Nes 747

Ministry of Defence
Defence Standard 02-747 (NES 747)

Issue 1 Publication Date 01 April 2000
Requirements For Nickel Aluminium

Bronze Castings And Ingots
Part 5
Design And Manufacture Of
Nickel-Aluminium-Bronze
Sand Castings
Incorporating NES 747 Part 4 Category 2

Issue 1 Publication Date January 1989
AMENDMENT RECORD
Amd No Date Text Affected Signature and Date
REVISION NOTE
This standard is raised to Issue 1 to update its content.
HISTORICAL RECORD
This standard supersedes the following:
Naval Engineering Standard (NES) 747 Part 5 Issue 1 dated January 1989.
Ministry of Defence
Naval Engineering Standard
NES 747 Part 5 Issue 1 (Reformatted) January 1989
NICKEL ALUMINIUM BRONZE CASTINGS AND INGOTS
PART 5
DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE

OF
NICKEL−ALUMINIUM−BRONZE
SAND CASTINGS
This NES Supersedes
SDP 18
Record of Amendments
AMDT INSERTED BY DATE
10
NAVAL ENGINEERING STANDARD 747
PART 5
ISSUE 1 (REFORMATTED)
DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE
OF
NICKEL−ALUMINIUM−BRONZE
SAND CASTINGS
The issue and use of this Standard
is authorized for use in MOD contracts
by MOD(PE) Sea Systems and
the Naval Support Command
ECROWN COPYRIGHT
Published by:
Director of Naval Architecture

Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence
Sea Systems, Foxhill, Bath BA1 5AB
i
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NES 747
Part 5
Issue 1 (Reformatted)
SCOPE
1. This NES is intended to provide casting designers and founders with advice on the use of
procedures to be followed for the production of high integrity sand castings in complex
nickel−aluminium−bronzes to Class 1 standards as detailed in Specification
DG Ships/PS/9010 although the advice is relevant to all castings in this alloy.
2. The advice given and the design methods described are based on the results of foundry
investigations carried out by BNF Metals Technology Centre (BNFMTC) over many years.
3. Any enquiries regarding this NES in relation to an invitation to tender or to a contract are to
be addressed to the Quality Assurance Representative named in the contract or the invitation
to tender or to the Director of Navy Contracts.
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NES 747
Part 5
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NES 747
Part 5
FOREWORD
Sponsorship
1. This Naval Engineering Standard (NES) is sponsored by the Procurement Executive, Ministry
of Defence, Chief Naval Architect (CNA), Section NA 132.
2. It is to be applied as required by any Ministry of Defence contract for the design and
manufacture of Nickel Aluminium Bronze Sand Castings.
3. This NES comprises:
Nickel Aluminium Bronze Castings and Ingots
Part 1 Requirements for Nickel Aluminium Bronze (Naval Alloy) Centrifugal Castings and
Ingots
Part 2 Requirements for Nickel Aluminium Bronze (Naval Alloy) Sand Castings and Ingots
Part 3 Requirements for Nickel Aluminium Bronze (Commercial Alloy) Sand Castings and
Ingots
Part 4 Requirements for Nickel Aluminium Bronze (Naval Alloy) Sand Castings with
Welding Restricted to the Non-Wetted Surface (Class 1 and 2 Castings only)
Part 5 Design and Manufacture of Nickel Aluminium Bronze Sand Castings
4. If it is found to be technically unsuitable for any particular requirement the Sponsor is to be

informed in writing of the circumstances with a copy to Chief Naval Architect (CNA),
Section NA 145.
5. Any user of this NES either within MOD or in outside industry may propose an amendment
to it. Proposals for amendments which are:
a. not directly applicable to a particular contract are to be made to the Sponsor of the NES;
b. directly applicable to a particular contract are to be dealt with using existing

departmental procedures or as specified in the contract.
6. No alteration is to be made to this NES except by the issue of a formal amendment.
7. Unless otherwise stated, reference in this NES to approval, approved, authorized or similar
terms, means by the Ministry of Defence.
8. Any significant amendments that may be made to this NES at a later date will be indicated
by a vertical side line. Deletions will be indicated by 000 appearing at the end of the line
intervals.
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NES 747
Part 5
Conditions of Release
General
9. This Naval Engineering Standard (NES) has been prepared for the use of the Crown and of
its contractors in the execution of contracts for the Crown. The Crown hereby excludes all
liability (other than liability for death or personal injury) whatsoever and howsoever arising
(including but without limitation, negligence on the part of the Crown, its servants or agents)
for any loss or damage however caused where the NES is used for any other purpose.
10. This document is Crown Copyright and the information herein may be subject to Crown or
third party rights. It is not to be released, reproduced or published without written permission
of the MOD.
11. The Crown reserves the right to amend or modify the contents of this NES without consulting
or informing any holder.
MOD Tender or Contract Process
12. This NES is the property of the Crown and unless otherwise authorized in writing by the MOD
must be returned on completion of the contract, or submission of the tender, in connection
with which it is issued.
13. When this NES is used in connection with a MOD tender or contract, the user is to ensure that
he is in possession of the appropriate version of each document, including related documents,
relevant to each particular tender or contract. Enquiries in this connection may be made of
the local MOD(PE) Quality Assurance Representative or the Authority named in the tender
or contract.
14. When NES are incorporated into MOD contracts, users are responsible for their correct
application and for complying with contracts and any other statutory requirements.
Compliance with an NES does not of itself confer immunity from legal obligations.
Related Documents
15. In the tender and procurement processes the related documents listed in each section and
Annex A can be obtained as follows:
a. British Standards British Standards Institution,

389 Chiswick High Road,
London W4 4AL
b. Defence Standards Directorate of Standardization and Safety Policy,

Stan 1, Kentigern House, 65 Brown Street,
Glasgow G2 8EX
c. Naval Engineering Standards CSE3a, CSE Llangennech, Llanelli,

Dyfed SA14 8YP
d. Other documents Tender or Contract Sponsor to advise.
Note: Tender or Contract Sponsor can advise in cases of difficulty.
16. All applications to Ministry Establishments for related documents are to quote the relevant
MOD Invitation to Tender or Contract Number and date, together with the sponsoring
Directorate and the Tender or Contract Sponsor.
17. Prime Contractors are responsible for supplying their subcontractors with relevant
documentation, including specifications, standards and drawings.
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NES 747
Part 5
Health and Safety

Warning
18. This NES may call for the use of processes, substances and/or procedures that may be injurious
to health if adequate precautions are not taken. It refers only to technical suitability and in
no way absolves either the supplier or the user from statutory obligations relating to health
and safety at any stage of manufacture or use. Where attention is drawn to hazards, those
quoted may not necessarily be exhaustive.
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NES 747
Part 5
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NES 747
Part 5
CONTENTS
Page No
TITLE PAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Sponsorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Conditions of Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
MOD Tender or Contract Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Related Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
SECTION 1. THE CASTING PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
1.1 Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
1.2 Solidification of Liquid Nickel−Aluminium−Bronze 1.3
1.3 The Relationship between Casting Dimensions and
Solidification Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4
FIGURE 1.1 ILLUSTRATING SOLIDIFICATION OF
NICKEL−ALUMINIUM−BRONZE IN A MOULD 1.5
1.4 The Formation of Sound Metal and the Reasons why
Shrinkage Occurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
1.5 Tapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
FIGURE 1.2 SECTIONS THROUGH A TAPERED
‘KEEL BAR’ CASTING ILLUSTRATING PROGRESS
OF SOLIDIFICATION FRONT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
1.6 Chills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7
FIGURE 1.3 SECTION THROUGH THE BODY OF
A CASTING ILLUSTRATING DEFECTS DUE TO
UNDESIGNED TAPER CAUSED BY
DIMENSIONAL INACCURACY AND HOW THE
DESIGNER MAY CORRECT THIS FAULT . . . . . 1.7
FIGURE 1.4 SECTION THROUGH THE BODY OF
A CASTING SHOWING THE USE OF CHILLS TO
EXTEND FEEDING DISTANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8
FIGURE 1.5 SECTION THROUGH A JUNCTION
IN A CASTING SHOWING HOW CHILLS MAY BE
USED TO ELIMINATE SHRINKAGE AT THE
JUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8
1.7 Feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9
FIGURE 1.6 ILLUSTRATING THE DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN SHRINKAGE POROSITY CAUSED BY
UNDERSIZE FEEDERS AND SHRINKAGE POROSITY
CAUSED BY NON-DIRECTIONAL
SOLIDIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9
1.8 The Formation of Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10
FIGURE 1.7 DISTRIBUTION OF DEFECTS IN
ALUMINIUM−BRONZE SAND CASTINGS SHOWN
ON RADIOGRAPHS OF 3mm THICK CENTRAL
SLICES TAKEN FROM PLATES OF 50mm
THICKNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10
FIGURE 1.8 MAIN FEATURES OF A BOTTOM-
RUNNING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11
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FIGURE 1.9 SCHEMATIC PRESENTATION OF

