." Syri a 37 (1 9 6 0 ):7 5 -9 3 .
C a rle y , Keith W. The Book o f the Prophet E z e k i e l . Cambridge:

U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1974.
Carmignac, J. "P recisions au Vocabulaire de l'H e bre u B ib liq u e ."

Vetus Testamentum 5 (1 9 5 5 ):3 4 5 -6 5 .
Cassuto, Umberto. A Commentary on the Book o f Genesis. 2 v ols.

1st English ed. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, Hebrew U n iv e r s ity ,
1961-64.
___________ . The Goddess Anath. Translated by I . Abrahams.

Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, The Hebrew U n i v e r s i t y , 1971.
___________ . " I I nome d iv in o El n e l l ' a n t i c o I s r a e l e . " Studi e

M a t e r i a l i di S to r ia d e l l e R e liq io n i 8 ( 1 9 3 2 ):1 2 5 - 4 5 .
C a s t e l l i n o , G. "Les O rigines de la C i v i l i s a t i o n selon les Textes

Bibliques e t le s Textes Cuneiformes." Vetus Testamentum
Supplements 4 (1 9 5 7 ):1 1 6 -3 7 .
Chafer, L. Sperry. Systematic Theology. 8 v o ls. D a lla s : Dallas

Seminary P ress, 1947-48.
Charles, Robert H . , gen. ed. The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha

o f the Old Testament. 2 v o ls . Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1913.
Cheminant, P i e r r e . Les Propheties d'E zechiel contre Tyr ( 2 6 - 2 8 : 1 9 ) .

P a r is : Letouzey e t Ane, 1912.
Cheyne, T. K. The O rig in and Religious Contents o f the P s a l t e r .

London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1891.
___________ . The Prophecies o f I s a i a h . New York: Thomas

W h itta k e r , 1890.
310
__________ . The Book of the Prophet I s a i a h . New York: Dodd,

Mead, & C o . , 1898.
__________ . "Recent Study o f I s a i a h ." The Journal o f B ib lic a l

Li t e r a t u r e 16 (1 8 9 7 ):1 3 1 -3 5 .
___________. In tro d u c tio n to the Book o f I s a i a h . London: A. & C.

B la ck , 1895.
C hilds , Brevard S. In tro d u c tio n to the Old Testament as S c r ip t u r e .

P h ila d e lp h ia : Fortress Press, 1979.
__________ . Myth and R e a lity in the Old Testament. Naper

v ille : Alec R. Allen son, 1960.
Chromatius A q u ile ie n s is T ractatus 50. In Corpus Christianorum 9a

T u rn h o lti: Typographii Brepols Editores P o n t i f i c i i , 1974:
445.
Chrysostom, John Homilies on the S ta tu e s . Nicene and Post-Nicene

F a th e rs. 1st S erie s. New York: C h r is tia n L it e r a t u r e
Company, 1886-1890. 9 :3 31 -4 8 9.
Cicero De Natura Deorum Academica. Translated by H. Rackham.

Loeb C la s s ic a l L ib r a r y .
Claudius Marius V i c t o r i u s . A le th e ia . In Corpus Christianorum 128.

T u rn h o lti: Typographii Brepols Editores P o n t i f i c i i , 1960.
C lay, A. T. The O rig in o f B i b l i c a l T r a d i t i o n s . Yale O rien tal

S eries Research, 12. New Haven, CT: Yale U n iv e r s ity
Press, 1923.
__________ . L e tte rs and Transactions from Cappadocia.

Babylonian In s c r ip tio n s in the C o lle c tio n o f James B.
N ie s , 4. New Haven, CT: Yale U n iv e r s ity Press, 1927.
C la rk e , Adam. I s a i a h . In The Holy B ib le Containing the Old and

New Testaments w ith Commentary and C r i t i c a l Notes. New
York: G. Lane & C. B. T ip p e t, 1845.
Clements, R. E. Prophecy and Covenant. Studies in B i b lic a l

Theology, 43. N a p e r v i l l e , IL: Alec C. A llenson, 1965.
. God and Temple. P h ila d e lp h ia : F ortre s s Press,

1965.
___________. Is a ia h 1 -3 9 . New Century B ib le . Grand Rapids: Wm. B.

Eerdmans, 1980.
C l i f f o r d , Richard J. The Cosmic Mountain in Canaan and the Old

Testament. Harvard Sem itic Monographs, 4. Cambridge:
Harvard U n iv e r s ity Press, 1972.
311
Closen, Gustav E. Die Siinde der 'Sohne G o tte s 1. Scripta

P o n tific ii In s titu ti B ib lic i. Rome: P o n tific a l
B i b l i c a l I n s t i t u t e , 1937.
Cobb, W. H. "The Ode in Is a ia h X IV." Journal o f B ib lic a l Lanquaqe

15 (1 8 9 6 ):1 8 -3 5 .
Commodiannus In s tru c tio n s o f Commodiannus. Ante-Nicene Fathers.

4 :203-218.
Cooke, G. A. The Book o f E z e k i e l . I n te r n a t io n a l C r i t i c a l

Commentary. Edinburgh: T. & T. C la r k , 1936.
Cooke, Gerald. "The Sons o f (t h e ) G od(s)." Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r d ie

a lt te s t a m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft 76 ( 1 9 6 4 ) :22-47.
Cooke, G. H. "The Paradise S tory o f Ezekiel 28." In Old

Testament Essays. Edited by D. C. Simpson. London:
L. G r i f f i n , 1927.
Cooley, R. "Jung, le v i- S t r a u s s and the I n t e r p r e t a t io n o f Myth."

C r i t e r i o n ( U n iv e r s i t y o f Chicago) 8 (1 9 6 8 -6 9 ):1 2 - 1 6 .
C o r n i l l , Carl H e in ric h . Das Buch des Propheten E z e c h ie l. L e ip z ig :

J. C. H in ric h s , 1886.
C r a i g i e , P. C. " H e le l, A th ta r and Phaethon ( I s a i a h 1 4 : 1 2 -1 5 )."

Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r d ie a lt te s t a m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft 85
(1 9 7 3 ):2 2 3 -2 5 .
"The Poetry o f U g a r it and I s r a e l . " Tyndale Buil e t i n

22 (1971 ): 3-31.
Crim, K eith R. "Old Testament T ra n sla tio n s and I n t e r p r e t a t io n s . "

In t e r p r e t a t io n 32 (1 9 7 8 ):1 4 4 -5 7 .
Cross, Frank Moore. "The D ivin e W arrior in I s r a e l ' s E arly C u l t . "

In B i b l i c a l M otiv e s . Edited by Alexander Altmann.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard U n iv e r s ity Press, 1966.
___________ . "Yahweh and the God o f the P a t r ia r c h s ." Harvard

Theological Review 55 (1 9 6 2 ):2 2 5 -5 9 .
___________ . "^ k ." Theological D ic tio n a ry o f the Old Testament.

Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974. 1 :2 4 2 -6 1 .
___________ . Canaanite Myth, and Hebrew E pic. Cambridge, MA:

Harvard U n iv e r s ity Press, 1973.'
___________ . "The Council o f Yahweh in Second Is a i a h ." Journal of

Near East Studies 12 (1 9 5 3 ):2 7 4 -7 7 .
Cyprian T re a tis e s The Ante-Nicene Fathers. 5 :421-557.
312
Cyprian “L e t t e r s . " In The Fathers o f Church. Vol. 51. Trans

lated by Rose B. Donna. Washington, D.C.: C a th o lic
U n iv e r s ity o f America Press, 1964.
____________E p i s t l e s . Ante-Nicene Fathers. 5:275-409.
C y r il o f Jerusalem C a te c h e tic a l L e c tu re s . Nicene and Post-Nicene

Fathers. 2nd S e rie s . New York: C h ris tia n L i t e r a t u r e
Company, 1890-1900. 7 :1 -1 5 7 .
Dahood, M itc h e ll J. Psalms I —111. Anchor B ib le . Vols. 16-17A.

Garden C i t y , NY: Doubleday and Company, 1970-1973. •
"Animadversiones." B ib !ic a 44 ( 1 9 6 3 ) :7C-73.
“H ebrew -U garitic Lexicography I . " B ib iic a 44

CT963):2 8 9 -3 0 3 .
"Punic hkkbm J 1 and Isa ia h 1 4 : 1 3 . " O r i e n t a l i a 34

(T 9 6 5 ): 170-72.
Dante A l i g h i e r i " P a r a d is o .” The Divine Comedy. T ra n s la tio n and

commentary by Charles S. S in g le to n . Boll ingen Series 8 0 .
Princeton: U n iv e r s it y Press, 1 9 7 5.
"In fe rn o ." The D ivin e Comedy. T ra n s la tio n and

commentary by Charles S. S in g le to n . Boll ingen Series 80.
Princeton: U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1970.
Davidson, A. B . , and S tre an e , A. W. The Book E z e k i e l . Cambridge

Bible f o r Schools and C olleges. Cambridge: U n i v e r s i t y
Press, 1916.
Davies, G. Henton. “An Approach to the Problem o f Old Testament

Mythology." P a le s tin e E xp lo ra tio n Q u a rte rly 88
(1 9 5 6 ):8 3 —91.
Day, John. "The Daniel o f U g a r it and Ezekiel and the Hero o f the
Book o f D a n ie l." Yetus Testamentum 30 ( 1 9 8 0 ) :1 7 4-84 .
De Langhe, Robert De. Les Textes de Ras Shamra-Uqarit e t leu rs

Rapports avec 1e M i l i e u B lb llq u e de 1 Ancien Testament.
2 v o ls. P aris : Desclee de Brouwer, 1945.
"La B ible e t la L i t t e r a t u r e U g a r itiq u e ." In L'Ancien

Testament e t I ' O r i e n t , pp. 6 5 -8 7 . Louvain-Leuven, 1957.
D e lit z s c h , Franz. The Prophecies o f I s a i a h . B i b l i c a l Commentary

on the Old Testament. 1877. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1949.
D e lit z s c h , F r i e d r i c h . Assyrisches Handworterbuch. L e ip zig :

J. C. Hinrichsche Buchhandlung, 1896.
313
___________. Die Lese-und S c h re ib fe h le r Texte e in v e r l e i b t e n

Randnoten K l a s s i f i z i e r t . B e r lin : W. de G riiyter & C o., 1920.
D e lla Vida. G. L e v i. "El cElyon in Genesis 1 4 :1 8 -2 0 ." Journal of

B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e 63 ( 1 9 4 4 ) : 1 - 9 .
De Moor, .1. C. "The Sem itic Pantheon o f U g a r i t . " U q a r l t Forschunqen

2 ( 1 9 7 0 ) :187-228.
De Vaux, R. "Recension.e Revue B ib liq u e 45 (1 9 3 6 ):2 7 8 -8 2 .
. "Les Textes de Ras Shamra e t 1 'Ancien Testament."

Revue B ib liq u e 46 (1 9 3 7 ):5 2 6 -5 5 .
Dexinger, Ferdinand. S turz der Gottersohne Oder Engel vor der

S i n t f l u t ? Wiener Beitrage zu r Theologie, 13. Vienna:
Herder & C o . , 1966.
Dhortne, E. Job. Tra n sla te d by Harold Knight. London: Thomas

Nelson & Sons, 1967.
. Les R e lig io n s de Baby!onie e t d 1A s s y r ie . Les Anciennes

Religions O r i e n t a le s . P a ris : Presses U n i v e r s i t a i r e s de
France, 1949.
Dhorme, P ., and V in ce n t, P. "Les C h e ru b in s .” Revue B ib liq u e 39

(1 9 2 6 ):3 2 8 - 5 8 ; 481-95.
D i j k , H. J. van. E z e k i e l's Prophecy on Tyre (Ez. 2 6 : 1 - 2 8 : 1 9 ) :

A New Approach. B ib lic a e t O r i e n t a l i a , 20. Rome:
P o n t i f i c a l B i b l i c a l I n s t i t u t e , 1968.
Dillmann, August. Der Prophet J e s a ia . L e ip z ig : S. H i r z e l , 1890.
Diodorus o f S i c i l y Hi s t o r y . Tra nsla te d by C. H. O ld fa th e r . Loeb

Classic L ib r a ry .
Dobbins, A u s tin . M ilto n and tne Book o f R e v ela tio n : The Heavnely
Cyc le . Tuscaloosa, AL: U n i v e r s i t y o f Alabama Press, 1975.
Donner, H ., and R o l l i g , W. Kanaanaische und Aramaische I n s c h r i f t e n .

3 v o ls . Wiesbaden: Otto H arras s o w itz, 1964-68.
Dowey, Edward A . , J r . The Knowledge o f God in C a l v i n 's Theology.

New fo rk : Columbia U n iv e r s it y Press, 1952.
Dracontius Carmen Deo. P a tro lo q ia L a tin a . P a ris , 1 8 5 7 f f . 60:

117-902.
D re s s ie r, H. H. P. "The I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the U g a r i t i c Dnil w ith

the Daniel o f E z e k i e l. " Vetus Testamentum 29 (1 9 7 9 ):1 5 2 -6 1 .
314
D r i v e r , G. R. "L in g u is tic and Textual Problems; E z e k i e l. " B ib lic a

19 (1 9 3 8 ):1 7 5 -8 7 .
" E z e k ie l: L in g u is t ic and Textual Problems." B ib lic a

35 ( 1 9 5 4 ) :145-59.
"Uncertain Hebrew Words." Journal o f Theological

Studies 45 (1 9 4 4 ):1 3 -1 4 .
___________. Canaanite Myths and Legends. Old Testament Studies 3.

Edinburgh: T. & T. C la r k , 1956.
___________. " Is a ia h 1-39: Textual and L in g u is t ic Problems."

Journal o f Semitic Studies 13 (1 9 6 8 ):3 6 -5 7 .
"Notes and S tu d ie s ." Journal o f Theoloqical Studies

2 (1 9 5 1 ):1 7 -3 0 .
D r i v e r . S. R. An Introduction to the L i t e r a t u r e o f the Old Testament.