DURVILLE MOULD—ROTATION POURING
METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
SECTION 2. THE MOULDING PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
2.1 Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
2.2 Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
2.3 Determination of Moulding Direction . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2
FIGURE 2.1 PRINCIPLES OF MOULDING . . . . 2.2
2.4 Dimensional Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
TABLE 2.1 DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES . . . . 2.4
2.5 Wall Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4
2.6 Machining Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4
SECTION 3. THE DESIGN PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.2 Casting Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.3 The Design Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.4 The Casting Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.5 Records of Feeding and Mould Filling System . . . . 3.1
FIGURE 3.1 CASTING DESIGN SEQUENCE . . . 3.2
3.6 Calculators and their Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3
SECTION 4. DESIGNING FOR DIRECTIONAL
SOLIDIFICATION AND ADEQUATE FEEDING . 4.1
4.1 Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1
4.2 Designing for Directional Solidification . . . . . . . . . . 4.1
FIGURE 4.1 SECTION THROUGH BULKHEAD
PIECE CASTING SHOWING DESIGN FEATURES
AND THEIR EFFECT ON THE SOLIDIFICATION
PATTERNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1
FIGURE 4.2 SECTIONS THROUGH CASTINGS
OF EVEN THICKNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
4.3 Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4
FIGURE 4.3 DESIGNING FOR DIRECTIONAL
SOLIDIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
4.4 Geometric Moduli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6
4.5 Simplified Modulus Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10
4.6 Modulus Correction Factors: Effect of Shape . . . . . 4.10
FIGURE 4.4a, b and c EXAMPLES OF
GEOMETRIC MODULI CALCULATION FOR
SIMPLE SHAPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11
FIGURE 4.4d and e EXAMPLES OF GEOMETRIC
MODULI CALCULATIONS FOR SIMPLE
SHAPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
FIGURE 4.5 CALCULATOR TO DETERMINE
FROM THE GEOMETRIC MODULUS OF A
CASTING SHAPE, THE MODULUS OF AN
INFINITE PLATE OF THE SAME EFFECTIVE
MODULUS AS THE CASTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15
4.7 Modulus Correction Factors: Effect of Junctions . . 4.16
FIGURE 4.6 FACTORS WHICH INCREASE THE
SOLIDIFICATION TIME (MODULUS) OF
JUNCTIONS ABOVE THAT OF THE COMPONENT
JUNCTION ARMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16
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FIGURE 4.7 IDENTIFICATION OF ‘HOT SPOTS’

USING THE INSCRIBED CIRCLE METHOD TO
PREDICT THE PROGRESS OF
SOLIDIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17
4.8 Effective Moduli of ‘L’ and ‘T’ Junctions . . . . . . . . 4.18
FIGURE 4.8 TYPICAL JUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 4.18
4.9 Effective Moduli of Other Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19
FIGURE 4.9 MODULUS SHAPE CORRECTION
FACTORS FOR ‘L’ AND ‘T’ JUNCTIONS . . . . . . 4.20
FIGURE 4.10 SHAPE CORRECTION FACTORS
FOR VARIOUS JUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.21
4.10 Method to Determine the Solidification Pattern of a
Complex Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.22
4.11 Influence of Cores and Sand Thicknesses on
Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.26
4.12 Minimum Allowable Sand Thicknesses Between
Moulding Box and Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.26
FIGURE 4.11 MINIMUM ALLOWABLE
THICKNESSES OF SAND BETWEEN THE
MOULDING BOXES AND CAST FEATURES . . . 4.26
4.13 Effect of Sand Thickness Between Parts of Castings 4.27
FIGURE 4.12 EFFECT OF SAND THICKNESS
ON THE COOLING OF TUBES AND ADJACENT
PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.28
FIGURE 4.13 EFFECT OF SAND THICKNESS
BETWEEN PLATES AND CORE DIAMETER OF
TUBES ON THE MODULUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.29
4.14 Influence of Chills on the Moduli of Castings . . . . . 4.30
4.15 Influence of Insulating Mould Inserts on the Moduli
of Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.31
4.16 Feeder Position—Feeding Distances of Parts of
Castings of Uniform Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.31
4.16.1 Parts of Castings 12mm to 75mm Thick . . . . . . . . . 4.31
TABLE 4.1 FEEDING DISTANCES OF PARTS OF
CASTINGS OF UNIFORM THICKNESS BETWEEN
12mm AND 75mm THICK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.33
FIGURE 4.14 ILLUSTRATING THE USE OF
FEEDING DISTANCES GIVEN IN TABLE 4.1 . . . 4.34
FIGURE 4.15 ILLUSTRATING HOW FEEDING
DISTANCE RULES SHOULD BE USED TO
ENSURE SOUNDNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.37
FIGURE 4.16 CALCULATOR USED TO DETERMINE
AVERAGE DIAMETER AND CIRCUMFERENCE
OF A RING OR TUBE FROM ITS OUTER AND
INNER DIAMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.43
4.16.2 Parts of Castings less than 12mm thick . . . . . . . . . . 4.46
FIGURE 4.17 ILLUSTRATING METHODS OF
ENSURING SOUNDNESS IN PARTS OF CASTINGS
OF THICKNESS LESS THAN 12mm . . . . . . . . . . . 4.47
4.17 Use of Taper to Induce Directional Solidification . . 4.48
4.17.1 Minimum Taper Required to Ensure Soundness of
Plate Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.48
4.17.2 Minimum ‘Straight’ Taper Required to Ensure
Soundness in Plate Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.49
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4.17.3 Minimum Taper Required to Ensure Feeding around

the Circumference of Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.50
FIGURE 4.18 EXAMPLE ILLUSTRATING USE OF
CALCULATOR 3 TO DETERMINE TAPER
REQUIRED TO ENSURE SOUNDNESS IN
SPIGOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.51
FIGURE 4.19 ILLUSTRATING USE OF
CALCULATOR 4 TO DETERMINE STRAIGHT
TAPER REQUIRED FOR SOUNDNESS . . . . . . . . 4.52
4.17.4 Feeding Distances along Tubes Tapered around
their Circumference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.54
FIGURE 4.20 ILLUSTRATING USE OF
CALCULATOR 5 TO DETERMINE THE TAPER
REQUIRED TO ENSURE FEEDING AROUND THE
CIRCUMFERENCE OF A TUBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.55
FIGURE 4.21 CALCULATOR 6, USED TO
DETERMINE TAPER REQUIRED TO ENSURE
FEEDING AROUND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF A
TUBE WHERE MINIMUM THICKNESS AND
EITHER OUTSIDE DIAMETER OR BORE ARE
KNOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.56
4.18 Progressive Feeding of Parts of Castings by other
Parts of Higher Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.57
4.18.1 When the Ratio of Moduli is Equal to, or Greater
than 1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.57
4.18.2 When the Ratio of Moduli is Less Than 1.5 . . . . . . . 4.58
FIGURE 4.22 CALCULATOR 7 USED TO
DETERMINE GEOMETRIC MODULI OF PARTS
OF CASTINGS OF RECTANGULAR CROSS
SECTION FROM THEIR WIDTH AND THICKNESS
MEASUREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.59
FIGURE 4.23 CALCULATOR 3, TO BE USED TO
DETERMINE THE EXTENT TO WHICH A THICK
PLATE-LIKE PART OF A CASTING WILL FEED
A THINNER PLATE-LIKE PART OF A CASTING 4.62
FIGURE 4.24 USE OF CALCULATOR 3 . . . . . . . 4.63
4.19 Feeding Distances and Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.64
4.19.1 Chilled Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.65
FIGURE 4.25 CHILLED JUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . 4.65
4.19.2 Fed Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.65
4.20 Insulating Mould Inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.65
4.20.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.66
FIGURE 4.26 FEEDING DISTANCES OF T AND
L JUNCTIONS BETWEEN PLATES, WITH
FEEDERS POSITIONED OVER CENTRE LINE
OF JUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.67
4.21 Limitations of Ceramic Fibre Insulating Mould
Inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.68
4.21.1 Dross Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.68
4.21.2 Dimensional Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.68
FIGURE 4.27 RECOMMENDED AND NON-
RECOMMENDED METHODS OF POSITIONING
INSULATING INSERTS MADE OF SEMI-RIGID
BOARD IN THE MOULD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.69
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4.21.3 Optimum Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.70

4.21.4 Feeding Distance and Insulating Mould Inserts . . . 4.70
4.21.5 Insulating Mould Inserts and Isolated Thick
Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.70
4.22 Feeder Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.72
FIGURE 4.28 DETERMINATION OF FEEDER
ZONE BOUNDARIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.73
4.23 Minimum Feeder Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.75
FIGURE 4.29 CALCULATORS 8 AND 9 USED TO
DETERMINE THE MINIMUM FEEDER DIAMETER
FOR A RING-SHAPED CASTING FROM FEEDER
ZONE VOLUME AND CASTING MODULUS . . . 4.78
4.24 Simplified Method of Determining Whether Feeder
Zones are Volume-Dependent Using TABLE 4.2 . . . 4.84
4.25 Additional Feeding Volume Requirements when Blind
Feeders are Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.85
TABLE 4.2 MAXIMUM VOLUME OF FEEDER
ZONES DEFINED IN TERMS OF THE MAXIMUM
LENGTH OF SIDE L OF SQUARE ZONES OF
AVERAGE THICKNESS T WHICH INSULATED
FEEDERS OF DIAMETER D AND HEIGHT — 1.5
Df CAN SUPPLY WITH AN ADEQUATE VOLUME
OF FEED METAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.85
FIGURE 4.30 THE EFFECT OF BLIND FEEDER
ZONES ON MINIMUM FEEDER SIZE . . . . . . . . . 4.88
4.26 Feeder Height, Shape and Connection to Casting . . 4.94
FIGURE 4.31 CALCULATOR 10 TO DETERMINE
THE TOTAL ADDITIONAL HEIGHT ON TOP
FEEDERS REQUIRED TO COMPENSATE FOR
LIQUID CONTRACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.96
FIGURE 4.32 FEEDING ARRANGEMENT FOR
FLANGED TAPERED SPIGOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.97
4.27 Summary of Rules for designing a Feeding System 4.97
ELONGATED FEEDER DIMENSIONS OF THE
SAME MODULI AS CYLINDRICAL FEEDERS . 4.98
FIGURE 4.34 CONNECTORS FOR FEEDERS AND
METHODS OF FEEDING FLANGES . . . . . . . . . . 4.99
SECTION 5. FILLING THE MOULD DESIGN OF THE RUNNING

AND GATING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.2 Filling Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.3 Mould Rotation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
5.3.1 Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
FIGURE 5.1 SUGGESTED SEQUENCE FOR
DESIGN OF RUNNING AND GATING SYSTEM 5.3
REASONABLE FILLING TIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4
5.4 Temperature Variations in Durville Filled Moulds . 5.5
FIGURE 5.3 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
AND THE USE OF WEBS IN THE DURVILLE
PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5
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5.5 Static Bottom-Gating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6

FIGURE 1.8 MAIN FEATURES OF A BOTTOM
RUNNING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
5.6 Temperature Variations in Bottom-gated Moulds . . 5.7
5.7 Filling Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8
FIGURE 5.4 SHOWING REDUCTION IN
POURING RATE DURING FILLING OF MOULD
USING A BOTTOM-GATING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . 5.10
FIGURE 5.5 CALCULATOR 13 TO DETERMINE
THE REDUCTION IN INITIAL FILLING RATE
DURING FILLING FROM ONE LEVEL TO
ANOTHER IN MOULDS OF UNIFORM
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.11
5.8 Simplified Calculation of Initial Filling Rate from
Cast Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.12
5.9 Choosing the Ingate Sites—Horizontal or Vertical? 5.12
5.10 Positioning of Ingates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.14
5.11 Calculation of the Dimensions of a Bottom-Gating
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.16
5.12 The Ingates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.16
FIGURE 5.6 RECOMMENDED METHODS OF
GATING AND FEEDING FLANGES . . . . . . . . . . . 5.17
5.12.1 Ingate Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.21
5.13 Runners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.22
FIGURE 5.7 EXAMPLES OF NON-PREFERRED
AND PREFERRED RUNNING SYSTEMS FOR
TWO CASTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.23
FIGURE 5.8 SHOWING REDUCTION OF RUNNER
AFTER INGATE TO EQUALIZE FLOW
THROUGH INGATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.24
5.14 Multi-running System Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.27
FIGURE 5.9 TYPICAL CASTINGS FOR WHICH
THE USE OF MORE THAN ONE RUNNING
SYSTEM MAY BE NECESSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.28
5.15 The Sprue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.30
FIGURE 5.10 DESIGN OF THE SPRUE . . . . . . . . 5.30
FIGURE 5.11 CALCULATOR 14 TO BE USED TO
DETERMINE SPRUE DIMENSIONS FROM THE
INITIAL FILLING RATE (DISCHARGE
COEFFICIENT = 1; ENTRANCE DIAMETER =
1.2 MINIMUM ENTRANCE DIAMETER) . . . . . . 5.32
5.16 The Pouring Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.33
FIGURE 5.12 POURING BASIN DESIGN . . . . . . 5.33
TABLE 5.1 MINIMUM POURING BASIN
DIMENSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.34
5.17 The Well-base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.34
FIGURE 5.13 DESIGN OF THE WELL BASE . . . 5.34
5.18 The Dross Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.35
TABLE 5.2 DROSS TRAP DIMENSIONS . . . . . . . 5.35
5.19 Calculation and Recording of Running and Gating
Designs in Everyday Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.35
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Part 5
5.20 Summary of Rules for Designing Running and

Gating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.36
FIGURE 5.14 SPECIMEN RECORD SHEET FOR
CALCULATING AND RECORDING RUNNING
AND GATING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.37
ANNEX A. RELATED DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.1
ANNEX B. DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . B.1
ANNEX C. CASTING DESIGN EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.1
ANNEX D. EXAMPLES OF RUNNING, GATING AND
FEEDING METHODS FOR PRODUCTION
CASTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.1
FIGURE D.1 CASTING DRAWING FOR 12 INCH
NB FLAP VALVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2
FIGURE D.2 FEEDING AND FILLING METHOD
FOR 12 INCH NB FLAP VALVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.3
NB TEST BAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.4
FOR 4 INCH NB TEST BAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.5
FIGURE D.5 CASTING DRAWING FOR 2½ ¢ 2½
¢ 2 INCH NB TEE PIECE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.6
FOR 2½ ¢ 2½ ¢ 2 INCH NB TEE PIECE . . . . . . D.7
FIGURE D.7 CASTING DRAWING FOR 6 INCH NB
THROUGH VALVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.9
FOR 6 INCH NB THROUGH VALVE . . . . . . . . . . . D.10
NB SD SL ANGLED HULL VALVE . . . . . . . . . . . . D.11
FOR 4 INCH NB SD SL ANGLED HULL VALVE D.12
FIGURE D.11 REPRODUCTION OF A CASTING
DRAWING FOR 6 ¢ 5 INCH VALVE CHEST . . . D.14
FIGURE D.12 REPRODUCTION OF A
MOULDING DRAWING SHOWING A SUCCESSFUL
PRODUCTION METHOD FOR A 6 ¢ 5 INCH VALVE
CHEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.15
FIGURE D.13 PATTERN EQUIPMENT FOR 6 ¢ 5in
VALVE CHEST SHOWING CHILL LOCATIONS
DRAWN ON PATTERN AND FEEDER SLEEVES
STUCK IN POSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.16
FIGURE D.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.17
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Part 5
ANNEX E. MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF SAND CAST

NICKEL−ALUMINIUM−BRONZE TO
NES 747 PART 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.1
TABLE E.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . E.1
TABLE E.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES . . . . . E.2
FIGURE E.1 HIGH STRAIN/LOW CYCLE
FATIGUE DATA FOR NICKEL−IRON−ALUMINIUM−
BRONZE TESTED IN SEA WATER AT 32° C . . . . E.3
TABLE E.3 WELD METAL DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.4
TABLE E.4 WELDMENT DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.5
TABLE E.5 WELDING DATA—AVERAGE
SETTINGS FOR GOOD DEPOSITIONS
CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.5
ANNEX F. SUMMARY OF CALCULATORS AND TABLES
USED IN NES 747 PART 5, ALSO SUMMARY OF
RULES FOR DESIGNING FEEDING AND MOULD
FILLING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F.1
ANNEX G. NON-ESSENTIAL DOCUMENTS PROVIDING
BACKGROUND INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.1
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
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Part 5
1. THE CASTING PROCESS
1.1 Preface
a. The casting process is potentially the quickest and cheapest method of

producing complex components and thus has great appeal to designers. Its
apparent simplicity has, however, led to neglect in appreciation and observation
of the fundamentals of the process and its limitations. As a result, casting
problems and delays in procuring high integrity castings have occurred leading
to some disillusionment on the part of the designers.
b. The problem was highlighted when gunmetal was replaced by Nickel