New York: Charles S c r ib n e r 's Sons, 1910.
Duhm, Bernhard. Das 3uch J e s a ia . Gottingen: Vandenhoeck &

Ruprecht, 1892; rev. 1922; r e p r i n t ed. 1968.
D u lle s , Avery. "Symbol. Myth, and B i b l i c a l R e v e la tio n ." Theological

Studies 27 (1 9 6b):1 -2 6 .
Dupont-Sommer, A . , and S tarcky, Jean. Les I n s c r ip tio n s Araneennes

de S f i r e . Paris: Imprimerie N a tio n a le , 1958.
___________ . "Note exeqetique sur Is a i e 1 4 :1 6 -2 1 ." Revue d ' h i s t o i r e

des Relig ions 13 (1 9 4 8 ):7 2 -8 0 .
Dus, J. "Melek §or-Melqart? (Zur I n t e r p r e t a t io n von Ezek 2 8 : 1 1 - 1 9 ) ."

Archiv O r ie n ta ln i 26 (1 9 5 8 ):1 7 9 -8 5 .
Dussaud, R. "Breves romarques sur les t a b l e t t e s de Ras Shamra."

Syria 12 (19 31 ):7 7 .
___________ . Les Decourvertes de Ras Shamra ( U q a r i t ) e t 1 'Ancien

Testament. Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1941.
___________ . "Les Pheniciens au Negeb e t en A r a b ie ." Revue

d ' H i s t o i r e des Religions 108 ( 1 9 3 3 ):5 -4 9 .
___________. Les Religions des H i t t i t e s e t des H o u r ite s , des

Pheniciens e t des S yriens. P aris: U n i v e r s i t a i r e s de France,
1945.
Eaton, J. H. "The Origin o f the Book o f I s a i a h ." Vetus

Testamentum 9 (1 9 5 9 ):1 3 8 -5 7 .
315
E b e lin g , E. "Eine neue Ta fe l des Akkadischen Zu-Mythus." Revue

d ‘ A s s yrio lo q ie e t d'Archeologie O r i e n t a l e 46 (1 9 5 2 ):2 5 -4 1 .
"Ein H e ldenlie d auf T i g l a t p i l e s e r I und der Anfang

eTner neuen Version von 1Is t a r s H o l l e n f a h r t 1 nach e in e r
S c n u le rta fe l aus Assur." O r i e n t a l i a 18 ( 1 9 4 9 ) :30-39.
. "Raub der S c h ic k s a ls ta fe ln durch ZQ.” In

A1 t o r i e n t a l i s c h e Texte zum Alten Testasser.t. B e rlin :
W a lte r de Gruyter & C o., 1926, pp. 1 41-43.
. Tod und Leben nach den V orstellunqen der B a b y lo n ie r.

B e r l in : W alter de G ruyter, 1931.
. "Unterw eltsm ythen." In A 1 t o r ie n ta lis c h e Texte zum

A lte n Testament. B e r lin : W alter de G ruyter & Co., 1926,
pp. 206-12.
Edwards, Jonathan. Freedomo f the W i l l . Vol. 1 o f Works of

Jonathan Edwards. Edited by Paul Ramsey. New Haven:
Yale U n iv e r s ity Press, 1957.
E h r l i c h , Arnold B. Randqlossen zur Hebraischen B i b e l . T e x t k r i t i s c h e s ,

Sprachliches und Sachliches. 7 v o ls . L e ip zig : J. C.
H in r ic h s , 1912.
Eichhorn, J. G. L. E in le itu n g in das A l t e Testament. 2nd ed.

L e ip z ig : Weidmanns, 1787.
E ic h r o d t , W alther. E z e k ie l. Old Testament L ib r a ry . London:

SCM Press, 1970.
___________ . Der Herr der Gesctrichte. Die Botschaft des Alten

Testaments. 1 7 /1 1 . S t u t t g a r t : Calwer Verlagshaus, 1967.
___________ . Theology o f the Old Testament. 2 v o ls . Translated by

J. A. Baker? Old Testament L i b r a r y . London: SCM Press,
1967.
E i s s f e l d t , 0. Baal Zaphon, Zeus Kasios und der Durchzug der

I s r a e l i ten durchs Meer. H a lle ; Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1932.
"El and Yahweh." Journal o f S em itic Studies 1

( T 9 5 6 ) :25 -3 7.
___________ . El im U g a ritisc h e n Pantheon. B e r l in : Akademie

Ve r I a g , 195)7
Kleine S c h r i f t e n . 6 v o ls. Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr

("Paul S ieb e c k), 1962-79.
___________ . The Old Testament An I n t r o d u c t i o n . Translated by

P. R. Ackroyd. New York: Harper & Row, P ublishers, 1965.
316
E ita n , Is ra e l. "A C on trib u tio n to Isaiah Exegesis (Notes and

Short Studies in B i b l i c a l P hilo s o p h y )." Hebrew Union
College Annual 12-13 (1937.-38): 5 5-88.
E l l i s o n , H. L. "The Book o f E z e k i e l. " The New Bible D ic t io n a r y .

Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1962.
___________. E z e k ie l: The Man and His Message. Grand Rapids:

Eerdmans, 1956.
Enciso, Jesus. "Los 'H ijo s de D io s ’ en Gen 5 : 1 - 4 . " Estudios

Bib!icos 3 (1 9 4 4 ):1 8 9 -2 2 7 .
Erlandsson, Seth. The Burden of Babylon. Coniectanea B ib lic a —

Old Testament S e r ie s , 4. Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1970.
Esser, H. H. "C re a tio n ." The New I n te r n a t io n a l D ic tio n a ry o f the

New Testament Theology. Edited by C olin Brown. E xter:
P aternoster Press, 1975.
Evans, J. M. The Paradise Lost and the Genesis T r a d i t i o n . Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1968.
Even-Shoshan, Abraham, ed. A New Concordance of the B i b l e . Jerusalem:

K ir y a t Sepher, 1982.
Ewald, H. The Prophet I s a i a h . Translated by 0. Glover. London:

Bell and Daldy, 1869.
F a i r b a i r n , P a t r ic k . Ezexiel and the Book o f His Prophecy: An

E x p o s itio n . Edinburgh: T. & T. C la r k , 1876.
F a lk e n s te in , A. "Zu ' Inannas Gang zur U n t e r w e l t ' ." Archiv fu r

O rie n t Forschung 14 (1 9 4 2 ):1 1 3 -3 8 .
Fausset, A. R. "The Book o f the Prophet E z e k i e l. " In A Commentary

on the Old and New Testaments. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1945. 4 :203-382.
___________ . "The Book o f the Prophet I s a i a h . " In A Commentary

on the Old and New Testaments. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1945. 3:566-767.
Feinberg, Charles Lee. The Prophecy o f E z e k i e l . Chicago: Moody

Press, 1969.
Fensham, F. C. "Thunder-Stones in U g a r i t . " Journal o f Near

Eastern Studies 18 (1 9 5 9 ):2 7 3 -7 4 .
. "Winged Gods and Goddesses in the U g a r i t i c T a b le ts ."

_
Oriens Antiguus 5 ( 1 9 6 6 ) :1 57-64.
Ferch, A rth u r. The Son o f man in Daniel Seven. Berrien Springs, MI:
Andrews U n iv e r s ity Press, 1979.
317
F e u i l l e t , Andre. "Les F i l s de 1'homme e t la t r a d i t i o n B i b l i q u e . "

Revue B ib liq u e 60 (1 9 5 3 ):1 7 0 -2 0 2 , 321-46.
F rie d ric h s e n , Douglas W. “The Hermeneutics o f Typology." Ph.D.

Thesis, D allas Theological Seminary, 1970.
F is h , T. “The Zu B i r d . " B u l l e t i n o f the John Rylands L ib r a r y

31 (1 9 4 8 ):1 6 2 -7 1 .
Fis ch , S. E z e k i e l . Soncino Books o f the B ib le . London: Soncino

Press, 1950.
F is h e r , Loren R . , ed. Ras Shamra P a r a l l e l s . Analeta O r i e n t a l i a ,

v o l. 2. Rome: P o n tific iu m In s titu tu m Biblicum, 1975.
F itzm y e r, J. “The Aramaic In s c r ip tio n s o f S e f ir e I and I I . "

Journal o f the American O rie n ta l S ociety 8 (1961 ): 1 7 8 -2 2 2 .
___________ . "The Phoenician I n s c r ip tio n from P y rg i." Journal o f the

American O r ie n ta l Society 8 6 (1 9 6 6 ): 285-97.
Fleming, Wallace B. The H is to ry of T y r e . Columbia U n i v e r s i t y

O rie n ta l S tu d ie s, 10. New York: Columbia U n iv e r s ity
Press, 1915.
F le t c h e r , H a rris Fra n cis . M ilt o n 's Semitic S tudie s . New York:

Gordian Press, 1966.
Fohrer, Georg. E z e c h ie l. Handbuch zum A lte n Testament, 13.

Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr (P. S ie b e c k ), 1955.
___________. Das Buch Jesaja I . 3 v o ls . Ziircher Bibelkommentar.

S tu ttg art: Zw ingli V erlag, 1960-67.
F o r r e r , E. 0. "Eine Geschichte des Gottes Konigtums aus dem H a tti

Reiche." Annuaire de 1 ' i n s t i t u t de P h ilo lo g ie e t d ' h i s t o i r e
O rie n ta le s 4 ( l 9 3 6 ) :687-713.
F o s te r, B. R. "Wisdom and the Gods in Ancient Mesopotamia."

O r i e n t a l i a 43 (1 9 7 4 ):3 4 4 - 5 4 .
F r a n k f o r t , Henry. C y lin d e r S ea ls . London: Macmillan C o ., 1939.
Freedy, K. S. and Redford, D. B. "The Dates in Ezekiel in R e lation

to B i b l i c a l , Babylonian and Egyptian Sources." Journal of
the American O r ie n ta l S ociety 90 (1 9 7 0 ):4 6 2 -8 5 .
Freehof, Solomon B. Book o f I s a i a h . The Jewish Commentary f o r

Bible Readers. New York: Union o f American Hebrew
Congregations, 1972.
F r i c k , Karl R. H. Das Reich Satans. Vol. 1. Graz, A u s tr ia :

Akademische Druck-Sund V e r la g s a n s ta lt, 1982.
318
F r i t s c h , Charles T. " B ib lic a l Typology." B ib lio th e c a Sacra 104

(1 9 4 7 ):8 7 —100.
F r o s t, S. B. "Eschatology and Myth." Vetus Testamentum 2 (1 9 52 ):

70-80.
Frye, Roland Mushat. God, Man, and Satan. P rin ce ton, NJ: Princeton
U n iv e r s it y Press, 1960.
Garscha, Jorg. Studien zum Ezechielbuch. Eine r e d a k tio n s k r it is c h e

Untersuchunq von 1 - 3 9 . Europaische H oc hs chuIs c hrifte n.
Vol. 23. F ra n k fu rt: Peter Lang, 1974.
G aster, T. H. "A Canaanite R itual Drama, the Spring F e s tiv a l of

U g a r i t . " Journal of the American O r ie n ta l S ociety 66
(1 9 4 6 ):4 9 -7 6 .
___________ . "Angels." I n t e r p r e t e r ' s D ic tio n a r y o f the B i b l e .

Edited by G. A. B u t t r ic k . N a s h v ille : Abingdon Press, 1962.
1 :1 28 -3 4 .
___________ . "E zekiel 2 8 :1 2 ." Expository Times 51 (1 9 3 9 -4 0 ):1 5 6 .
___________ . "E zekiel 2 8 :1 7 ." Expository Times 62 (1 9 5 1 ):1 2 4 .
___________ . Myth, Legend and Custom in the Old Testament.

New York: Harper and Row, 1969.
___________ . "Myth, Mythology." I n t e r p r e t e r ' s D ic tio n a ry o f the

B ib le . Edited by G. A. B u t t r i c k . N a s h v ille : Abingdon
Press, 1962. 3:4 81 -8 7 .
. T h e sp is . New York: Henry Schuman, 1950.
Thespis. New York: Harper and Row, 1966.
Gehman, Henry S. "Some Types o f Errors o f Transmission in the LXX."

Vetus Testamentum 3 (1 9 5 3 ):3 9 7 -4 0 0 .
. "The ’ Burden' o f the Prophets." Jewish Q u a rte rly

Review 31 (1940-41 ):1 0 7 -2 1 .
G e l l e r , Samuel. "Die Rezension von ’ I s t a r s H o l l e n f a h r t ' aus Assur."

O r i e n t a l i s t i s c h e L ite r a t u r z e i t u n q 20 ( 1 9 1 7 ) :4 1 -4 8 .
Gese, Hartmut. Die Reliqionen A l t s y r i e n s . The Religionem der

Menschheit, 1 0 :2 . S tu ttg a rt: W. Kohlhammer, 1970, pp. 1-232.
Gesenius, W. Der Prophet Jes a ia . L e ip z ig : Vogel, 1821.
Gesenius, W a lte r , and Buhl, F. Hebraisches und Aramaisches

Handworterbuch zum Alten Testament. Gottingen:
S p r in g e r -V e rla g , 1949.
319
Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar. 2nd ed. Edited by E. Kautzsch.

Translated by A. E. Cowley. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910.
Gibson, J. C. L. Canaanite Myths and Legends. Edinburgh: T. & T.

C la rk , 1978.
___________. “Myth, Legend and F o lk -lo r e in the U g a r i t i c Keret and

Aqhat T e x ts ." Vetus Testamentum Supplements 28 ( 1 9 7 5 ):6 0 -6 8 .
Ginsberg, H. L. "Lexicographical Notes." Vetus Testamentum

Suplements, 1 6 , pp. 71-82. Leiden: E. J. B r i l l , 1967.
___________. Trans. " U g a r itic Myths, E pics, and Legends." In

Ancient Near Eastern T e x ts , pp. 1 29-55. 3rd ed. Edited by
James B. P r it c h a r d . Princeton: Princeton U n iv e rs ity
Press, 1969.
___________. The Book o f Is a i a h . (New T r a n s la t io n ) P h ila d e lp h ia :

Jewish P u b lic a tio n Society o f America, 1973.
___________. "Reflexes o f Sargon in Is a ia h a f t e r 715 B.C.E."