Aluminium Bronze because of its better shock resistance properties. The
simultaneous introduction of radiographic standards for Class 1 castings
presented the foundry industry with an unprecedented and difficult situation.
The main facet of the problem was established as one of achieving directional
solidification and adequate feeding in large castings of complex design. The
most common defects were shrinkage at the root of flanges and webs and
widespread shrinkage porosity in the walls of castings. These defects proved
especially difficult to rectify by welding. Design modifications, material and
foundry control and experience in weld repair have all helped to improve the
position, but without adequate data it has not generally been possible to ensure
the systematic production of acceptable castings. Design features and the
greater appreciation of the problems of castability at the design stage were
recognized as of great importance in the manufacture of satisfactory castings.
However, at that time the lack of reliable quantitative principles and of foundry
experience precluded their consideration. The BNF’s exploratory investigation
on the feeding and running of aluminium-bronze indicated that design rules for
castings could be established.
c. Creation of an item by casting not only involves sound engineering design but
also a thorough appreciation of the foundry process, especially the behaviour of
the metal as it solidifies. It is essential that the designer and the founder work
as a team, and to promote this understanding this NES (Part 5) aims to present
casting design parameters which will enable the suitability of a casting route to
be assessed and the design to be determined. Knowledge of the parameters in
this guide will promote a fuller appreciation of foundry problems by designers.
Their adoption by designers will assist founders to meet the engineering
requirements and casting quality standards set by the Design Authority.
d. This Section and Section 2. explain the casting and moulding processes.
Section 3. describes briefly the design sequence required to produce sound
castings. Sections 4. and 5. give the data which the designer and founder must
use to enable the feeding and filling systems to be designed. This ensures that
castings can be made free from shrinkage and oxide inclusions with a minimum
of difficulty in the foundry. Annex C. contains fully worked examples showing
how the design rules can be used in complex castings. Annex D. contains
examples of six running gating and feeding designs developed by an MOD
foundry from the design rules given in the first edition which have been proven
in production runs. Annex E. contains a summary of the material properties of
sand cast nickel−aluminium−bronze including mechanical and physical
properties and data on corrosion fatigue and welding. Annex F. contains a
summary of the calculators and tables required by the designer, also a summary
of the rules for designing feeding and mould filling systems.
1.1
NES 747
Part 5
e. The production of a casting requires a dialectic between the designer and the
founder to balance the variables and to achieve a satisfactory compromise
between feeding, running and gating variables. Used properly, this NES will
permit the design of sound castings with metal solidifying directionally towards
feeders of minimum size. The casting drawing is to be fully toleranced to give
all ‘as cast’ dimensions, machining allowances, feeding arrangements and
running systems.
f. The founder is contractually responsible to the purchaser for his product and,
as such, must maintain responsibility for the casting system overall. Therefore,
this NES is issued only as guidance to designers for use in the preparation of the
casting and machining drawing submitted when inviting tenders. The founder
would be expected, following receipt of a contract, to check the feeding method
formulated by the designer and confirm his agreement or indicate to the
purchaser any changes considered necessary. Formulation of a feeding
technique by a casting designer cannot be considered a valid reason for the
founder to disclaim liability in the event of his inability to produce sound
castings once that technique has been agreed by the founder.
g. One of the aims of this document is to enable predictions to be made of

particular problems likely to arise in the pattern shop and foundry during
production of a component at the design stage before production starts. This
requires a close relationship between the designer and a foundry methods
engineer during the design stage. Correct use of this NES should make it
possible systematically to calculate feeding and mould filling methods for
castings which will have a high degree of soundness. However, this is only the
first step to producing sound castings consistently. Just as important is
implementation of procedures to ensure that adequate records are kept and that
there is a continuing liaison between those responsible for:
(1) the design of the filling and feeding methods;
(2) using these designs to make castings;
(3) quality control;
(4) weld repair.
h. The causes, as well as the severity of defects, must be systematically

investigated and the results of these investigations made known to all interested
parties.
Particular attention is to be paid to the following points:
(1) original casting designs must be fully documented;
(2) adequate checks must be made to ensure that moulds conform to the
designed running, gating and feeding methods;
(3) reliable records must be made of moulding and pouring procedures,

especially when these vary from the recommended procedures;
1.2
NES 747
Part 5
(4) changes in filling and feeding methods, and casting design, during
production must not be made before the positions of defects revealed by
non-destructive tests have been correlated with the position of feeders,
chills, ingates and features of the casting, and the cause(s) of the defects
determined. This procedure precludes the manufacture of complex
castings in batches before the feeding and mould filling methods have
been ‘commissioned’. To keep delays to a minimum, non-destructive
testing departments are to give priority to castings made with new or
modified feeding and filling methods in the initial period of production
trials to enable filling and feeding methods to be fully evaluated between
each cast;
(5) modifications made to feeding and filling methods during production

must be fully documented, communicated to interested parties and
included in casting records.
i. Casting design, production method design, pattern/mould production,

inspection and weld repair, are all aspects of casting production; the
management of these individual functions must facilitate the collection and
interpretation of detailed information by the person (or team) who is
accountable for the production of sound high quality castings. The feedback of
information from each of these activities is vital to the effective production of
future castings.
j. This NES is concerned specifically with nickel−aluminium−bronze and is

based on the results of tests on castings up to 75mm in section. The extent to
which the recommendations made on feeding are valid for thicker sections has
not been defined. Nickel−aluminium−bronze is a short freezing range alloy
and, although the precise values will differ, the feeding characteristics will be
similar to those of steel or cupro-nickel.
k. The following Clauses provide an introduction to the principles of casting

nickel−aluminium−bronze for both Surface Ship and Submarine applications.
If a designer is to specialize in casting design it is essential that he studies
foundry techniques at first hand in the foundry. A glossary of terms commonly
used in the foundry can be found under ‘Definitions’ in Annex B. of this NES.
1.2 Solidification of Liquid Nickel−Aluminium−Bronze
a. The rate of cooling has a direct influence on the final microstructure of a

casting. Subsequent thermal treatment is intended to modify the as-cast or
weld-repair microstructure but proper consideration to achieve a slow and
uniform cooling rate below the casting solidus temperature can greatly
facilitate the ultimate achievement of the required properties of the alloy. There
are three stages in the cooling of nickel−aluminium−bronze in a mould and
each of these stages involves a contraction in volume:
(1) ‘Liquid Contraction’ occurs as the liquid metal in the mould cools from
the pouring temperature (approximately 1200° C) to the liquidus
temperature (approximately 1070° C);
(2) ‘Solidification Contraction’ accompanies the change in state as the metal

changes from being completely liquid to being completely solid and takes
place as the metal cools approximately 20° C between the liquidus
temperature and the solidus temperature (approximately 1050° C);
1.3
NES 747
Part 5
(3) ‘Solid Contraction’ takes place as the temperature of the casting—now

fully solid—falls between the solidus temperature and room temperature.
b. The first stage of the solidification process shown in FIGURE 1.1 involves a
simple reduction in the volume of the liquid metal in the mould and this is
accompanied by a fall in the level of metal in the feeders (approx 4% contraction
from 1200° C−1070° C). The liquid metal retains the shape of the mould cavity
in all other parts of the casting. The changes in liquid metal volume are easily
allowed for in calculating the size of the feeders and, assuming these are
adequate in size, the soundness of the casting is not affected by the reduction
in liquid metal volume which occurs at this stage.
c. The second stage of the process is ‘Solidification’, ie the change in state from
liquid to solid. This process involves a sharp reduction (approx 4%) in volume
as the temperature of the metal falls a mere 20° C. Solidification starts in the
metal in contact with the mould walls, leading to the formation of a solid skin
of the same shape and size as the mould cavity but containing liquid metal. This
skin increases in thickness as more of the liquid metal solidifies on to it, but it
remains in contact with the mould cavity throughout solidification preserving
the shape and size of the cavity. The shrinkage which occurs as the metal
changes from liquid to solid in the mould cavity cannot therefore be
compensated by overall reduction in the external dimensions of the shape. The
shrinkage must be made up by transporting liquid metal to the part where
solidification is taking place, otherwise unsoundness will develop. The liquid
metal required to preserve the soundness of the interior of the casting is
provided by a feeder or a thicker section which is itself similarly fed. The absence
of shrinkage can be ensured only by controlling the whole pattern of
solidification. The main object of this NES is to provide information to the
designer and founder which will enable them to predict and control the
Solidification Process to ensure Directional Solidification toward an adequate
source of feed metal.
d. The third and final stage of the cooling process occurs when the solid casting
contracts away from the walls of the mould as the temperature falls from the
Solidus Temperature to Room Temperature. This contraction does not affect
the soundness of the casting. The changes in casting dimensions during this
stage are allowed for by making the pattern dimensions slightly larger (2.3%)
than required of the final casting. This allowance is known generally as
Patternmaker’s Contraction Allowance.
1.3 The Relationship between Casting Dimensions and Solidification Time
a. It has been shown empirically that the solidification time of castings varies with
the ratio:
Volume of casting
Cooling surface area of the casting
This ratio is known as the geometric modulus (M).

The solidification time t = k(M) 2 where k is a constant for a given metal and
mould material. The modulus has a linear dimension and is, in fact, half section
thickness for an infinite plate.
b. Calculation of the geometric modulus for various parts of castings allows their
solidification times to be predicted and probable sequence of solidification to be
determined since the higher the modulus the longer the time taken to solidify.
By this means areas likely to freeze after the rest of the casting can be identified.
1.4
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE 1.1 ILLUSTRATING SOLIDIFICATION OF NICKEL−ALUMINIUM−BRONZE IN A

MOULD
1.5
NES 747
Part 5
1.4 The Formation of Sound Metal and the Reasons why Shrinkage Occurs
a. As the edges of a cast section of uniform thickness freeze first and are fed from
the remainder of the still liquid section, the casting is always sound for a certain
distance from a free edge, whether or not a feeder is placed on the casting. This
distance is generally known as the ‘end effect’. Once freezing has started from
the edge of the casting, a feeder can maintain directional solidification over only
a limited distance. Beyond this distance, metal solidifying from opposite faces
of the casting bridges the section and prevents further movement of feed metal
thus causing shrinkage. The maximum distance of sound metal which can be
obtained between the edge of the feeder and the cast end is called the maximum
‘feeder to cast end’ distance and increases with the thickness and width of the
section. The maximum ‘feeder to cast end’ distance cannot be increased merely
by increasing the size of the feeder.
b. If a sound casting is to be produced, the distance between the edge of the feeder
and the edge of the casting must not exceed the maximum ‘feeder to cast end’
distance.
c. Similarly, in a parallel section between feeders, solidification is initiated in the
part furthest from the feeders, ie mid-way between them, and then proceeds
towards the feeders. The maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distance must not be
exceeded or solidification will occur randomly throughout the section resulting
in shrinkage.
1.5 Tapers
a. Continuous increases in thickness, ie taper of a section can be used to create
directional solidification and prevent shrinkage. FIGURE 1.2 shows an
example of a ‘keel’ bar having an adequate taper and producing sufficient sound
metal for production of test bars.
FIGURE 1.2 SECTIONS THROUGH A TAPERED ‘KEEL BAR’