Journal o f the American O rien tal S o c ie ty 88 (1 9 6 8 ):4 7 -5 3 .
___________. "The U g a r i t i c Texts and Textual C r i t i c i s m . " Journal

o f B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e 62 (1 9 4 3 ):1 0 9 -1 5 .
Ginsberg, Louis. The Legends of the Jews. 7 v o ls . P h ila d e lp h ia :

Jewish P u b lic a tio n Society of America, 1909.
Godbey, A llen H. "The Hebrew Masai." American Journal of Sem itic Languages
and L i t e r a t u r e 39 (1 9 2 2 -2 3 ):8 9 -1 0 8 .
Goecze, A lb re c h t. " H i t t i t e Myths, Epics, and Legends." In Ancient

Near Eastern T e x ts , pp. 111-13. 3rd ed. Edited by James B.
P r it c h a r d . P rinceton: Princeton U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1969.
Goldman, M. D. "The Isa ia h MSS o f the Dead Sea S c r o l l s ." A u s tr a lia n

B i b l i c a l Review 1 (1 9 5 1 ):1 -2 2 .
Gonzales, A. "Le Psaume LXXXII." Vetus Testamentum 13 (1 9 63 ):

293-309.
Gordon, Cyrus H. Before the B i b l e . New York: Harper 4 Row, 1952.
___________. "Leviathan: Symbol o f E v i l . " In B i b l i c a l M o t i f s ,

pp. 1 -9 . Edited by Alexander Altmann. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1966, pp. 1 -9 .
___________. "A Marriage o f the Gcds in Canaanite Mythology."

B u l l e t i n o f the American Schools o f O r ie n ta l Research
55 (1 9 3 7 ):2 9 —33.
320
___________. U g a r i t i c L i t e r a t u r e : A Comprehensive T ra n s la tio n

o f the Poetic and Prose T e x ts . S c rip ta P o n t i f i c i i
I n s t i t u t i B i b l i c i 98. Rome: P o n tific iu m In s titu tio n
Biblicum , 1349.
___________ . U g a r i t i c Handbook. Analaecta O r i e n t a l i a 25. Rome:

P o n tific iu m In s titu tu m B iblicum , 1947.
G ottwald, Norman K. A Light to the N a tio n s . New York: Harper &

Broth ers, 1959.
___________ . A ll the Kingdoms o f the E a r t h . New York: Harper &

Row, 1964.
___________ . "Poetry (Hebrew)." I n t e r p r e t e r ' s D ic tio n a ry of

the B ib le . Edited by G. A. B u t t r i c k . N a s h v ille : Abingdon
Press, 1962. 3:8 29 -3 8 .
Gowan, Donald E. When Man Becomes God. Pittsburgh Theological

Monograph S e r ie s , 6. P itts b u rg h : Pickwick Press, 1975.
Gray, George Buchanan. The Book o f I s a i a h , I-X X XIX . I n te r n a t io n a l

C r i t i c a l Commentary. Edinburgh: T. & T. C la r k , 1912.
___________ . The Forms o f Hebrew P o e tr y . Lib ra ry o f B i b l i c a l

S tudie s. Prolegomenon by David Noel Freedman. Jerusalem:
KTAV Publishing House, 1972.
Gray, J. "Day S ta r ." I n t e r p r e t e r ' s D ic tio n a r y of the B i b l e . Edited

by G. A. B u t t r i c k . N a s h v ille : Abingdon Press, 1962.
1:785.
___________ . "The Hebrew Conception o f the Kingship o f God."

Vetus Testamentum 6 ( 1 9 5 6 ):2 6 8 - 8 5 .
___________ . “The Desert God ' A t t r in the L i t e r a t u r e and R e lig ion

o f Canaan." Journal o f Near Eastern Studies 8 (1 9 4 9 ):7 3 -8 3 .
___________. The KRT Text in the L i t e r a t u r e o f Ras Shamra.

Documenta e t Monumenta O r ie n t is Antiqui 5. Leiden:
E. J. B r i l l , 1955.
___________. The Legacy of Canaan. 2nd ed. Supplements to Vetus

Testamentum V. Leiden: E. J. B r i l l , 1965.
"The Rephaim." P a le s tin e E xploration Qua r t e r l y

(T 9 4 9 ): 127-39.
Grayson, A. K. "The Myth o f Zu." In Ancient Near Eastern T e x ts .

3rd ed. Edited by James B. P r it c h a r d . Prin ceton:
Princeton U n iv e r s it y Press, 1969, pp. 514-17.
321
Gregory the Great Book o f Pastoral Rule. Nicene and Post-Nicene

Fathers. 2nd S erie s. New York: C h r is tia n L i t e r a t u r e
Company, 1890-1900. 1 2 :1 -7 2 .
__________ E p i s t l e s . Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. 2nd S eries.

New York: C h r is tia n L i t e r a t u r e Company, 1890-1900.
12:73-243.
__________ XL Homiliarum in E v a n g e lia . P atro lo g ia L a tin a .

Edited by J. P. Migne, 1849. 76:1075-1311.
E xpo sitio Li brum Job. P a tro lo g ia L a tin a . Edited by

J. P. Migne, 1949. 7 6 :1 -7 8 2 .
Gregory Nazianzen S e le c t O ra tio n s . Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.

2nd S e rie s . New York: C h r is tia n L i t e r a t u r e Company,
1890-1900. 7:2 03 -4 3 4.
Greqory Thaumaturqus Four Hom ilies. Ante-Nicene Fathers.

6 :5 8 -7 1 .
Gregory o f Nyssa C h r i s t i Ressurrectionen. Orat 1. P a tro lo g ia

Graeca. Edited by J. P. Migne, 1863 4 6:59 9 -6 23 .
___________Cantica Canticorum H o m iliae, 14. P a tro lo g ia Graeca.

Edited by J. P. Migne Ed. 1863. 44:85 7 -8 84 ; 1061-1088.
G r e lo t , P. " I s a i e 1 4:12-15 e t son A r r ie r e - p la n M y th o lo g iq u e ."

Revue d ' h i s t o i r e des r e li g i o n s 149 (1 9 5 6 ):1 8 -4 8 .
___________. "Sur la V o c a lis a tio n de 7 'p ■> n ( I s . XIV 1 2 ) ." Vetus

Testamentum 6 ( 1 9 5 6 ) :3 0 3 -4 .
___________. Les Poemes du S e r v i t e u r . P aris: Les E d itio n s

au C e r f , 1981.
Gressmann, Hugo. Der Messias. Forschungen zur R e lig io n und

L i t e r a t u r des A lten und Neuen Testaments. Gottingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1929.
Guillaume, A. "The Use o f ‘i f n in Exod 17:13, Isa 1 4:12, and

Job 1 4 :1 0 ." Journal o f Theological Studies 14 (1 9 6 3 ):9 1 -9 2 .
Gunkel, Hermann. Die Psalmen. G o ttin g e r Handkommentar zum Alten

Testament 2 /2 . Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1926.
___________. Schopfung und Chaos in U r z e i t und E n d z e it .

Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1895.
___________. Genesis. G o ttin g e r Handkommentar zum Alten

Testament. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1901.
Giiterbock, H. G. Kumarbi, Mythen vom churristschen Kronos.

Is ta n b u le r S c h r i f t e n , 16. Zurich: Europa V e rla g , 1546.
322
. "The F i t t i t e Version o f the Hurrian Kumarbi Myths:

_ O r ie n ta l Forerunners o f Hesiod." American Journal of
Archaeology 52 ( 1 9 4 8 ) : 1 23-34.
. “The Song o f Ullikummi. Revised Text of the H i t t i t e

_
Myth." Journal o f Cuneiform Studies 5 (1 9 5 1 ):1 3 5 -6 1 .
Guthe, H. Das Zu k u n fts b ild des J e s a ia . L e ip z ig : B r e itk o p t &

H a r t e l , 1885.
Haag, E rn st. Der Mensch am Anfanq. T r i e r e r Theologische Studien 24.

T rie r: P a u lin u s -V e rla g , 1970.
Haag, H. “ 7 3 ." Theological D ic tio n a r y o f the Old Testament.

Edited by G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren.
T ranslated by John W i l l i s . Grand ra p id s: Eerdmans, 1975.
2 :1 4 5 -5 9 .
Habel, Norman C. "Ezekiel 28 and the F a ll o f the F i r s t Man."

Concord Theological Monthly 38 (1 9 6 7 ):5 1 6 -2 4 .
Hanson, P. D. "Old Testament A pocalyptic Reexamined." In t e r p r e t a t io n

25 (1 9 7 1 ):4 5 4 -7 9 .
. "R ebellion in Heaven, A z a z e l, and Euhemeristic Heroes

_
in 1 Enoch 6 - 1 1 . " Journal of B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e 96 (1 9 77 ):

195-233.
. The Dawn of A p o c a ly p tic . P h ila d e lp h ia : Fortress

_
Press, 1975.
Harden, Donald. The Phoenicians. London: Thames and Hudson, 1962.
H a rford, John B. Studies in the Book o f E z e k i e l . Cambridge:

H a r r is , Z e l l i g S. A Grammar o f the Phoenitian Language. American

O r ie n ta l S e rie s , 8. New Haven, CT: American O rie n ta l
S o c ie ty , 1936.
H a rriso n , R. K. In tro d u c tio n to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids:

Eerdmans, 1969.
H a r t l i c h , C . , and Sachs, W. Der Ursprunq des Mythos B e q riffe s

in der modernen B ib e l-w is s e n s c h a ft. S c h r ift e n de
Studiengemeinschaft der Evangelischen Axademien.
Tubingen: J. C. Mohr (Paul S ie b e c k ), 1952.
Hartman, Lars. Prophecy I n t e r p r e t e d . Coniectanea B i b l i c a -

New Testament S e r ie s , 1. Lund: CWK G leerup, 1966.
Haussig, Hans W. G o tte r und Mythen im vorderen O r i e n t . Worterbuch

a er Mythologie 1. S tu ttg a rt: Ernst K l e t t V e r la g , 1965.
323
Havernick, H e in ric h A. Chr. Kommentar uber den Propheten E z e c h ie l.

Erlangen: C. Heyder, 1843.
Havmo Commentariorum in Is a ia n . P a tro lo q ia L a tin a . P a r i s , 1 8 4 4 ff.

116:713-1086.
Heaton, E ric W. The Book o f D a n ie l. Torch B ible Commentary.

London: SCM Press, 1956.
H e id e l, Alexander. The Babylonian Genesis, 1st ed. Chicago:

U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago Press, 1942.
___________ . The Gilqamesh Epic and Old Testament P a r a l l e l s .

Chicago: U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago Press, 1946.
H e in r ic h , C. A. Commentar uber den Propheten E z e c h ie l. Erlangen:

C. Heyder, 1843.
Hempel, Johannes. "Wichtige Abhandlungen und Aufsatze aus

Z e i t s c h r i f t e n und Sammlungen." Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r die
a lt te s t a m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft 50 (1 9 3 2 ):1 6 9 -2 0 5 .
___________ . "Glaube, Mythos und Geschichte in Alten Testament."

Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r die a lt te s t a m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft 65
(1 9 5 3 ):1 0 9 -6 7 .
Henderson, E. The Book o f the Prophet I s a i a h . London: Hamilton,

Adams, and Co., 1857.
Hendricks, W illia m Lawrence. "The Concept o f Satan: A B i b l i c a l

and H i s t o r i c a l Approach and I t s Relevance to the C h rs itia n
L ife ." Ph.D. Thesis, Southwestern B a p tis t Theological
Seminary, 1958.
Henry, Matthew. Is a ia h . In An Exposition o f the Old and New

Testament. P h ila d e lp h ia : Barrington & Geo. D. Haswe11,
1828.
H e r b e rt, A. S. Is a ia h 1 - 3 9 . The Cambridge Commentary. Cambridge:

___________ . "The ‘ P a ra b le 1 (Masai) in the Old Testament."

S c o ttis h Journal o f Theology 7 (1 9 5 4 ):1 8 0 -9 6 .
Herdner, Andree, ed. Corpus des t a b l e t t e s en cuneiformes

a lp h a b e tiq u e s . Mission de Ras Shamra 10. 2 v o ls .
P a ris : Imprimerie N a tio n a le , L i b r a i r i e O r i e n t a l i s t e Paul
Geuthner, 1963.
Hermaniuk, Maxime. La Parabole Evanqelique: Enquete exeqetique e t

c r i t i q u e . Bruges-Paris e t Louvain: Desclee, de Brouwer,
e t B ib lio th e c a A lfo n s ia n a , 1947.
Herrmann, J. Ezechiel u b e rs e tz t und e r k l a r t . Kommentar zum Alten

Testament 11. : -'o 7 in : A. Deichertsche Werner S c h o ll, 1924.
Herveus Burgidolensis Monachus. Commentariorum in I s a i a n .
P a tro lo g ia L a tin a . P a r is , 1 8 4 4 ff. 181:17-592.
Hesiod. Theoqony. Translated by Hugh G. Evelyn-W hite. Loeb

C la s s ic a l L ib r a r y .
H ippoly tus . T r e a tis e on C h r is t and A n t i c h r i s t . Ante-Nicene Fathers.

5 :9 -2 4 1 .
H itchcock, F. R. M. “The 'S e rv a n t' in Is a ia h and the NT."

Exposi t o r 8th s e r. 14 (1 9 1 7 ):3 0 9 -2 0 .
H olscher, G. H e s e k ie l. der D ic h te r und das Buch. B e ih e ft zur

Z e i t s c h r i f t f i i r d ie al ttestam entl iche Wi ssennschaft 39.
Giessen: A lfr e d Topelmann, i 924.
Homer The Odyssey. English t r a n s la t i o n by A. T. Murray. 2 vols.

Loeb C la s s ic a l L ib ra ry .
Hooke, S. H. "The Myth and R itu a l Pattern o f the Ancient E ast."

In Myth and R i t u a l , pp. 1 -14. Edited by S. H. Hooke.
London: Oxford U n iv e r s ity Press, 1933.
Horace Odes. Translated by C. E. Bennett. Loeb C la ss ica l L ib r a r y .
H o rs t, F r i e d r i c h . Hiob. B ib lis h e r Kommentar A lte s Testament X V I / 1 .

N eukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener V e rla g , 1968.
H ossfeld, Frank. Untersuchungen zu Komposition und Theoloqie des

Ezechielbuches. Forschung zur Bibel 20. Wurzburg: Echter
V e rla g , 1977.
Howie, Carl Gordon. The Date and Composition o f E z e k i e l . Journal

o f B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e Monograph S e r ie s , Vol. 4. P h ila d e lp h ia
S o cie ty o f B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e , 1960.
Hummel, Horace 0. "The Old Testament Basis o f Typological In te r

p re ta tio n ." B i b l i c a l Research 9 (1 9 6 4 ):3 8 -5 0 .
H upfeld, H. Die Psalmen. 3 v o ls . Gotha: Verlag von F. A.

P erthes, 1860.
Ibn, Ezra. Commentary on I s a i a h . Edited by M. F rie d la n d e r. London:

N. Trubner, 1873.
Irenaeus Against H e re s ie s . Ante-Nicene F a th e rs . 1:462-567.
Ir o n s id e , H. A. Expository Notes on the Prophet I s a i a h . Neptune, NJ:

Loizeaux B roth ers , 1952.
I r w in , W illia m A. The Problem o f Ezekiel . Chicago: U n iv e rs ity o f

Chicago Press, 1943.
325
___________ . "The I n t e r p r e t a t io n o f the Old Testament." Z e its c h rift

f u r die a lt te s t a m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft 62 (1949):1 - 1 0 .
Jack, J. W. The Ras Shamra Tablets and Th e ir Bearing on the Old

Testament. Old Testament Studies I . Edinburgh: T. & I .
C la r k , 1935.
Jacob, Edmond. "Les Textes de Ras-Shamra U g a rit e t 1 ' Ancient

Testament." Revue d ' h i s t o i r e e t de philosophie re 'iiq ie u s es
27 (1 9 4 7 ):2 4 2 -5 8 .
___________ . Ras-Shamra-Uqarit e t 1 'Ancien Testament. N e u c h a te l:

Delachaux e t N i e s t l e , 1960.
Jacobs, Jack W. "The Eschatological S ig n ific a n c e of Babylon."

Th.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Grace Theological Seminary, 1971.
Jacobsen, T h o r k ild . " P r im it iv e Democracy in Ancient Mesopotamia."

In Toward the Image o f Tammuz and Other Essays on
Mesopotamian H is to ry and C u l t u r e . Edited by W. L. Moran.
Cambridge: Harvard U n iv e r s it y Press, 1970.
___________. "Sumerian Mythology: A review a r t i c l e . " Journal of

Near Eastern Studies 5 (1 9 4 6 ):1 2 8 -5 2 .
___________ . The Sumerian King L i s t . A s s y rio lo g ic a l Studies 11.

Chicago: U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago Press, 1939.
Jacquet, Louis. Les Psaumes e t le coeur de I'homme. 3 v o ls .

Gembloux: D uculot, 1975-79.
Jahnow, Hedwig. Das Hebraische L e ic h e n lie d in Rahmen der

Vo 1k e rdic htung. Beihefte zu r Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r d ie
a lt t e s t a m e n t lic h e Wissenschaft 36. Giessen: A lfr e d
Topelmann, 1923.
James, E. 0. The Ancient Gods. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sens,

1960.
J e n n i, E rnst. "Das Wort to llm im A lte n Testament." Z e its c h rift

f u r die a lt te s t a m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft 65 (1 9 5 3 /5 4 ):1 -3 5 .
Jenour, A l f r e d . The 8ook o f the Prophet I s a i a h . London: R. 8.

S eeley, 1830.
Jensen, Peter C. A. Die Kosmoloqie der B a b y lo n ie r. Strasbourg:

K. J. Triibner, 1890.
___________. "Sammlung von Assyrichen und Babylonischen Texten

in Umschrift und (Jbersetzung." Kei 1 i n s c h r i f t ! i c h e
B ib lio th e k 6 ( 1 9 0 0 ) :8 0 -9 5.
Jeremias, A lf r e d . The Old Testament in the Lig h t of the Ancient

E a s t. Theological T r a n s la tio n L ib ra ry 28. 2 v o ls .
Translated by C. L. Beaumont. London: W illiams and
Norgate, 1911.
Jerome Commentariorum in Is a ia n Prophetam. P atrolo gia L a tin a .
P aris , 1 8 4 4 f f . 24:18-678.
___________Commentariorum in Ezechielem Prophetam. P a tr o lo g ia

Latina. P a r is , 1 8 4 4 f f . 2 5:15-490.
___________ Against the P e la g ia n s . In The Fathers o f the Church,

v o l . 53. T ra n sla te d by John N. H r i t z u . Edited by Roy S.
D e f e r r a r i . Washington, D .C .: The C atholic U n i v e r s i t y
o f America Press, 1965.
___________Against R u fin u s . In The Fathers o f the Church, v o l. 53.

Translated by John H r itz u . E dited by Roy S. D e f e r r a r i .
Washington, D .C .: C a th o lic U n iv e r s it y of America Press,
1965.
___________L e tte r to C tesiphon. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.

2nd S eries. New York: C h r is tia n L ite r a t u r e Company,
1890-1900. 6 :2 7 2 .
___________Against J o v in ia n u s . Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.

2nd S erie s. New York: C h r is tia n L it e r a t u r e Company,
1890-1900. 6 :3 4 6 -4 1 6 .
__________ Against the P e la g ia n s . Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.

2nd S erie s. New York: C h r is tia n L ite r a t u r e Company,
1890-1900. 6 :4 4 8 -8 3 .
___________Hom ilies. V o l. I . In The Fathers of the Church,

vol. 48. T ra n s la te d by Marie Liquori Ewald. Edited by
Roy J D e f e r r a r i . Washington, D .C .: C a th o lic U n iv e r s ity
of America Press, 1964.
___________ L ife o f S t. Hi l a r i an. In The Fathers o f the Church,

vol. 15. T ra n s la te d and e d ite d by Roy J. D e f e r r a r i .
Washington, D .C .: Fathers o f the Church, 1952.
J i d e j i a n , Nina. Tyre Through the Ages. B e iru t: Dar El-Mashreq

Publishers, 1969.
JohnCassian Conferences. Nicene and Post-Nicene F a th e rs . 2nd

Series. New York: C h ris tia n L i t e r a t u r e Company, 1890-1900
11:295-545.
___________The I n s t i t u t e s . Nicene and Post-Nicene F a th e rs . 2nd

Series. New York: C h ris tia n L i t e r a t u r e Company, 1890-1900
1 1 : 201- 2 0 .
John of Damascus. E xpo sition of the Orthodox F a i t h . Nicene and

Post-Nicene F a th e r s . 2nd S e r ie s . New York: C h r is tia n
L ite ra tu re Company, 1890-1900. 9 :1 -1 01 .
Johnson, Aubrey R. "yyD-" Yetus Testamentum Supplements 3

(1 9 5 5 ):6 2 -6 9 . ' r 'r
327
__________ . Sacral Kingship in Ancient I s r a e l . C a rd iff:

U n i v e r s i t y o f Wales Press, 1955.
__________ . "The Role of the King in the Jerusalem C u ltu s ." In

The L a b y rin th . Edited by S. H. Hooke. New York: Macmillan
Co., 1935.'
Joines, Karen Randolph. "The Serpent in Genesis 3 ." Z e its c h rift

f u r d ie A ltte s ta m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft 87 ( 1 9 7 5 ) : 1 - 1 1 .
Jones, Douglas. "The T r a d i t i o o f the Oracles o f Is a ia h of

Jerusalem ." Z e i t s c h r i f t f i i r die A ltte s ta m e n tlic h e
Wissenschaft 67 ( 1 9 5 5 ) :226-46.
Josephus Against Apion. Translated by H. S t. J. Thackeray. Loeb

C la s s ic a l L ib r a ry .
Joiion, P. "Notes p h ilo lo g iq u es sur le te x te Hebreu d 'E ze ch ie l . . ."

B i b l i c a 10 (1 9 2 9 ):3 0 4 -1 2 .
__________ . "T ro is noms de personnages B ibliques a la lumiere des

te x te s d ’ U g a r it (Ras Shamra) m r i , ~o:7 2n .
B i b l i c a 19 (1 9 3 8 ):2 8 3 -8 5 .
Jungling, H ans-W infried. Per Tod der G o t t e r . S t u t t g a r t e r

B ib e ls tu d ie n 38. S tu ttg a rt: Katholisches Bibelw erk, 1969.
Kaiser, O tto . Is a ia h 1 3 -3 9 . Translated by R. A. Wilson.

P h ila d e lp h ia : Westminster Press, 1974.
Kapelrud, A r v id . Baal in the Ras Shamra T e x ts . Copenhagen:

G. E. C. Gad, 1952.
"T y re ." I n t e r p r e t e r ' s D ic tio n a ry o f the Bi b l e . Edited

by G. A. B u t t r i c k . N a s h v ille : Abingdon Press, 1962. 4:721-23.
___________. The Ras Shamra Discoveries and the Old Testament.

Oklahoma C i t y : U n i v e r s i t y o f Oklahoma Press, 1962.
___________. Joel S tu d ie s . Uppsala U n iv e r s ite ts A r s s k r i f t

1 9 4 8 /4 . Uppsala: A. B. lu n d e q u is t, 1948.
K a tz e n s tein , H. J. The H is to ry o f T y r e . Jerusalem: Schocken

I n s t i t u t e f o r Research, 1973.
Kaufmann, Y eh e zk el. The R e lig io n o f I s r a e l . Tra nsla te d by Moshe

Greenberg. Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago Press, 1960.
K e da r-K opfs te in, B. "Divergent Hebrew Readings in Jerome's Is a ia h ."

Textus 4 (1 9 6 4 ):1 7 6 -2 1 0
Kee, H. C. "Satan, Magic, ana S a lv a tio n in the Testament o f Job."

In S o c ie ty o f B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e 1974 Seminar Papers.
E dited by George Macrae. l:5 3 -7 o .
328
K e i l , C. F. Prophecies o f E z e k i e l . Commentaries on the Old

Testament (1877) Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952.
K e lly , W illia m . An Exposition o f the Book o f I s a i a h . (1 8 71 ).

M inneapolis, MN: Klock & Klock C h r is tia n P ublishers,
1979 ( R e p r i n t ) .
K e lle y , P. H. I s a i a h . The Broadman B ible Commentary. 12 vols.

N a s h v ille : Broadman Press, 1971.
"King o f Tyrus" [Ezek 2 8 : 1 2 ]. Seventh-day A d v e n tis t Bible

Commentary. Edited by Francis D. N ic h o l. Washington, D.C.:
Review and Herald Pub. Assn., 1953-57. 4 :6 7 4 -7 7 .
Kissane, Edward J. The Book o f I s a i a h . 2 v o ls . Dublin: Browne

and Nolan, 1941.
K lin e , M. "D ivine Kingship and Genesis 6 : 1 - 4 . " Westminster

Theological Journal 24 ( 1 9 6 2 ) :187-204.
Kluger, Rivkah S. Satan in the Old Testament. Evanston, IL:

Northwestern U n iv e r s ity Press, 1967.
Koehler, Ludwig, and Baumgartner, W a lte r. Lexicon in V eteria

Testamenti L ib r o s . 2d ed. Leiden: E. J. B r i l l , 1958.
___________ . "Die Morgenrote im A lte n Testament." Z e i t s c h r i f t fiir

d ie a lt t e s t a m e n t lic h e Wissenschaft 44 (1 9 2 6 ):5 6 -5 9 .
Konig, Edward. Das Buch J e s a ja . Gutersloh: V erla C. Bertelsmann,

1926.
Konig, N. " L u c ife r." Expository Times 18 (1 9 0 7 ):4 7 9 .
K ra e lin g , Emil G. "The S ig n ific a n c e and O rigin o f Gen 6 : 1 - 4 ."

Journal o f Near Eastern Studies 6 (1 9 4 7 ):1 9 3 -2 0 8 .
Kraetzschmar, Richard. Das Buch E z e c h ie l. Handkommentar zum

A lte n Testament. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1900.
K r a f t , Charles F. The Strophic S tru c tu re o f Hebrew P o etry .

Chicago: U n iv e r s it y o f Chicago Press, 1938. •
Kramer, Samuel Noah. "A dditional M a te r ia ls to 'In a n n a 's Descent to

the Nether W o r ld '." Revue D‘ ‘ s s y r io lo q ie e t d'Archeoloqie
O r ie n t a le 36 (1 9 3 9 ):6 8 -8 0 .
. "Inanna's Descent to the Nether W orld." Revue

_
d 'A s s y r io lo q ie e t d 'A rcheoloqie O r ie n t a le 34 (1 9 37 ):9 3 -1 34 .
. " I s h t a r in the Nether World According to a New

_
Sumerian T e x t ." B u l l e t i n o f the American Schools o f O rien tal

Research 79 (1 9 4 0 ):1 8 -2 7 .
329
___________. "Lamentation over the Destruction o f U r." Ancient

Near Eastern Texts R e la tin g to the Old Testament,
pp. 454-63. 3rd ed. Edited by James P r itc h a r d . P rinceton:
___________ . Sumerian Mythology. P h ila d e lp h ia : American Philosophical

S o c ie ty , 1944.
Kraus, Hans Joachim. Psalmen. B ib lis h e r Kommentar Aites Testaments,

15. 2 vols. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener V erlag, 1961.
Kroeze, J. H. “The Tyre-Passages in the Book o f E z e k ie l." In

Studies on the Book o f E z e k i e l . P r e t o r ia : U n iv e rs ity
Press, 1961.
Lack, Remi. "Les O rigines de Elyon, le Tres-Haut dans la T r a d itio n

C u l t u r e l l e d' I s r a e l ." C a th o lic B i b l i c a l Q u a rte rly 24
(1 9 6 2 ):4 4 -6 4 .
___________ . La Symbolique du L iv re d ' I s a i e . Analecta B i b l i c a , 59.

Rome: B i b l i c a l I n s t i t u t e Press, 1973.
Lacocque, A. The Book o f D a n i e l . Translated by David P e lla n e r .

A tla n ta : John Knox Press, 1979.
L a c ta n tiu s The Divine I n s t i t u t e s . Ante-Nicene Fathers. 7 :3 -2 2 3 .
Lagrange, Marie Joseph. Etudes sur les R e lig ions Semitiques.

P a ris : V. L e c o ffr e , 1905.
Lamsa, George L. The Holy B ib le from Ancient Eastern M anuscripts.

P h ila d e lp h ia : A. J. Holman, 1957.
Landes, George M. "Jonah: A Masai?" In I s r a e l i t e Wisdom: Theological

Essays in Honor o f Samuel T e r r i e n . Edited by J. G. Gammie,
et a l. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1978, pp. 137-58.
Langdon, S. H. "The S ta r H e l i l , J upite r? " Expository Times 42

(1 9 3 0 /3 1 ): 1 7 2 -7 4 .
Langton, Edward. Good and E v il S p i r i t s . London: Society f o r

Promoting C h r is tia n Knowledge, 1942.
___________ . Satan: A P o rtra it. London: S k e ffin g to n , 1947.
Largement, Rene. La Naissance de L'A u ro re. Poeme Mytholoqique

de Ras Sham ra-Uqarit. Gembloux: J. Duculot, 1949.
L e s l i e , E. A. Is a ia h . New Y o rk -N a s h v ille : Kingdom Press, 1963.
Leupold, H. C. Exposition o f I s a i a h . Vol. I. Grand Rapids:

Baker Book House, 1968.
___________ . Exposition o f Genesis. Grand Rapids: Baker Book

House, 1956.
330
Levenson, Jon D. Theology o f the Program o f R estoration of Ezekiel

4 0 - 4 8 . Harvard Semitic Monographs 10. Missoula, MO:
Scholars Press, 1976.
Lewy, J u liu s . "Les Textes p aleo-A ssyrien e t 1 ‘Ancien Testament."

Revue d ' h i s t o i r e des r e li g i o n s 110 (1 9 3 4 ):2 9 -6 5 .
L'Heureux, Conrad. “The U g a r i t i c and B i b l i c a l Rephaim." Harvard

Theological Review 67 (1 9 7 4 ):2 6 5 —74.
___________ . Rank among the Canaanite Gods, E l , B a a l, and

the Rephaim. Harvard Sem itic Monographs 21. Missoula MO:
Scholars Press, 1979.
L ie b r e ic h , Leon J. "THe Compilation o f the Book o f I s a i a h . " Jewish

Q u a rte rly Review 46 ( 1 9 5 5 -5 6 ):2 5 9 -7 7 ; and Jewish Q u a rte rly
Review 47 (1 9 5 6 ^ 5 7 ):1 1 4 -3 8 .
L i g h t f o o t , John. Hebrew and Talmudic E x e r c ita tio n s upon S t. Luke.

In Whole Works. 13 v o ls . Edited by John R. Pitman. London:
J. F. Dove, 1823. 1 2 :5 -2 2 1 .
Lindblom, Joh. Die Jesaja-Apokalypse, Jes. 2 4 -2 7 . Lund: C. W. K.

Gleerup, 1938.
L i p i n s k i , E. “Les conceptions e l ôuches m erve ille u s es de Anath."

S yria 42 (1 9 6 5 ):4 5 -7 3 .
Li sowsky, Gerhard. Konkordanz zum Hebraischen A lten Testament.

S tu ttg a rt: W urtt. B i b e l a n s t a l t , 1958.
Lockyer, H e rb e rt. A ll the Doctrines o f the B i b l e . Grand Rapids:

Zondervan P ublishing House, 1946.
Lofthouse, W. F. "Some R e fle c tio n s on the 'S ervant Songs'."

Journal o f Theological Studies 48 (1 9 4 7 ):1 6 9 —76.
Lohmann, Paul. Die anonymen Prophetien gegen Babel aus der Z e it

des E x i l e . D is s e r ta tio n Philosophischen F a k u lt a t der
U n iv e rs ita t. Rostock, B e r l in : Rostock U n i v e r s i t y Press,
1910.
___________. "Zu Text und Metrum e i n i g e r S te lle n aus J e s a ja ."

Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r die a lt t e s t a m e n t l i c h e Wissenschaft 33
( 1 9 3 1 ):2 5 3 -5 6 .
L o r e tz , 0. "Der Kanaanaisch-BibliscKe Mythos vom Sturz des

Sahar-Sohnes H e l i l . " Ugarit-Forschungen 8 (1 9 7 6 ):1 3 3 -3 6 .
___________ . "Der Sturz des Fursten von Tyrus (E z. 2 8 : 1 - 1 9 ) . "

Ugarit-Forschungen 8 (1 9 7 6 ):4 5 5 - 5 8 .
___________ . Schopfung und Mythos . S t u t t g a r t e r B ib e l-S tu d ie n , 32.

S tu ttg a rt: Verlag Katho’ lisches Bibelw erk, 1968.
331
Low,Immanuel. Die Flora der Juden. 4 v o ls. L e ip z ig : Alexander

Kohut Memorial Foundation, 1924-38.
Lowth, Robert. De Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum. Oxoni i : E. Typographeo

C larendoniano, 1753.
___________ . Lectures on the Sacred Poetry o f the Hebrews.

Tra nsla te d by G. Gregory. 2 v o ls. London: S. Chadwick
Co., 1787 (1 8 4 7 ).
___________. Is a ia h : A New T ra n s la tio n w ith a P r e lim in a r y

D i s s e r e t a t i o n , and N o tes . London: Thomas Tegg and
Son, 1837.
" L u c ife r " [ I s a i a h 1 4 : 1 2 ], Seventh-day A d v e n tist B ib le Commentary.

Edited by Francis D. N ic h o l. Washington, D .C .: Review
and Heraid Pub. A ssn., 1953-57. 4 :8 3 -3 3 9 .
L u c retiu s De Rerum N a tu re . T ranslated by W. H. D. Rouse. Loeb

C la s s ic a l L ib r a r y .
L u th e r, M a rtin . F i r s t Lectures on the Psalms. In L u th e r's Works.

55 v o ls . Edited by H ilto n C. Oswald. S t. Louis: Concordia
Pub. House, 1955. 1 0 :6 -4 6 4 .
___________ . Lectures on Is a ia h 1 - 3 9 . In L u th e r's Works. 55 v o ls.

Edited by J a r o s la v -P e lik a n . S t. Louis: Concordia Pub.
House, 1958-67. 1 6 :3 -3 4 9 .
L u y s te r, Robert. "The Study o f Myth: Two Approaches." The Journal

o f B ib le and R e lig io n 34 ( 1 9 6 6 ) :23 5-43 .
Luzarraga, J. Las T radiciones de la Nube en la B i b l i a y en el

Judaismo P r i m i t i v o . Analecta B ib lic a 54. Rome: B i b lic a l
I n s t i t u t e Press, 1973.
Mackay, Cameron. "The King o f T y re ." Church Q u a rt e r ly Review 117

(1 9 3 4 ):2 3 9 - 5 8 .
M alinow ski, B. "Myth in P r i m i t i v e Psychology." Magic, Science,

and R e l ig io n . New York: 1954.
Manchline, John. Is a ia h . 2 v o ls . London: SCM Press, 1962.
Mandelkern, Solomon. Y e t e r is Testamenti Concordantiae Hebraicae

Atgue C h a ld a ic a e . 2d re v . ed. L e ip z ig : F. M a rg o lis , 1925.
Manton, Thomas. E p i s t le o f Jude. In Works o f Thomas Manton. 22

vo ls. W orthington, PA: Maranatha Pub., 1970. 5:3 -3 76 .
M a r g a l i t , Baruch. " I n t e r p r e t i n g the Story o f AQHT." Yetus

Testamentum 30 (1 9 8 0 ):3 6 1 - 6 5 .
332
M a rg u lies , Rachel. The I n d i v i s i b l e Is a ia h . New York: Yeshiva

U n i v e r s i t y , 1964.
M a rti, K a r l. Das Buch J e s a ja . Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten

Testament 10. Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr (P. S ie b e c k ), 1900.
M artin o f Braga. W ritings o f M artin o f Braga. In The Fathers

o f the Church. V ol. 52. Translated by Claude W. Barlow.
Edited by Roy J. D e f e r r a r i . Washington, D .C .: C a th o lic
U n i v e r s i t y o f America Press, 1969.
Matthews, I . G. E z e k ie l. P h ila d e lp h ia :- American B a p tis t Publishing

S o c ie ty , 1939.
May, Herbert Gordon. “P atte rn and Myth in the Old Testament."

The Journal o f R e lig io n 21 (J u ly 1 9 4 1 ):2 8 5 -9 9 .
___________. "The Book o f E z e k i e l. " I n t e r p r e t e r ' s B i b l e . Edited

by G. A. B u t t r i c k . New York: Abingdon Press, 1956. 6:39-338.
___________. “The King in the Garden o f Eden: A Study o f Ezekiel

2 8 : 1 2 -1 9 ." In I s r a e l ' s Prophetic H e r ita g e . New York.
Harper & B rothers, 1962.
Mazar, B. “The P h i l i s t i n e s and the Rise o f Is ra e l and T y re ."

Proceedings o f the Is r a e l Academy o f Sciences and Humanity
1 (1964) 7 :2 1.
McClain, Alva J. The Greatness o f the Kingdom. Chicago: Moody

Press, 1968.
McKane, W illia m . Proverbs: A New Approach. Old Testament L ib ra ry .

London: SCM Press, 1970.
McKay, J. W. “He!el and the Dawn-Goddess." Vetus Testamentum 20

(1 9 7 0 ):4 5 1 -6 4 .
McKenzie, John L. "Myth and the Old Testament." C a th o lic B ib lic a l

Q u a rte r ly 21 (1 9 5 9 ):2 6 5 -8 2 .
___________ . "Mythological A llusions in Ezekiel 2 8 : 1 2 -1 8 ." Journal

o f B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e 75 ( 1 9 5 6 ) :322-27.
___________. "The L i t e r a r y C h a r a c te r is tic s o^ Genesis 2 - 3 ."

Theological Studies 15 (1 9 5 4 ):5 4 1 -7 2 .
___________ . Myths and R e a l i t i e s : Studies in B i b l i c a l Theology.

Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing C o ., 1963.
Meadors, Gary T. "The I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f ~ _' n n i n Isaiah

1 4 :1 2 ." M.Div. The sis , Grace Theological Seminary, 1976.
Meissner, Bruno. Babylonien und A s s y rie n . Heldberg: Carl W inter,

1925.
333
Methodius Concerning F r e e - W i l l . Ante-Nicene Fathers. 6 :3 5 6 -6 3 .
The Banquet o f the Ten V ir g in s . Ante-Nicene Fathers.

6 :3 0 7 -5 5 .
M i l l e r , P a t r ic k D. The Divine W arrior in E arly I s r a e l . Harvard

Semitic Monographs 5. Cambridge, MA: Harvard U n iv e r s ity
Press, 1973.
M ilto n , John. A r e o p a q itic a . In The Works of John M i l t o n . Vol. 4.

Edited by Frank A. Patterson e t a l . New York: Columbia
U n iv e r s ity Press, 1931-38.
___________. De Doctrina C h r i s t i a n a . Translated by Charles R.

Summer. In Works o f John M i l t o n . Vol. 14. Edited by
Frank A. Patterson e t a l . New York: Columbia U n iv e r s ity
Press, 1931-38.
___________. E lkonoklastes. In The Works o f John M i l t o n . V o l . 5.

Edited by Frank A. Patterson e t a l . New York: Columbia
U n iv e r s ity Press, 1931-38.
___________. Paradise L ost. In The Works o f John M i l t o n . Edited by

Frank A. Patterson e t a l . New York: Columbia U n iv e r s ity
Press, 1931-38.
Mi n e a r, P. S. ''Babylon." I n t e r p r e t e r ' s D ic tio n a ry o f the B i b l e .

Edited by G. A. B u t t r i c k . N a s h v ille : Abingdon Press,
1962. 1:338.
Montgomery, James A. "Notes on the Mythological Epic Texts from Ras

Shamra." Journal o f the American O rie n ta l S ociety 53
(1 9 3 3 ):9 7 -1 2 3 .
Morgenstern, J u l ia n . "Jerusalem-485 B.C." Hebrew Union College Annual

28 (1 9 5 7 ):1 5 -4 7 .
___________. "On G ilgam es-Epic, X I , 274 -3 2 0." Z e its c h rift fu r

A s s y rio lo q ie 29 (1 9 1 5 ):2 8 4 -3 0 0 .
"Psalm 48." Hebrew Union College Annual 16 (1 9 4 1 ):

1 -95.
___________. "The King-God among the Western Semites and the

Meaning of Epiphanes." Vetus Testamentum 10 ( 1 9 6 0 ) :1 38:97.
___________ . "The Mythological Background of Psalm 8 2 ." Hebrew

Union College Annual 14 (1 9 3 9 ):2 9 —126.
M o rg e n th a le r, Robert. S t a t i s t i k des Neutestamentlichen Wortschatzes.

Zurich: G o t t h e l f - V e r l a g , 1958.
M o r i a r i t y , F re d eric k L. "The Lament over Tyre (Ez. 2 7 ) ." Greqorianum

46 (1 9 6 5 ):8 3 -8 8 .
334
M o s c ati, Sabatino. The World o f the Phoenicians. Translated by

A l a s t a i r Hamilton. London: Weidenfeld and Nicol son, 1968.
Mowinckel, Sigmund. He That Cometh. Transalted by George W.

Anderson. New York: Abingdon Press, 1954.
___________ . Psalmenstudien V; Seqen und Fluch in I s r a e ls Kult

und Psalmaichtung. Amsterdam: P. Schippers, 1966.
___________ . Psalmenstudien I I I : Kulprophetie und Prophetische

Psalmen. Amsterdam: P. Schippers, 1961.
___________. The Psalms in I s r a e l ' s Worship. 2 v o ls . Translated

by D. R. Ap-Thomas. Oxford: Basil B la c k w e ll, 1962.
"Urmensch und ' K o n ig s id e o lo g ie ’ ." Studia Theojogica

2 (1 9 4 9 ):7 1 -8 9 .
M uilenburg, J. " E z e k ie l." Peake's Commentary on the B i b l e .