CASTING ILLUSTRATING PROGRESS OF SOLIDIFICATION FRONT
(1) Taper is extremely effective in promoting directional solidification in thin

sections but care should be taken to ensure that any taper which does
occur increases towards the source of feed metal, otherwise shrinkage will
result.
(2) Dimensional inaccuracy may lead to shrinkage due to reverse taper as
illustrated in FIGURE 1.3(a). This may be eliminated by the designer
specifying tighter tolerances or if this is not practicable, by imposing a
positive taper (FIGURE 1.3(b)) to ensure that a negative taper does not
develop.
1.6
NES 747
Part 5
1.6 Chills
a. The heat abstraction of the mould walls can be increased locally by the use of
chills, which are blocks of metal or other materials with a higher heat
conductivity than sand. Where it is impracticable to attach feeders, chills are
particularly useful in initiating directional solidification, eg at junctions etc,
which would otherwise be porous. Chills can also be used to increase feeding
distances on parallel sections and thereby reduce the number of feeders
required. Metal chills are particularly effective. They can in some circumstances
reduce the solidification time by a factor of more than 25 times, ie reducing the
modulus by a factor of more than 25 compared with that of similar sections
moulded in sand. FIGURE 1.4 and FIGURE 1.5 show two examples of their use.
FIGURE 1.3 SECTION THROUGH THE BODY OF A CASTING ILLUSTRATING

DEFECTS DUE TO UNDESIGNED TAPER CAUSED BY DIMENSIONAL INACCURACY
AND HOW THE DESIGNER MAY CORRECT THIS FAULT
1.7
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE 1.4 SECTION THROUGH THE BODY OF A CASTING SHOWING THE USE OF
CHILLS TO EXTEND FEEDING DISTANCES
FIGURE 1.5 SECTION THROUGH A JUNCTION IN A CASTING SHOWING HOW CHILLS

MAY BE USED TO ELIMINATE SHRINKAGE AT THE JUNCTION
1.8
NES 747
Part 5
1.7 Feeders
a. The feeder is the reservoir of liquid metal from which the casting draws its feed
metal to compensate for the shrinkage contraction which occurs when the
casting changes from a liquid shape to a solid shape. The use of too small a feeder
is associated with only localized shrinkage (FIGURE 1.6(a)) when all parts of
the casting are within the feeding distances from a feeder, whereas in a part of
a casting whose length exceeds the feeding distance (FIGURE 1.6(b)) dispersed
shrinkage occurs throughout the section even when the feeder size is several
times that required to ensure that it freezes last and contains all the secondary
pipe. This latter defect (see FIGURE 1.7(b)) is often found in practice. Indeed,
the majority of the defects in a wide range of commercial aluminium−bronze
castings which had failed on radiographic examination were of this type. The
feeders on these castings had been too few and placed too far apart.
b. The remedy which foundrymen traditionally applied to prevent the defects

occurring was to increase the feeder size but this is completely ineffective in
preventing shrinkage porosity caused by non-directional solidification, ie by
exceeding the maximum feeding distances. The proper approach is to decrease
the distance separating the feeders along the casting. The indication that
feeders are undersize is the presence of shrinkage porosity in the casting just
under the point where the feeder is attached to the casting. Where the feeder
is grossly undersize the pipe in the feeder may extend into the casting itself in
which case shrinkage porosity in the casting may extend some distance around
the feeder. With the part of the casting under the feeder remaining sound, the
presence of shrinkage porosity between feeders and edges, chills or other
feeders, indicates that feeding distances have been exceeded.
FIGURE 1.6 ILLUSTRATING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SHRINKAGE POROSITY

CAUSED BY UNDERSIZE FEEDERS AND SHRINKAGE POROSITY CAUSED BY
NON-DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
1.9
NES 747
Part 5
1.8 The Formation of Oxides

a. Aluminium bronzes oxidize readily on contact with air to form a tenacious film
containing a high proportion of aluminium oxide. This oxide skin is responsible
for the fundamental corrosion resistance of nickel−aluminium−bronze
although the corrosion performance in sea-water is to some extent influenced
by the micro-structure obtained during casting and thermal treatment.
b. Molten aluminium−bronze oxidizes instantly but the film formed, though
extremely thin, protects against further oxidation. Any breakage of the skin,
however, causes further oxide to form. Turbulence, such as that induced by
stirring or pouring, either from the furnace to the crucible or from the crucible
into the mould cavity, may cause some of these very fine oxide skins to be
suspended in the metal resulting in defects in the castings. Because of their
nature these defects may have a damaging effect on the properties of the
finished castings.
c. Oxide inclusions not only represent a hazard in themselves but also interrupt
the designed solidification pattern and induce shrinkage porosity in sections
that would otherwise have been sound (see FIGURE 1.7(a)).
(a)
(b)
(a)Oxide inclusions caused by excessive turbulence during mould filling

(the surface appearance of the plate is also shown).
(b)Shrinkage unsoundness when feeder size is sufficient but feeding
distance is exceeded.
FIGURE 1.7 DISTRIBUTION OF DEFECTS IN ALUMINIUM−BRONZE SAND
CASTINGS SHOWN ON RADIOGRAPHS OF 3mm THICK CENTRAL SLICES TAKEN
FROM PLATES OF 50mm THICKNESS
1.10
NES 747
Part 5
NOTE Acceptance standards for non-destructive testing of castings specify

radiography through the thickness of castings which is a less sensitive test
and gives defect indications which have a different appearance than the
destructive test used for these plates.
d. The adoption of good running and gating techniques will minimize oxide
inclusions in nickel−aluminium−bronze castings by avoiding turbulence
during pouring. Static top-gating systems where the metal is allowed to
‘tumble’ through the casting, mixing with air and forming multitudes of new
oxide skins which mix with the metal, will not produce sound castings in this
alloy. The two running techniques which minimize turbulence and are used
throughout the industry for this alloy are:
(1) Controlled Bottom-running techniques (FIGURE 1.8) incorporating a

pouring basin, tapered sprue and bottom ingates, designed to keep metal
speed below the minimum velocity at which turbulence can occur;
FIGURE 1.8 MAIN FEATURES OF A BOTTOM-RUNNING SYSTEM
(2) the ‘Durville’ and similar techniques (FIGURE 1.9) in which a pouring
basin sufficiently large to hold all the metal required for the casting is
attached to the mould, so that as the mould is rotated
(through 90° C−180° C) the metal runs smoothly into the mould cavity
through one or more feeders. This requires special tilting equipment.
1.11
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE 1.9 SCHEMATIC PRESENTATION OF DURVILLE MOULD—ROTATION POURING

METHOD
1.12
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Part 5
2. THE MOULDING PROCESS

2.1 Applicability
a. This section is intended as a guide for use with a moulding process using clay
bonded dry sand or artificially bonded and cured sands (eg the CO2 process).
b. Close control of casting dimensions is essential if the designed system is to be

effective, particularly in sections of less than 6mm thick, where a small
variation would completely upset the solidification pattern.
c. The simpler the mould the better the chance of reproducing designed
thicknesses accurately. This is essential if the calculated feeding system is to
work properly.
2.2 Patterns
a. The accuracy of a casting will be affected if the mould is made from flimsy
wooden patterns which distort under moulding pressures and wear rapidly by
damage and sand abrasion. Pattern equipment intended for producing high
quality nickel−aluminium−bronze castings should therefore be constructed in
accordance with the following rules:
(1) substantial equipment sufficiently rigid to withstand moulding forces are

to be used;
(2) where economics preclude the use of metal or resin equipment, the
provision of metal wear pads, strengthening ribs, etc, is advisable. The
resin impregnated laminated woods commercially available are much
more stable in contact with moist sand than kiln-dried natural timber
though they require more sophisticated cutting tools than are required for
yellow pine. Where possible, patterns of wooden construction are to be
mounted on metal plates to keep them flat to give maximum rigidity;
(3) moulding tapers are to be sufficient to enable patterns to be withdrawn

and core boxes stripped with minimum rapping, at the same time bearing
in mind the need for directional solidification;
(4) core setting and checking fixtures should be provided for complex
castings;
(5) the number and size of core prints must be adequate to give support and
balance.
b. The pattern must be constructed so that it can be removed without damaging

the mould. The moulds must be separable into two or more parts to allow
extraction of the pattern. The largest section, in either width or length, of the
pattern should be located at the parting line and the pattern should, if possible,
be designed so that its size is reduced in moving from the parting line to the
extremities. FIGURE 2.1 shows a typical sand mould after the pattern halves
have been withdrawn, together with the pattern, core and rough casting
produced from the mould.
2.1
NES 747
Part 5
2.3 Determination of Moulding Direction

a. The choice of moulding direction is extremely important and is to always be
made with feeding requirements in mind. For instance, where isolated thick
sections cannot be avoided it is essential that they are to be accessible for
feeding. Such sections are not to be located at the lowest point of the casting
unless reasonable feeding provision can be made.
FIGURE 2.1 PRINCIPLES OF MOULDING
To facilitate removal of the pattern from the mould a taper of at least 1 in 20

is required for clay bonded moulds and this should be increased to 1 in 10 (ie 2.5°
per side) when the CO2 Silicate Process or resin bonded sands are used.
2.2
NES 747
Part 5
b. A further factor which needs to be given careful consideration is the accuracy

of moulding since the successful application of the rules quoted in this NES
depends upon the accuracy with which designed casting thicknesses can be
reproduced.
c. Generally all cores are to be supported at both ends, although vertical cores are
acceptable if firmly clamped at one end. If partially supported horizontal cores
cannot be avoided, the designer is to specify dimensional tolerances on the
drawing in such a way as to avoid reverse taper on casting.
2.4 Dimensional Tolerances

a. The dimensional accuracy of a casting is dependent on a number of complex
variables:
(1) accuracy of the pattern;
(2) skill of the moulder;
(3) ‘Solid contraction’ of the casting in the mould which varies with the
degree of restraint imposed by the mould during cooling, and can be
anything between 0 and 3% in different regions of the same casting.
b. The average contraction in dimensions as the solid casting cools to ambient

temperature is generally taken as 2.3% and is allowed for by the patternmaker
during construction of the pattern. However, the contraction of any given part
is difficult to assess accurately without considerable experience and/or casting
trials.
c. TABLE 2.1 shows the best tolerances which can be consistently reproduced
between various features of a mould assuming accurate patterns and good
moulding practices are used. The tolerances will be least for dimensions formed
by the pattern in one half of the mould and will increase for dimensions formed
across the mould joint, or when dimensions are formed between a feature on the
pattern and a feature on the core (eg wall thickness—Clause 2.5a.). Again, the
larger the casting the larger the tolerance which must be allowed on particular
dimensions.
d. Using the figures quoted in TABLE 2.1 as a guide the designer is to choose a
tolerance within which his calculated feeding system will give a sound casting
and ensure that the ‘as cast’ parts of the finished casting will meet design
requirements. The largest acceptable tolerance is always to be specified.
2.3
NES 747
Part 5
Tolerance, in mm, on Dimension between Features formed by:

Pattern in
Maximum Both Halves of Pattern & Pattern &
Casting Pattern in Mould (ie Core in Half of Core in
Dimension Same Half of Across Joint) Mould Opposite Half
mm Mould or Between Containing of Mould to
Pattern and Core Print Core Print
Loose Piece
Up to 400 ± 0.8 ±1 ± 1.3 ± 1.5
Up to 1000 ±1 ± 1.3 ± 1.5 ±2
Up to 1250 ± 1.3 ±2 ±2 ± 2.5
Up to 1500 ± 1.5 ± 2.5 ± 2.5 ±3
TABLE 2.1 DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES
2.5 Wall Thickness

a. Tolerances for wall thicknesses are to be specified separately from tolerances for
other dimensions, usually in a separate boxed-off compartment on the casting
drawing containing the tolerances for the pattern equipment as well as for the
casting. There are two reasons for this:
(1) the wall thicknesses of castings are the most important casting
dimensions from the point of view of soundness;
(2) the moulder has to set the wall thickness of most castings during
moulding by adjusting the position of the core in the mould and therefore
he/she needs specific guidance on these tolerances.
An example of a typical specification for wall thickness tolerances from a casting

drawing for a high pressure hull valve to Class I standards is shown below.
GENERAL TOLERANCE ± 2mm
GENERAL TOLERANCES DO NOT APPLY TO X−X AND Y−Y

Dimension Wall Thickness, mm
Pattern Casting*
max min max min
X−X 13 12 14 11
Y−Y 16 15 17 14
*Note: These are tolerances for the final casting shape, not for the mould
2.6 Machining Allowances

a. Machining allowances vary according to the machined surface area and the
complexity of the casting but, generally, range between 3mm and 6mm.
Machining allowances are to be agreed with the machine shop and foundry and
taken into account before attempting to calculate the feeding and gating
system.
2.4
NES 747
Part 5
3. THE DESIGN PROCESS
3.1 Introduction
a. The designer must always consider the cheapest and quickest method of
manufacture to produce a ‘part’ of the desired quality. For complex shapes,
casting generally offers the most economic path, providing that the shape can
be readily cast to the required standard. Where design functions dictate the use
of a complex shape which cannot be made sound as a single casting,
consideration must be given to splitting the shape into simple castings which
can be jointed together. (See Specification DGS/PS/9011 Welding of
Copper-Based Alloy Castings.)
b. The primary objective of the casting designer is to facilitate the production of

sound castings. It is essential to design the casting to encourage directional
solidification to parts which can be fed from feeders.
3.2 Casting Design
a. The design of castings requires an understanding of the processes involved so

that proper consideration can be given to the requirements of both the founder
and the user at all stages of design. Therefore, in addition to a knowledge of
general design, strength of materials, mechanics, etc, a knowledge of the casting
process is required.
3.3 The Design Sequence
a. FIGURE 3.1 illustrates the sequence to be followed in the design of castings.
3.4 The Casting Drawing
a. Implementation of the rules for soundness requires preparation of detailed

casting drawings complete in every way with machining allowances and
tolerances. Tolerances are as important in casting drawings as they are in
machine drawings. Variations in dimensions can cause the designed
solidification pattern to be upset and result in unsoundness. Unexpected
changes in section thickness may not be readily apparent from simple
three-view presentations and the designer is to make every effort to draw
attention to such changes by incorporating fully dimensioned sectional views
of the relevant part of the casting. An example of the casting and moulding
drawings for a 6 ¢ 5 valve chest is shown in Example 6, Annex D. (FIGURE D.11
and FIGURE D.12).
3.5 Records of Feeding and Mould Filling System
a. The Foundry Methods engineer is to prepare necessary methods and records

clearly to indicate the feeding and mould filling systems to be used. The initial
design of the feeding and mould filling system will very often need to be modified
in the foundry before the course of a full production run. It is desirable that
these modifications are decided after examination of the results of
non-destructive tests and that these changes are recorded and approved before
commencing a full production run.
3.1
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE 3.1 CASTING DESIGN SEQUENCE
3.2
NES 747
Part 5
3.6 Calculators and their Use

a. The design methods set out in this NES are based on a set of numerical rules.
To assist in these calculations, nomographs have been prepared to enable the
required data to be obtained without calculation. A complete set of these
‘calculators’ is listed in Annex F.
3.3
NES 747
Part 5
3.4
NES 747
Part 5
4. DESIGNING FOR DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION AND ADEQUATE

FEEDING
4.1 Applicability
a. This section details the rules which enable the designer to ensure that most
castings of section thickness between 5mm and 75mm will solidify directionally.
To avoid shrinkage porosity, castings must solidify directionally towards a
source of feed metal which must itself contain enough liquid metal to make good
the shrinkage in the casting. If the designer understands the principles behind
the rules he may also make intelligent extrapolations with a reasonable degree
of success for cases, at present, outside the rules.
4.2 Designing for Directional Solidification
a. Before a feeding system can be calculated the pattern of solidification in the

casting must be assessed. Some features of castings promote early freezing,
while other features delay freezing; examples of the former are external corners,
thin webs or fins, chills in the mould wall; examples of the latter are internal
corners and junctions. Such features (FIGURE 4.1) can often be identified
without recourse to a calculation.
FIGURE 4.1 SECTION THROUGH BULKHEAD PIECE CASTING SHOWING DESIGN

FEATURES AND THEIR EFFECT ON THE SOLIDIFICATION PATTERNS
b. Thick sections take longer to solidify than thin sections and therefore the
simplest way to promote directional solidification is to gradually increase the
casting thickness from a chill or free end towards the feeder, ie to taper the
casting. However, parts of castings of uniform thickness will solidify
directionally, but only over limited and strictly definable distances. These
‘feeding’ distances between feeders and between feeders and cast ends or chills
on castings between 12mm and 75mm thick have been determined by
experiment. They are detailed in TABLE 4.1 and must not be exceeded,
otherwise directional solidification will not take place.
4.1
NES 747
Part 5
c. The progress of solidification in a plate of uniform thickness is illustrated in