London: Nelson, 1962, pp. 568-69.
M ullen, E. Theodore, J r. The Assembly o f the Gods. Harvard

S em itic Monographs 2 4 . Chico, CA: Scholars P r e s s , 1 3 8 0 .
M u l l e r , Hans-Peter. "Magisch-mantische W eisheit und die G e s ta lt

D a n ie ls ." Ugarit-Forschungen 1 (1 9 6 9 ):7 9 -9 4 .
Murray, John. P r in c ip le s o f Conduct. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,

1957.
Nagelsbach, Carl W. E. The Prophet I s a i a h . In J. P. Lange,

Commentary on the Holy S c r ip t u r e s . New York: Charles
S c rib n e r's Sons, 1878.
Neuberg, Frank J. “An Unrecognized Meaning o f Hebrew d o r."

Journal o f Near Eastern Studies 3 ( 1 9 5 0 ) :2 1 5-17.
Newson, Carol A. "A Maker o^ M e ta p h o rs -E z e k ie l' s Oracles against

T y re ." I n t e r p r e t a t io n 38 (1 9 8 4 ):1 5 1 -6 4 .
N ic h o l, Francis D ., ed. Seventh-day A d v e n tist B ib le Commentary.

7 v o ls . Washington, D. C .: Review and H e ra ld , 1953-1957.
N ic ke lsb u rg , George W. E . , J r . Resu r r e c t io n , Im m o r ta lity , and

Eternal L i f e in In te rre s ta m e n ta l Judaism. Harvard
Theological Studies 24 (Cambridge: Harvard U n iv e r s ity
Press, 1972.
N ie ls e n , D i t l e f . Ras Schamra Mythologie und b ib lis c h e T h e o lo q ie .

Abhandlungen f u r d ie Kunde des Morgenlandes 21, 4. L e ip s ig :
Deutsche Morgenlandische G e s e lls c h a f t, 1936.
North, R. The S u ffe rin g Servant in D e u te r o -Is a ia h . London:

G eoffrey Cumberlege, 1948.
335
Noth, M. "Der h is to r is c h e Hintergrund der In s c h r ift e n von S e fT re ."

Z e i t s c h r i f t des deutschen P a la s tin e -V e r e in s 77 (1 9 6 1 ):
118-72.
___________ . "Noah, Daniel und Hiob in Ezechiel X IV ." Vetus

Testamentum 1 ( 1 9 5 1 ) : 2 5 i -60.
Notscher, F r ie d r ic h . A l t o r i e n t a l i s c h e r und A ltt e s ta m e n t lic n e r

Aufsrstehunqaqlauben. Darmstadt: W issenschaftliche
B uc hge se llsc ha ft, 1926 (1 9 70 ).
Nougayrol, Jean. "N in g irs u Vainqueur de Zu." Revue d 'A s s y r io lo q ie et

d'Archeoloqie O r ie n t a le 46 (1 9 5 2 ):8 7 -9 7 .
Nyberg, Henrik Samuel. Hebreisk Grammatik. Uppsala: H. Geber. 1952.
___________ . "Studien zum Religionskampf im A lten Testament."

Archiv f u r R e liq ionsw issenschaft 35 (1 9 3 8 ):3 2 9 -8 7 .
Obermann, J u lia n . U q a r i t i c Mythology. New Haven: Yale U n iv e r s it y

Press, 1948.
___________ . "Sentence Negation in U g a r i t i c . " Journal o f B i b l i c a l

L i t e r a t u r e 65 (1 9 4 6 ):2 3 3 -4 8 .
O 'Callaghan, Roger T. "A Note on the Canaanite Background o f

Psalm 8 2." C a th o lic B ib lic a l Q u a rte r ly 15 (1 9 5 3 ):3 1 1 -1 4 .
___________ . "Echos o f Canaanite L i t e r a t u r e in the Psalms." Vetus

Testamentum 4 (1 9 5 4 ):1 6 4 -7 6 .
O hler, Annemarie. Mytholoqische Elemente im A lte n Testament.

Kommentare und B e itra g e zum A lte n und Neuen Testament.
Dusseldorf: Patmos-Verlag, 1969.
Oldenburg, U l f . "Above the Stars o f E l: El in Ancient South

Arabic R e l ig io n . " Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r die a lt te s t a m e n tlic h e
Wissenschaft 82 ( 1 9 7 0 ) :187-2C8.
___________ . The C o n f l i c t between El and Ba'al in Canaanite R e lig io n .

Leiden: E. J. B r i l l , 1969.
Oopenheim, A. L. "Mesopotamian Mythology I I . " O r i e n t a l i a 17

(1 9 4 8 ):1 7 -5 8 .
Orbiso, T e o filo de. "El Oraculo contra T iro en Is a ia s X X I I I y

Ezequiel X X V I- X X V I I I . " Estudios B ib !ic o s 1 (1 9 4 1 -4 2 ):
597-625.
O r e l l i , C. von. Prophecies o f I s a i a h . Translated by J. S. Banks.

Edinburgh: T. & T. C la rk , 1895.
Origen Against C elsus. The Ante-Nicene Fathers. 4 :3 95 -6 6 9.
336
____________ De rtM 'n c ip iis . The Ante-Nicene Fathers. 4 :2 3 9 - 382.
O r lin s k y , Harry M. "Studies in the S t. Mark's Isaiah S c r o l l , IV ."

Jewish Q u a rte r ly Review 43 (1 9 5 3 ):3 2 9 —40.
"Madhebah in Isaiah 1 4 : 4 ." Vetus Testamentum 7

(1 9 5 7 ):2 0 2 - 3 .
O tten, H. "Mythische und magische Texte in h e t h it is c h e r Sprache."

K e ils c h riftu rk u n d e n aus Boghazkoi 33 (1 9 43 ).
Ovid Metamorphoses. Translated by Frank Justus M i l l e r . Loeb

C la s s ic a l L ib r a ry .
P apinni, G iovanni. The Devi 1 . New York: E. P. Dutton, 1954.
Parker, Richard Anthony and Dubberstein, Waldo H. Baby!onian

Chronology 626 B.C.-A.D. 7 5 . Providence: Brown U n iv e r s ity
Press, 1956.
P a tr id e s , C. A. "Paradise Lost and the Theory of Accommodation."

In B r ig h t Essence. Studies in M i l t o n 's Theology. Edited
by W. B. Hunter, C. A. P a tr id e s , and J. H. Adamson.
S a lt Lake C i t y : U n iv e r s ity o f Utah Press, 1971, pp.
159-63.
P atton, John Hastings. Canaanite P a r a l l e l s in the Book of Psalms.

B a ltim o re: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1944.
Payne, J. Brton. Encyclopedia o f B i b l i c a l Prophecy. New York:

Harper & Row, 1973.
. The Theology o f the O lder Testament. Grand Rapids:

_
Zondervan Pub. House, 1962.
Peake's Commentary on the Bible ( I s a i a h and E z e k i e l) . Edited by

Matthew Black. Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1962.
Pember, G. H. E a rth 's E a r l i e s t Ages. New York: Fleming H. R e v e l!,

n .d .
Pentecost, J. D. Your Adversary the D e v i l . Grand Rapids: Zondervan

Pub. House, 1969.
P e rle s , F e l i x . “Zur Erklarung von Ezechiel 2 8 :1 3 ." O r ie n ta lis c h e

L i t e r a t u r - Z e i t u n g 4 (1 9 0 1 ):2 9 8 -9 9 .
Peter Lombard. Four Books of Sentences. P atro lo g ia L a tin a . P a ris ,

1 84 4 ff. 192:519-1112.
P f e i f f e r , Charles F. Ras Shamra and the B i b l e . Grand Rapids:

Baker Book House, 1962.
337
P f e i f f e r , R. H. "Cherubim." Journal of B i b l i c a l L it e r a t u r e
41 (1 9 2 2 ):2 4 9 -5 0 .
___________. In tro d u c tio n to the Old Testament. Mew York: Harper &
B roth ers, 1941.
“Phaeton." D ic tio n a ry de la mytholoqie grecque e t romalne. Edited

by P. Grimal. P aris: Presses U n i v e r s i t a i r e s de France,
1951, pp. 364-65.
"sas'Su.11 A Greek-English Lexicon. Edited by Henry George L id d e ll

and Robert S co tt. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968, p. 1911.
." Thesaurus Graecae Linguae. E dited by Henrico Stephano.

Graze, A u s tria : Akademisch Oruck u. V e r la g s a n s ta lt, 1954.
9 :5 7 3 -7 4 .
P i r o t , J. " le ‘ M asai1 dans 1 ‘ Ancient Testament." Recherches de

Science Reliqieuse 37 (1 9 5 0 ):5 6 6 - 8 0 .
Ploeg, J. S. van der. Les Chants du S e r v ite u r de Jahve. P a ris :

J. Gabalda e t C ie, 1936.
P lo g e r, O tto . Theocracy and Eschatology. Translated by S. Rudman.

Oxford: Basil B la c k w e ll, 1968.
Polk, Timothy. "Paradigms, P ara b le s, and M e lilim : On Reading the

MaSSl in S c r ip tu r e ." C a th o lic B i b l i c a l Q u a rte rly 45
(1 9 8 3 ):5 6 4 -8 3 .
Pope, Marvin H. El in the U g a r i t i c T e x ts . Supplements to Vetus

Testamentum I I . Leiden: E. J. B r i l l , 1955.
Popper, W illia m . The Prophetic Poetry o f Is a ia h Chapters 1 - 3 7 .

Berkeley: U n iv e r s ity o f C a l i f o r n i a Press, 1931.
Primasius Commentariorum Super Apocalypsim L i b r i 5 - 9 . P a tro lo g ia

Latina-Supplementum. P aris 1 9 5 7 f f . 4:1208-1220.
P r in s lo o , W. S. " Is a ia h 1 4 :12 -1 5 — H u m ilia t io n , Hubris, H u m ilia t io n ."

Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r die A ltt e s ta m e n t lic h e Wissenschaft 83
(1 9 8 1 ):4 3 2 -3 8 .
P r it c h a r d , James 8 . , ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts R e la tin g to the Old

Testament. 3d e d . , w ith Supplement. Princeton: Princeton
Procksch, O tto . Geschichtsbetrachtung und ge sc h ic h tlic h e

U e b e rlie fe ru n g bei den v o r e x i1ischen Propheten. L e ip z ig :
J. C. H in r ic h s , 1902.
___________ . Jesafa I . Kommentar zum A lte n Testament. L e ip z ig :

A. Deichertsche Verlags buchhandlung, 1930.
338
Prudentius. Poems. In The Fathers o f the Church. V o l. 52.

Translated by S i s t e r M. Clement Eagan. Edited by Roy J.
D e fe rra ri. Washington, D .C .: C a th o lic U n iv e r s it y o f
America Press, 1965.
Pseudo-Clementine L i t e r a t u r e Recognitions o f Clement. Ante-Nicene

Fathers. 8 :7 5 -2 1 1 .
P u lle y , Steven R. “The Qinah concerning the King o f Tyre in Ezekiel

2 8 :1 1 -1 9 .“ M.Div. t h e s is , Grace Theological Seminary, 1982.
Q u e ll, G. “Jesaja 1 4 : 1 - 2 3 ." In F e s t s c h r i f t F rie d ric h Baumqartel,

pp. 131-57. Edited by J. Herrmann and L. Rost. Erlangen:
Universitatsbund Erlangen, 1959.
Rabanus Maurus Commentariorum in Ezechielem, I T. P a tr o lo g ia

L a tin a . Edited by J. P. Migne. P aris : 1 8 4 4 ff. 110:494-1083.
Rappoport, Angelo S. Myths and Legends o f Ancient I s r a e l . New York:

Ktav Publishing House, 196.6.
Rawlinson, George. P hoe nic ia . New York: New World Book Manu
f a c tu r in g Co., 1889.
Redpath, A. The Book o^ the Prophet E z e k i e l . Westminster

Commentaries. London: Methuen, Co., 1907.
R einer, E ric a . "Deux fragments du Mythe de Zu." Revue d 'A s s y rlo lo q ie

e t d'Archeoloqie O r ie n t a le 48 ( 1 9 5 4 ) :145-49.
Revard, S t e l l a P. The War in Heaven. Ithaca and London: Cornell

U n iv e r s ity Press, 1980.
Reymond, P h ilip p e . L'Eau, sa V ie , e t sa s i g n i f i c a t i o n dans 1 ‘ Ancien

Testament. Vetus Testament Supplement. Leiden: E. J.
B r i l l , 1958.
Ringgren, Helmer. " b ib h e l." Theological D ic tio n a ry o f the Old

Testament. Edited by G. J. Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974. 1:466-69.
. " I s r a e l ' s Place among the Religions o f the Ancient

_
Near E as t." Vetus Testamentum 23 (1972):
. "Remarks on the Method o f Comparative Mythology." In

_
Near Eastern Studies in Honor o f W illiam F. A l b r i g h t .

Baltim ore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971, pp. 4 07-11.
Roberts, L. G. A. Commentary on the Book of the Prophet I s a i a h .

London: Covenant P ublishing C o ., 1931.
Roberts, J. J. M. "Sapon in Job 2 6 : 7 ." B ib !ic a 6 (1 9 7 5 ):5 5 4 - 5 7 .
339
Robinson, H. Wheeler. I n s p i r a t i o n and Revelation in the Old

Testament. O xfo rd : Clarendon Press, 1946.
"The Council o f Yahweh." Journal o f Theological

Studies 45 ( 1 9 4 4 ) : 1 51-57.
. The Cross i n the Cld Testament. P h ila d e lp h ia :

_
Westminster U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1955.
. The Cross o f the Servant: A Study in Oeutero-

_
Is a ia h . London: Student C h ris tian Movement, 1926.
Robinson, Theodore H. ''Hebrew Myths." In Myth and R i t u a l , op. 172-96.

Edited by S. H. Hooke. London: Oxford U n iv e r s ity Press,
1933.
Rogerson, J. W. Myth in Old Testament I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . B e ih e fte

zur Z e i t s c h r i f t f U r die a ltte s ta m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft 134.
B e r lin : W a lte r de G ruyter, 1974.
Ronzavalle, S. "Fragments d 1in s c rip tio n s Arameennes des environs

d 'A le p ." Melanges de l 'U n i v e r s i t e Saint-Joseph 15 (1 9 31 ):
235-60.
Rosenmiiller, E. F. S c h o lia in Vetus Testamentum S ectio I I I : 1-3 .