FIGURE 4.2. The edges of a cast section of uniform thickness always freeze first
and are fed from the remainder of the still liquid section. A casting is, therefore,
always sound for a certain distance from a free edge, whether or not a feeder is
used.
d. Beyond this distance, metal solidifying from opposite faces of the casting
bridges the section and prevents further movement of feed metal. There is,
therefore, a maximum distance of sound metal which can be obtained between
the edge of a feeder and a cast end known as the maximum ‘feeder to cast end’
distance. Similarly there is a maximum distance which can separate two feeders
known as the maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distance which, if exceeded, results
in shrinkage porosity between the feeders. These feeding distances depend upon
the thickness and width of the casting section (TABLE 4.1).
e. Where there are no free ends to initiate solidification and it is not possible or
desirable to add another feeder to the casting, then solidification can be initiated
by placing a ‘chill’ in the mould face. Alternatively, in some circumstances,
solidification can be delayed by insulating part of the mould surface.
NOTE: The maximum feeding distances cannot be increased measurably by

increasing the size of the feeder.
f. The effectiveness of the measures taken to ensure directional solidification

including feeder and chill positioning, and the use of taper and insulating mould
inserts, determine whether the casting will be free from shrinkage
unsoundness. FIGURE 4.3 shows the sequence to be followed for calculating
the feeding system.
g. The first step is to determine the pattern of solidification of the basic casting
shape; parts of similar shape can be compared very simply using the casting
thickness, for example, thicker plates take longer to solidify than thinner plates.
However, most castings contain combinations of shapes and widths, namely
bars, plates etc, and thickness alone does not give a reliable guide to the
solidification sequence; in these cases it is necessary to determine their moduli.
The effect of junctions between sections must also be considered at this stage.
h. The next step is to add feeders, tapers, chills etc, to ensure that all parts of the
casting solidify directionally towards an adequate source of feeding metal using
the information given in Clauses 4.16.1a. to 4.21.5a.
4.2
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE 4.2 SECTIONS THROUGH CASTINGS OF EVEN THICKNESS
4.3
NES 747
Part 5
4.3 Modulus (See Definition, Annex B.)

a. Calculation of the modulus for various parts of castings allows their relative
solidification times to be predicted and probable sequence of solidification to be
determined since the higher the modulus the longer the time taken to solidify.
Volume
b. The formula—Geometric Modulus (M) = Cooling surface area
has the great advantage of simplicity; however, it is sometimes necessary to

apply correction factors to allow different casting shapes and moulding
materials to be compared. In such cases the Effective Modulus
(Geometric Modulus multiplied by an appropriate correction factor) is to be
used in place of the geometric modulus allowing the effect of shape, chills,
insulation, cores and junctions to be assessed.
c. To assess the solidification pattern of a casting, it is only necessary to know the

ratio between the moduli of the features of the casting. When the mould is
homogeneous therefore, and casting features of similar shape are compared,
correction factors are unnecessary. In the absence of qualification, modulus is
always taken to mean the geometric modulus.
4.4
NES 747
Part 5
4.
Clauses 4.2a. to 4.16.1a.
4. Clauses 4.16.1a. to
4.21.5.a)
4.
4.22.a to 4.26.d.)
(Section 5.)
FIGURE 4.3 DESIGNING FOR DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
4.5
NES 747
Part 5
4.4 Geometric Moduli

a. Examples of geometric moduli calculations are shown in Examples 1 and 2:
EXAMPLE 1
(1)
SIMPLE PLATE
Volume = LWT mm3

Cooling Surface Area = (LW + WT + LT) mm2
Geometric Modulus M = Volume

Cooling Surface Area
= LWT mm
2(LW + WT + LT)
(2) ANNULAR SECTION
Volume = average circumference ¢ thickness ¢ width
= (OD + ID)π × T × OD – ID mm 3
2 2
2 2
Cooling Surface Area = 2(πOD – πID ) + ODπT + IDπT mm 2
4 4
Geometric Modulus = Volume

Cooling Surface Area
M
(OD + ID)π × T × OD – ID mm 3
= 2 2
2πOD
4
2
– πID
4
2
+ ODπT + IDπT mm 2
= OD – ID × T
2 mm
OD – ID + 2T
4.6
NES 747
Part 5
EXAMPLE 2 DETERMINE THE GEOMETRIC MODULI OF THE

FEATURES OF THE CASTING SHOWN BELOW:
The casting is a combination of three shapes:

a. a tube of ID = 230mm, OD = 260mm, and length = 400mm.
The average circumference of the tube is
π (230 + 260) = 770mm
2
and its thickness = 15mm.
b. two flanges of ID = 230mm, OD = 350mm, and thickness =

40mm. The average circumference of each flange is
π (350 + 230) = 911mm
2
and width = 350 – 230 = 60mm
2
c. a boss, 60mm diameter by 30mm height.
4.7
NES 747
Part 5
(a) CALCULATE THE MODULUS OF THE TUBE SECTION
Volume = Average Circumference ¢ width ¢ thickness

− part of the tube under boss*
= 770 × 400 × 15 – π × 60 × 15 = 4,577,589mm 3
2
Cooling Surface Area = (Average Circumference ¢

Length ¢ 2)
− (Area of contact with boss including
inside surface of tube)
= (770 × 400 × 2) – 2 × π 60
2
4
= 610,345mm2
Geometric Modulus = Volume = 4,577,589 = 7.5mm

Cooling Surface Area 610,345
*The volume of the tube under the boss and the inside surface of the tube
under the boss are included in the calculation of the boss modulus because
the inside surface of the tube under the boss is close enough to the boss
to influence its solidification time.
4.8
NES 747
Part 5
(b) CALCULATE THE MODULI OF THE TWO FLANGES

(IDENTICAL)
Volume = Average Circumference ¢

width ¢ thickness
= 911 ¢ 40 ¢ 60 = 2,186,400mm 3
Cooling Surface Area = (Average Circumference ¢ width
¢ 2)
+(Average Circumference ¢ thickness
¢ 2)
−(Tube Average Circumference ¢
tube thickness)
= (911 ¢ 60 ¢ 2) + (911 ¢ 40 ¢ 2)
− (770 ¢ 15)
= 170,650mm 2
Geometric Modulus = Volume = 2,186,400 = 12.8mm

Cooling Surface area 170,650
(c) CALCULATE THE MODULUS OF THE BOSS
Volume = Cross-sectional area ¢ height
= π60 × 45 = 127,235mm 3
2
Cooling Surface Area = Top + Base + side
= 2 × π60 + (60 × 30) = 11,310mm 2

2
Geometric Modulus = Volume = 127,235 = 11.3mm

Cooling Surface Area 11,310
NOTE: In general the figures for volume and surface area can be
rounded off to the nearest 1000mm3 and mm2 respectively.
4.9
NES 747
Part 5
4.5 Simplified Modulus Calculations

a. The moduli of many regular shapes can be derived without full calculation; see
examples shown in FIGURE 4.4(a) to FIGURE 4.4(c) for plates, bars and
rounds. FIGURE 4.4(d) and FIGURE 4.4(e) show a simplified method of
calculating the moduli of irregular shaped cross-sections of infinite length, that
is with no cooling ends, from the formula
Geometric Modulus = Cross-sectional area
Cooling perimeter of section
4.6 Modulus Correction Factors: Effect of Shape

a. Although the geometric modulus is a good guide to the order of solidification,
in most cases it is only exact when comparing castings of similar shape.
However, correction factors can be applied to the moduli of castings of different
shape to enable their solidification times to be directly compared. These will
only be important in borderline cases. For instance, bars, spheres and cylinders
will solidify slightly faster than is indicated by their geometric moduli when
compared to plates of infinite length and width. This means that a cylindrical
feeder of equal modulus to a plate will, nevertheless, solidify before the plate.
This consideration does not need to be taken into account in the calculation of
feeder sizes because a factor has been incorporated in the calculators. However,
it is important when deciding the order of solidification in castings.
From experimental data the following correction factors have been obtained to
give moduli comparisons with that of an infinite plate:
Sphere 0.69
Cylinder 0.76
Bar 0.85
For the purpose of this NES a bar is any section with a width to thickness ratio
of up to 3: 1.
4.10
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE 4.4a, b and c EXAMPLES OF GEOMETRIC MODULI CALCULATION FOR SIMPLE

SHAPES
4.11
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE 4.4d and e EXAMPLES OF GEOMETRIC MODULI CALCULATIONS FOR SIMPLE

SHAPES
4.12
NES 747
Part 5
EXAMPLE 1
A bar of square cross section and side of 25.6mm surrounds a thin plate of
thickness 15mm. The geometric moduli of bar and plate are equal. However, the
effective modulus of a bar is smaller than the effective modulus of a plate of the
same geometric modulus by a factor of 0.85.
Geometric Modulus (bar) = 25.6 × 25.6 = 7.5mm

(4 × 25.6) – 15
Geometric Modulus (plate) = 15 = 7.5mm

2
Effective Modulus of bar compared with plate = 7.5 ¢ 0.85

6.4mm
This calculation can be carried out using Calculator 1 shown in FIGURE 4.5.
4.13
NES 747
Part 5
EXAMPLE 2
To determine the pattern of solidification of the tube with a flange at each end
and a boss on the tube as shown in EXAMPLE 2 in section 4.4a.
The geometric moduli of the casting features calculated in EXAMPLE 2 were:
Mc, tube = 7.5mm Mc, boss = 11.3mm Mc, flange = 12.8mm
The shapes of these features are dissimilar and so shape factors for cylinder and
bars must be applied to the moduli of the boss and the flanges to make them
comparable to the modulus of the tube which is an infinite plate:
Effective Mc, boss = 0.76 ¢ 11.3 = 8.6mm
Effective Mc, flange = 0.85 ¢ 12.8 = 10.9mm
These calculations indicate that the tube section solidifies first (Mc = 7.5mm)
followed shortly by the boss (Effective Mc = 8.6mm ie 1.15 ¢ Mc, tube) followed
by the flanges (Effective Mc = 10.9mm ie 1.45 ¢ Mc, tube).
4.14
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE 4.5 CALCULATOR TO DETERMINE FROM THE GEOMETRIC MODULUS OF A