Lipsiae: J. A. B a rth , 1791-93.
Rost, Paul. “Jesaja, Kap. 14:4b-21." In A l t o r i e n t a l i s c h e

Studien I I . E d ite d by Bruno Meissner. M itte ilu n g e n der
A lt o r i e n t a l is c h e n G es ellschaft 4 /2 . L e ip z ig : 0.
Harrassowitz, 1928.
Rummel, Stan. Ras Shamra P a r a l l e l s . Analecta O r i e n t a l i a 51.

Rome: P ontific um In s titu tu m Biblicum , 1981.
Rupert o f Oeutz De V i c t o r i a Verbi Dei. P a tr o lo q ia L a tin a . P a ris ,

1 8 4 4 ff. 1 69 :1 2 17 -1 5 02 .
___________ Commentariorum Apocalypsim Joannis -.p o s to li, P a tro lo g ia

Latina. P a ris , 1 84 4 ff. 169:825-1214.
Ryken, Leland. The A p o c a ly p tic Vision in Paraidse L o s t. New York:

Cornell U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1970.
S ain t Bernard Sermons n the Song of Songs. P a tr o lo g ia L a tin a .

P a ris , 18 4 4 f f . 183:785-1198.
Sandmel, Samuel. " P a ra lle lo m a n ia ." Journal o f B i b l i c a l L ite ra tu re

81 (1362):1 -1 3.
Sarna, Nahum. Understanding Genesis. New York: Jewish Theological

Seminary. 1966.
340
Savignac, J. de. "Note sur !e sens du tenne Saphon dans quelques

passages de la B ib le ." Vetus Testamentum 3 (1 9 5 3 ):9 5 -9 6 .
S c h e il, V. "Fragments de la legende du dieu Zu." Revue d 1A ssyriologie

e t d'A rc he oloqie O rie n ta le 35 ( 1 9 3 8 ) : 1 4 - 2 5 .
S c h i f f e r , S. "Un Chant de Triomphe meconnu sur la mort de

Sanherib." Revue des Etudes Juives 76 (1 9 2 2 ):1 7 6 -8 2 .
Schmid, H e rb e rt. "Jahwe und die K u l t t r a d i t i o n von Jerusalem."

Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r d ie a lt te s t a m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft, N.S.
26 (1 9 5 5 ):1 6 8 -9 7 .
Schmidt, Hans. Die Erzahlunq von Paradies und S u n d e n fa ll. Sammlung

G emeinverstandlicher Vortrage und S c h r ift e n aus dem Gebiet
der Theologie und Religionsgeschichte 154. Tubingen:
J. C. B. Mohr (Paul S iebeck), 1931.
Schmidt, J. Studien zur S t i l i s t i k der A ltte s ta m e n tlic h e n

S p ru c h lite ra tu r. Munster: Aschendorffsche
Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1936.
Schmidt, Karl L. " L u c i f e r a ls g e fa lle n e Engelmacht." Theoloqische

Z e i t s c h r i f t 7 (1 9 5 1 ):1 6 1 -7 9 .
Schmidt, Werner H. Konigtum Gottes in U g a r it und I s r a e l . Beihefte

zu r Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r d ie a lt te s t a m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft 80.
B e r lin : A l f r e d Topelmann, 1966.
"Mythos im A lte n Testament." Evangelische Theologie

27 (1 9 6 7 ):2 3 7 -5 4 .
___________. Theoloqisches Handworterbuch zum Alten

Testament. T‘ Edited by Ernst Jer.ni and Claus Westermann.
Munich: Chr. Kaiser Verlag, 1976. 2 :5 7 5 -8 1 .
Schmitz, Leonhard. "Phaeton." D ic tio n a ry o f the Greek and Roman

Biography and Mythology. Edited by W illia m Smith. 3oston:
L i t t l e , Brown & C o ., 1849. 3 :232.
Schroder, W. J. "The Book o f the Prophet E z e k i e l. " A Commentary

on the Holy S c rip tu re s . New York: Charles S c rib n e r's
Sons, 1915. 1 3 :1 -4 9 2 .
___________ . Der Prophet H e z e k ie l. Lange Bibelwerk. B i e le f e l d

und L e ip z ig : Velhagand und K la s in g , 1873.
S chwally, F r i e d r i c h . "Miscellen (Jes. 1 4 : 1 9 -2 0 ." Z e its c h rift

f i i r die A ltt e s ta m e n t lic h e Wissenschaft 11 (1891 ) :25 7-58 .
Schwenckfeld, Caspar. "Fragment o f a L e t t e r to Leonhart Hieber?"

In L e t t e r ; and T re a tis e s o f Caspar Schwenckfeld von
0 s s i q - - l 5 52 -1 5 5 4 . Corpus Schwenckfeldianorum. 14 v o ls.
Edited by Elmer E llsw orth S chultz Johnson. L e ip zig :
B r e itk o p f & H a r t e l , 1907-36. 1 3 :1 4 2 -4 3 .
341
S c o f ie ld , C. I . The New S co field Reference B i b l e . Oxford:

Oxford U n iv e r s ity Press, 1967.
S c o tt, R. B. Y. The Book of I s a i a h . In The In te rp r e te i ‘ s B i b l e .

12 Vols. N a s h v ilie : Abingdon Press, 1952-1957. 5 :149-773.
___________. "The Meaning o f massa as an Oracle T i t l e . " Journal

o f B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e 67 ( 1 9 4 8 ) : V - V I .
Scrimgenour, Chas. E. "Ezekiel and the Phoenician S c r i p t . "

Expository Times 20 (1 9 0 9 ):5 2 6 -2 7 .
Shankel, George Edgar. God and Man in H i s t o r y . N a s h v ille :

Southern Publishing A s s o c ia tio n , '9 6 7 .
Shea, W illia m H. "Adam in Ancient Mesopotamian T r a d itio n s ."

Andrews U n iv e r s ity Seminary Studies 15 (1 9 7 7 ):2 7 -4 1 .
S ie v e rs , Eduard. Metrische Studien I : Studien zur Hebraischen

M e t r i k . L e ip z ig : B. G. Teubner, 1901.
Skehan, P a t r ic k W. " Is a ia h and the Teaching o f the Book o f Wisdom."

C a th o lic B i b l i c a l Q u a rte r ly 2 (1 9 4 0 ):2 8 9 -9 9 .
Skinner, J. S. The Book of I s a i a h . Cambridge Bible f o r Schools and

C o lle g es . 2 Vols. Cambridge: '.'"i ve’-si ty Press, 18S6.
__________ . The Book o f E z e k i e l . The Expository B ib le . Vol. 13.

New York: A. C. Armstrong and Son, 1907-1908.
S kip w ith , Grey Hubert. 'The Lord o f Heaven." The Jewish q u a r t e r ly

Review 19 (1 9 0 7 ):6 8 8 -7 0 3 .
Smick, Elmer B. "Mythopoetic Language in the Psalms." Westminster

Theological Journal 44 ( 1 8 8 2 ) :8 8 -9 8 .
Smith, George Adam. The Book o f I s a i a h . New York: Doubleday

C o ., 1908.
Smith, R. Payne. Thesaurus S y ria c u s . 2 v o ls . O x in ii: E.

Typographeo Clarendoniano, 1879.
S n ijd e r s , L. A. "The Meaning o f "i t in the Old Testament."

Oudtestamentische Studien 10 (1 9 5 4 ):1 -1 5 4 .
S p eis e r. E. A. "Adapa." In Ancient Near Eastern T e x ts , pp. 101-3.

3rd ed. Edited by James B. P r it c h a r d . Princeton:
"An In tr u s iv e H u r r o - H i t t i t e Myth." Journal o f the

American O rie n ta l S ociety 62 (1 9 4 2 ):9 9 -1 0 2 .
342
___________. "The Myth of Zu." In Ancient Near Eastern T e x ts . 3rd

ed. Edited by James B. P r itc h a r d . P rinceton: Princeton
U n iv e r s it y Press, 1969, pp. 111-13.
Sperber, Alexander. A H i s t o r i c a l Grammar of B i b l i c a l Hebrew.

Leiden: E. J. B r i l l , i966.
S p ie g e l, Shalom. "Noah, D a n ie l, and Job." In Louis Ginsberg Jubilee

Volume. (English s e c t i o n . ) N*»w York: American Academy f o r
Jewish Research, 1945.
S ta e rk , W. "L'A rb re dc la v ie el l ’ arbre de la science du bien e t

du m a l." Revue d ' h i s t o i r e e t philosophie r e liq ie u s e s
8 (1 9 2 8 ):6 6 -6 9 .
S t a lk e r , D. M. G. E z e k ie l. Torch Bible Commentary. London:

SCM Press, 1968.
S ta p le to n , L. " M ilto n 's Conception o f Time in the C h r is tia n

D o c tr in e ." Harvard Theological Review 57 (1 9 6 4 ) : 9 - 2 1 .
Starcky, Jean. Les In s c r ip tio n s arameennes de S e f i r e . P a ris :

Imprimerie N a tio n a le , iyats.
Steinmann, Jean. Le Prophete Ezechiel e t les Debuts de 1 ‘ E x i l .

P a ris : Les Editions du C e r f , 1953.
Stening, J. F . , ed. and tr a n s . The Tarqum o f Is a ia h . Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1949.
S to lz, F r it z . Strukturen und Fiquren im Kult von Jerusalem.

B e ih e fte zur Z e i t s c h r i f t f'dr die a lte s ta m e n tlic h e Wissenschaft
118. B e r lin : W alter de G ru y te r, 1970.
Strand, Kenneth A. I n t e r p r e t in g the Book o f R e v e la tio n . Ann

Arbor: Ann Arbor P u b lis h e rs , 1976.
S u te r, D. "Mlsal in the S im ilitu d e s o f Enoch." Journal of

B i b l i c a l L it e r a t u r e 100 (1 9 8 1 ):1 9 3 -2 1 2 .
Tadmor, H. "The 'Sin o f S a rg o n '." In Eretz Is r a e l 5 (1 9 5 8 ):

150-63. (English summary, p. 9 T T
Talmon, Shemaryahu. "The 'Comparative Method' in B i b l i c a l

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n — P r in c ip le s and Problems." Vetus
Testamentum Supplements 29. Leiden: E. J. B r i l l , 1977,
pp. 320-56.
Tan, Paul Lee. The In t e r p r e t a t io n o f Prophecy. Winona Lake,

IN: Brethren M issionary H e rald , 1974.
T a y lo r , J. B. E z e k i e l . Tyndale Old Testament Commentary. London:

I n t e r - V a r s i t y Press, 1969.
343
T e r r y . M ilton S. B i b l i c a l Hermeneutics. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan Pub. House, 1969.
T e r t u l l i a n Against Hermoqenes. Ante-Nicene Fathers. 3 :4 7 7 -5 0 2 .
___________Against Marcion. Ante-Nicene Fathers. 3:271 -4 7 4.
___________The S oul's Testimony. Ante-Nicene Fathers. 3 :1 75 -8 0 .
Theophilus Theophilus to Autolycus. Ante-Nicene Fathers.

3 :89-121.
Thomas Aquinas Sumra Theoloqica. 3 Vols. New York: Benziger

Brothers, 1947.
Thomas, D. Winton. “A Consideration o f Some Unusual Ways o f

Expressing the S u p e rla tiv e in Hebrew." Vetus Testamentum
3 (1 9 5 3 ):2 0 9 -2 4 .
Torczyner, Harrv. "How Satan Came in to the World." Expository

Times 48 (1 9 3 6 -3 7 ):5 6 3 -6 5 .
___________. "P r e s id e n tia l Address." Journal of the American

O rie n ta l S ociety 16 ( 1 9 3 6 ) : 1 - 8 .
T o rre y , C. C. "Some Important E d i t o r i a l Operations in the Book o f

I s a ia h ." Journal o f B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e 57 ( 1 9 3 8 ) : i 16-17.
___________. "Alexander the G reat in the Old Testament Prophecies."

In Vom A lten Testament Karl M arti zum S iebzigsten
Geburtstage Gewidmet, p. 286. B e ih efte zur Z e i t s c h r i f t
f u r d ie a lt t e s t a m e n t lic h e Wissenschaft 47. Giessen:
A lfr e d Topelmann, 1925.
Tournay, R. J. "Les psaumes complexes." Revue B ib liq u e 56 (1 9 4 9 ):

37-60.
Toy, C. H. The Book o f the Prophet E z e k ie l: A New English

T ra n s la tio n w ith Explanatory Notes. Sacred books o f the
Old Testament 12. New York: Dodd, Meû, C o., 1899.
___________. The Book o f the Prophet E z e k ie l: C r i t i c a l E d itio n o f

the Hebrew Te xt, te ip z iq : J. C. H inrich sche Buchhandlung,
1899.
___________. "The Babylonian Element in E z e k ie l." Journal o f

3 ib lic a l L ite ra tu re 1 (1881):59-66.
T r in q u e t, J. "Kerub, Kerubim." D ic tio n n a ir e de la B i b l e .

Edited by Henry C a z e lle s . P a ris : L i b r a i r i e Letouzey e t Ane,
1957. 5 :1 61 -8 6 .
344
T sevat, M a titia h u . "God and the Gods in Assembly." Hebrew

Union College Annual 40/41 (1 9 6 9 -7 0 ):1 2 3 -3 7 .
T u r - S in a i- N. H. Halashon Vehasefer. 2 v o ls . Jerusalem: Maanes

Press, 1949.
U h lig , S ie g b e rt. "Die typologische Bedeutung des B e g r iffs

Babylon." Andrews U n iv e r s ity Seminary Studies 12 (1 9 7 4 ):
112-25.
Unger, Eckrard. Babylon. L e ip z ig : W a lte r de G ru y te r, 1931.
___________ . "Nebukdnezar I I und sein Sandabakku (Oberkommissor)

in Tyrus." Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r d ie a lt te s t a m e n tlic h e
W issenschaft, 44 (1 9 2 6 ):3 1 4 -1 7 .
Unger, M e rril F. B i b l i c a l Demonoloqy. Wheaton, IL: Van Kampen

Press, 1953.
Vandenburgh, F. A. "The Ode on the King o f Babylon, Is a ia h XIV:

4 b -2 1 ." American Journal o f Semitic Languages and L ite r a t u r e
29 (1 9 1 2 -1 3 ):1 1 1 -2 5 .
Van D i j k , H. J. E z e k i e l 's Prophecy on T y re . Rome: P o n tific a l

B ib lic a l I n s t i t u t e , 1968.
Van Z i j l , P eter J. B a a l. A l t e r O r ie n t und AHes Testament 10.

Butzon & Bercher Kevelaer. Neukircher-Vluyn: Neuchirchener
V e rla g , 1972.
Vawter, B. "The Canaanite Background of Genesis 49." C a th o lic

B i b l i c a l Q u a r t e r ly 17 (1 9 5 5 ):1 -1 8 .
Vermeylen, J. Du Prophete Is a ie a 1 1Apocalyptique. P a ris :

J. Gabalda e t Cie E d ite u rs , 1977.
V ine, W. E. Is a ia h . London: O lip h a n ts , 1946.
V ine, Kenneth L. "The Establishment o f Baal a t U g a r i t . " Ph.D.

d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e r s ity o f M ichigan, 1965.
V ir c l l e a u d , Ch. "Hymne phenicien au dieu Nika! e t aux deesses

Kosarot." S yria 17 ( 1 9 3 6 ) :?09-28.
___________. La Leqende Phenicienne de P anel. P aris : Paul

Geuthner, 1936.
"La L u tte de Mot f i l s des dieux d 'A l e i n , f i l s de Baal."

S yria 12 (1 9 3 1 ):1 9 3 -2 4 4 .
."La Naissance des dieux gracieux e t beaux." S yria

14 (1 9 3 3 ):1 2 8 - 3 5 .
345
"Les Rephaim. Fraqments de Poemes de Ras Shamra."

S yria 22 (1941 ):1 -3 0 .
Vogel s t e i n , Max. "Nebuchadnezzar'*; Reconquest o f Phoenicia and

P a le s tin e and the Oracles o f E z e k i e l. " Hebrew Union College
Annual 23/2 ( 1550/51 ):1 9 7 -2 2 0 .
Von Rad, G. Genesis. Old Testament L ib r a r y . P h ila d e lp h ia :

. Old Testament Theology. 2 v o ls . Translated by

_
D. M. G. S ta lk e r . New York: Harper, 1962-65.
. "Typological I n t e r p r e t a t io n o f the Old Testament."

_
I n t e r p r e t a t io n 15 (1961 ): 1 7 4 -9 2 .
Vos, Geernardus. B i b l i c a l Theology, Old and New Testaments. Grand

Rapids: Eerdmans, 1949.
Wade, G. W. The Book o f the Prophet I s a i a h . Westminster

Commentaries. London: Methuen & C o . , 1911.
Wakeman, Mary R. "God's B a ttle w ith the Monster." Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n ,

Brandeis U n i v e r s i t y , 1969.
W alafridus Strabus. L ib e r Is a ia e Prophetae. P a tro lo g ia L a tin a .

P a r is , 1 8 4 4 f f . 113:1231-1316.
Walker, C. B. F. Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian T a b le ts , 52.

London: B r i t i s h Museum Pub., 1902 (1 9 5 9 ), p. 15, p is . 45-48.
Waltke, Bruce K. "The Creation Account in Genesis 1 : 1 - 3 ."

B ib lio th e c a Sacra 132 (1 9 7 5 ):1 3 6 —44.
Webb, C. C. J. God and P e r s o n a l it y . London: George A lle n , 1918.
W e i l l , J u l ie n . "Les M otsfi 2y fi ^ 3 a dans la compiainte

d ’ E zchiel sur le roi de Tyr ( XXXVI11:11—19." Revue des
Etudes Juives 42 (1 9 0 1 ):7 —13.
W e in fe ld , Moshe. " ’ Rider o f the Clouds' and 'G atherer o f the

C lo u d s '." Journal o f Ancient Near Eastern S ociety of Columbia
U n i v e r s i t y 5 (1 9 7 3 ):4 2 1 -2 6 .
W eir, C ec il J. "Aspects o f the Book o f E z e k i e l. " Vetus

Testamentum 2 (1 9 5 2 ):9 7 -1 1 2 .
W eiser, A r th u r. The Old Testament: I t s Formation and Development.

T ra n sla te d by Dorothea M. Barton. New York: Association
Press, 1961.
Wesley, John. "Sermon on E vil Angels." In Wesley's Works. 14

v o ls . London: Wesleyan Methodist Book Room, 1831.
6 :3 7 0 -8 0 .
346
___________. A Compend o f Wesley's Theology. Edited by Robert W.

Burtner and Robert E. C h ile s . N a s h v ille : Abingdon Press,
1954.
Westermann, Claus. Beginning and End in the B i b l e . Fact Books

B i b l i c a l Series 31- P h ila d e lp h ia : Fortress Press, 1972.
___________. “Sinn und Grenze r e li g i o n s g e s c h i c n t l ic h e r ° a r a l l e l e n . "

Theologische L i t e r a t u r z e i t u n g 90 ( 1 9 6 5 ) :4 S 0-91 .
___________. Genesis I . B ib lis c h e r Kommentar A ltes Testament,

Wevers, John W. E z e k i e l . New Century B ib le . London: Thomas

Nelson, Sons, 1969.
Whitehouse, Owen C. “S a ta n ." D ic tio n a r y of the B i b l e . Edited by

Jmaes Hastings. 4 v o ls . New York: Charles S c rib n e r 's
Sons, 1905-12.
__________ . Is a ia h 1 - 3 9 . New Century B ib le . New York: Oxford

Whybray, R. N. The Heavenly Counselor in Isaiah 4 0 :1 3 -1 4 : A

Study o f the Sources o f the Theology of D e u t e r o - Is a ia h .
Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1971.
___________. The I n t e l l e c t u a l T r a d i t i o n in the Old Testament.

B e ih e f t zur Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r d ie A ltt e s ta m e n tlic h e
Wissenschaft 135. B e r l in : W a lte r de C r u y te r, 1974.
Widengren, Geo. The King and the Tree o f L i f e in Ancient Near

Eastern R e l ig io n . Uppsala U n i v e r s i t e t s A r s s k r i f t 1951/4.
Uppsala: Lundequistska Bokhandeln, 1951.
__________ . " E a r ly Hebrew Myths and T h e ir I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . " In

Myth, R i t u a l , and K ingship, pp. 149-203. Edited by
S. H. Hooke. Oxford: U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1958.
___________. Mesopotamian Elements in Manichaeism. Uppsala

U n i v e r s i t e t s A r s s k r i f t , 1 9 4 6 /3 . Uppsala: Lundequistska
Bokhandeln, 1946.
___________. The Ascension o f the Apostle and the Heavenly Book.

Uppsala U n i f e r s i t e t s A r s s k r i f t 195 0 /7 . Uppsala:
Lundequistska Bokhandeln, 1950.
W ildberger, Hans. J e s a ja . B ib lis c h e r jmmentar A lte s Testament.

W ilk e , J. M. "Nabonidus and the L a te r Jewish E x i l e s . " Journal

of Theological Studies 2 ( 1 9 5 0 -5 1 ):3 6 - 4 4 .
347
W illia m s , Anthony J. "The Mythological Background o f E zekiel 28:

1 2 -1 9 ." B i b l i c a l Theology B u lle tin 6 ( 1 9 7 6 ):4 9 -6 1 .
W illia m s , Normal Powell. The Ideas o f the F a ll and o f O rig in a l

S i n . London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1927.
W i l l i s , John T. Is a ia h . L iv in g Word Commentary on the Old

Testament 12. Texas: Sweet Publishing C o ., 1980.
W ilson, J. V. "Some C o n trib u tio n s to the Legend o f Etana."

Iraq 31 (1 9 6 9 ) : 8 - 1 7 .
W in c k le r, Hugo. Die K e i1 i n s c h r i f t e n und das A lte Testament.

B e r lin : Reuther & Reichard, 1903.
. Geschichte I s r a e l s in E in zeld a rstel 1 unqen. L e ip z ig :

E. P f e i f f e r , 1895-1900.
Wiseman, D. J. C hronicles o f the Chaldean Kings. London:

Trustees o f the B r i t i s h Museum, 1956.
W i t z e l , Maurus. "Zur Sumerischen Rezension der H o lle n f a h r t

Is c h ta r s ." O r i e n t a l i a 14 (1 9 4 5 ):2 4 -6 9 .
W rig h t, George E rnest. The Old Testament ag ain s t I t s Environment.

Studies in B i b l i c a l Theology 2. Chicago: Henry Regnery
C o., 1950.
W y c li f , John. W y c li f 's L a tin Works. 18 vols. Edited by John

Loserth. London: W y c lif Society, 1883-1907.
Yaron, Kalmon. "The Dirge over the 10 "y of T y r e ." Annual o f ihe
Swedish Theological I n s t i t u t e 3. Leiden: E. J. B r i l l ,
1964. Pp. 2 8 -5 7 .
Young, Edward J. The Book o f I s a i a h . 3 vols. Grand Rapids:

Eerdmans, 1965.
X e l l a , P. "L 'inga nno1 di Ea nel mito di Adapa." Oriens Antiquus

12 (1 9 7 3 ) :265.
Z i e g l e r , Joseph. E z e c h i e l . Septuaginta Vetus Testamentum

Graecum 1 6 /1 . G ottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1952.
Z im m erli, W alther. 1. Mose 1 - 1 1 . Ziircher Bibe 1 kommentar.

Zurich: Zw ingli V e r la g , 1967.
___________. E z e k i e l . 2 v o ls . Hermeneia. T r a n s la tio n by Ronald E.

Clements and James D. M a rtin . P h ila d e lp h ia : Fortress
Press, 1979-83.
348
E z e k i e l- G e s t a lt und Botschaft. B ib lic h e Studium

H e ft 62. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener V e r la g , 1972.
Zuns, L. " B i b e lk r it is c h e s ( E z e c h i e l ) . " Deutsche Morgen!andische

G e s e lls c h a ft 27 (1 8 7 3 ):6 7 6 -8 1 .

The Son of The Morning and The Guardian Cherub in The Context of

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

The Son of The Morning and The Guardian Cherub in The Context of

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Andrews University

Digital Commons @ Andrews University

The Son of the Morning and the Guardian Cherub

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/dissertations

Andrews University Digital Library

Please honor the copyright of this document by

The fo llo w ing explanation o f techniques is provided to help clarify markings Oi

2. When an image on the film is obliterated w ith a round black m a rk , it is an

-t. F o r illustrations that cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by xerographic

Bertoluci, Jose M a ria

THE SON OF THE MORNING AND THE GUARDIAN CHERUB IN THE

A nd'ew s University Th.D. 1985

Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary

THE SON OF THE MORNING AND THE GUARDIAN CHERUB

Presented ir. P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t

o f the Requirements f o r the Degree

APPROVAL BY THE COMMITTEE

W illia m H. Shea, Chairman Jaerhard F. H a s e l, Oean

THE SON OF THE MORNING AND THE GUARDIAN CHERUB

Chairman: W illia m H. Shea

Seventh-day A dventist Theological Seminary

Name o f researcher: Jose M. B e rto lu c i

Name and t i t l e o f f a c u l t y a d v is e r: W illiam H. Shea, Ph.D.

Date completed: June 1985

times o f the Church Fa the rs, to e x p la in the o r i g i n o f sin in the u n i­

verse, and i n te r p r e t e d as d e p ic tin g the f a l l o f Satan from heaven.

However, through the years— e s p e c i a l l y from the end o f the nineteenth

century and on— theologians have a ffirm ed th a t those passages re o o rt

h i s t o r i c a l events, making use o f mythological m a te ria l in t h e i r nar­

r a t i v e s ; and th e r e fo r e have not to do with the o r i g i n o f sin or Satan.

I t is the aim o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n to v e r i f y these claim s.

Method and Results

Chapter 1 reviews the i n t e r p r e t a t io n s o f the passages from

the f i r s t c e n tu rie s o f the C h r is tia n Era t i l l the p re se n t. U n til

the end o f the nineteenth c e n tu ry, both passages were in te r p r e te d

in two main ways: (1) r e f e r r i n g to Satan or (2 ) r e f e r r i n g to some

h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e , perhaps some Babylonian r u l e r . From th a t time

the mythological view has added to the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

Chapter 2 examines the a lle g e d o r ig in s and p a r a l l e l m a te ria l

found in Sumerian, Akkadian, H i t t i t e , Greek, l l g a r i t i c , as well as

B ib lic a l lite ra tu re . The research demonstrated th a t although s i m i l a r

as in l i t e r a t u r e of I s r a e l ' s neighbors, a myth o f Heiel ben Shahar

and o f the Guardian Cherub, which would r e f l e c t the B i b l i c a l account

in i t s main aspects, could not be found. I t seems the s i m i l a r i t i e s

in the use o f the terms and p ic tu re s are due to c u l t u r a l c o n tin u ity

or common elements in the a ncie nt Near East.

Chapter 3 examines the s tru c tu re o f Isa 14 and Ezek 28 in

r e l a t i o n to the immediate context and the whole books; and exegetes

the passages in the l i g h t o f the whole B ib le .

The exegesis shows t h a t : (1 ) these passages d e p ic t Helel

and the Cherub in a language which transcends the e a r t h l y realm;

(2 ) the immediate context and the whole books ( e s p e c i a l l y Is a ia h )

shows a tension between e a r t h l y and cosmic dimensions, as well as

a s tru g g le between the fo rc e s o f good and e v i l ; (3) Isa 14 uses

the words mashal and Babylon in a p a r t i c u l a r way; and (4 ) a

comparison between these two passages shows they d e p ic t the same

fig u re . These fa c to rs c a r r y us to the conclusion t h a t the two

passages p o r tr a y the f a l l o f the c h ie f angel Satan from heaven

and his ro le in the controversy between good and e v i l .

A Survey o f the L i t e r a t u r e on the

II. ORIGINS AND PARALLEL HYPOTHESES CONCERNING THE

III. THE TAUNT AGAINST THE KING OF BABYLON AND

Stars o f El .................................................................. 200

times o f the Church Fa the rs, to e x p la in the o r i g i n o f sin in the u n i

h i s t o r i c a l events, making use o f mythological m a te ria l in t h e i r nar