CASTING SHAPE, THE MODULUS OF AN INFINITE PLATE OF THE SAME EFFECTIVE
MODULUS AS THE CASTING
4.15
NES 747
Part 5
4.7 Modulus Correction Factors: Effect of Junctions

a. Junctions between parts of castings of uniform cross-sections usually have
moduli differing from those of the individual parts comprising the junctions.
There are three reasons for these differences (illustrated in FIGURE 4.6):
b. there is a reduction in cooling surface area which tends to increase the modulus
(there are some exceptions to this statement, see Clause 4.8a.);
c. there is an increase in volume due to fillets added to internal corners:
d. the internal corners of junctions do not dissipate heat as quickly as flat surfaces
and therefore the cooling of the junction is retarded.
FIGURE 4.6 FACTORS WHICH INCREASE THE SOLIDIFICATION TIME

(MODULUS) OF JUNCTIONS ABOVE THAT OF THE COMPONENT
JUNCTION ARMS
e. Calculation of the effective moduli of junctions and ‘hot spots’ is very difficult
because of the difficulty of estimating the effect of these factors in combination.
The solidification time of a junction may, however, be assessed approximately
from the size of the maximum circle or sphere that can be inscribed within it
This principle is illustrated in FIGURE 4.7.
4.16
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE 4.7 IDENTIFICATION OF ‘HOT SPOTS’ USING THE INSCRIBED CIRCLE

METHOD TO PREDICT THE PROGRESS OF SOLIDIFICATION
f. The factors which determine the modulus of a junction are
(1) the size and number of parts comprising the junction;
(2) the angle at which the parts meet;
(3) the radius of the fillet which is generally added between the parts to
reduce the notch effect of the junction and facilitate moulding.
Some typical junctions are shown in FIGURE 4.8.
4.17
NES 747
Part 5
4.8 Effective Moduli of ‘L’ and ‘T’ Junctions
a. The two most common junction designs used by MOD(PE) in aluminium bronze
castings are ‘L’ end ‘T’ junctions. Examples of ‘L’ junctions occur where pipes
join flanges, and of ‘T’ junctions where webs or valve guides meet valve bodies
and spigot flanges. These two types of junction were extensively investigated in
the BNF foundry and their effective moduli can be obtained by multiplying the
geometric modulus of the thicker arm by the modulus shape correction factor
shown in FIGURE 4.9. This can be carried out using Calculator 1.
(FIGURE 4.5).
FIGURE 4.8 TYPICAL JUNCTIONS
4.18
NES 747
Part 5
The ‘hot spot’ in ‘two-dimensional’ junctions continues for the length of the
junction and is in fact a cylinder as shown in FIGURE 4.8(i). All
‘two-dimensional’ junction shapes become ‘three-dimensional’ when they meet
a plate as shown in FIGURE 4.8(ii) and in such cases the ‘hot spot’ is a sphere.
4.9 Effective Moduli of Other Junctions

a. The use of the inscribed circle method to find the effective moduli of junctions
is inaccurate especially where:
(1) there are external corners;
(2) thinner arms exert a chilling effect on the junction;
(3) the junctions are complicated, that is where many junctions arms meet.
b. The complete experimental or computer simulated investigation of all possible

types of junctions covering a range of thicknesses would be a long and expensive
project, and in the absence of accurate information, the effective moduli of a
range of junctions estimated from the radii of the inscribed circles or spheres
are presented graphically in FIGURE 4.10. The effective moduli given in these
graphs do not always agree with the experimental values given in FIGURE 4.9.
In general the moduli estimated by the inscribed circle method are greater than
those found experimentally. Obviously the experimental values in FIGURE 4.9
should be used when applicable.
4.19
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE 4.9 MODULUS SHAPE CORRECTION FACTORS FOR ‘L’ AND ‘T’ JUNCTIONS
4.20
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE 4.10 SHAPE CORRECTION FACTORS FOR VARIOUS JUNCTIONS
4.21
NES 747
Part 5
4.10 Method to Determine the Solidification Pattern of a Complex Junction

a. The following example, taken from a production casting, demonstrates the use
of FIGURE 4.9 and FIGURE 4.10 to determine the solidification pattern of a
complex junction. The sketch shows a junction where four webs join to form an
‘X’ junction on a plate 20mm thick. Two of the webs are 5mm thick and two are
10mm thick.
Each of the four webs form a ‘T’ junction where they join the plate. In addition
the four ‘T’ junctions meet to form a complex ‘X’ junction resting on a plate.
b. The effective moduli of the junctions can be obtained as follows:
‘T’ junctions formed between the webs and plates
The first step is to examine the junctions in FIGURE 4.9 to determine whether
experimental results are available for similar junctions. The junctions between
the 5mm and 10mm thick webs and the plate are ‘T’ junctions in which the
thickness of the projecting arms of the junctions, that is the webs, are one
quarter the thickness of the plate in the case of the 5mm thick web, and one half
the thickness of the plate in the case of the 10mm thick web. Similar junctions
are shown in FIGURE 4.9(c) reproduced below, although the results do not
extend to web/plate ratios as low as 0.25.
(1) T Junction Between 10mm (T2) Web and 20mm (T1) Plate with
5mm Fillet Radius
From FIGURE 4.9.
When T2 = ½T, and the fillet radius = ¼T1, the Modulus Shape Correction
Factor = 1.0. That is, the effective modulus of the junction equals the
geometric modulus of the thicker junction arm T1 which equals 20mm
divided by 2, that is 10mm.
4.22
NES 747
Part 5
NOTE The geometric modulus of an infinite plate equals half the plate thickness.
(2) T Junction Between 5mm (T2) Web and 20mm (T1) Plate with 5mm
Fillet Radius
In this case T2 = ¼ T1 and the fillet radius = ¼T1.
Although no results are available for junction arm thickness in this

proportion, inspection of the results given in FIGURE 4.9 indicates that
the effective modulus of the junction must be less than 0.95 times the
geometric modulus of the junction arm T1, that is less than 9.5mm.
c. Neither of these T junctions create troublesome hot spots in the plate, and the
thinnest junction has a very mild chilling effect on the plate. However, as an
illustration of the use of FIGURE 4.10, the effective modulus of these junctions
can be calculated using the inscribed circle method. Examination shows that
the T junctions above are similar to those shown in FIGURE 4.10c
(as reproduced below). The first step is to determine the thickness ratio between
the thin arm T2 and the thicker arm T1 for each of the two types of T junction.
Ratio: Thickness of thin junction arm, T2

Thickness of thicker junction arm, T1
(1) Ratio between the 10mm thick web T2 and the 20mm thick
Plate T1
T2 = 10 = 0.5
T1 20
From FIGURE 4.10(c).
When the thickness ratio T2/T1 is 0.5 the modulus shape correction
factor is 1.08. That is, the effective modulus of the T junction formed
by the web of 10mm thickness and the plate of 20mm thickness is
1.08 times the geometric modulus of the thicker junction arm T1.
Therefore the effective junction modulus equals
1.08 × T1∕2 = 1.08 × 20mm = 10.8mm

2
(This compares with the value of 10mm obtained by using

FIGURE 4.9(c).)
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Part 5
(a) Ratio between the 5mm thick Web T2 and the 20mm thick
Plate T1
From FIGURE 4.10(c).
When the thickness ratio T2/T1 is 0.25 the modulus shape correction
factor is 1.03. That is, the effective modulus of the T junction formed by
the 5mm thick web and the 20mm thick plate is 1.03 times the geometric
modulus of the thicker junction arm T1. Therefore the effective junction
modulus equals
1.03 × T 1∕2 = 1.03 × 20mm = 10.3mm
2
NOTE This is an overestimate, as the effective modulus of the junction is less

than 9.5mm as calculated from FIGURE 4.9.
These examples of T junctions illustrate the use of the graphs in

FIGURE 4.10. However, as the examples show, the modulus correction
factors given in FIGURE 4.9 are preferred where they are applicable.
d. Modulus of X Junctions on Plate (Between 5mm and 10mm thick Webs

and 20mm Thick Plate)
The junctions shown in FIGURE 4.10 do not include the particular

combination of thicknesses found in the complex X junction of the ribs with the
plate shown in this example. The following X junctions on plates are shown in
FIGURE 4.10:
(1) where the plate and two of the four webs are of equal thickness and only
the thickness of the remaining two webs varies and can be expressed as
a fraction of the plate thickness (FIGURE 4.10J);
(2) where all of the four webs are of equal thickness and all vary in relation
to the plate thickness and can be expressed as a fraction of the plate
thickness (FIGURE 4.10L) (reproduced overleaf);
(3) where all of the four webs are of equal thickness and the plate thickness
varies in relation to them (FIGURE 4.10I).
The closest approximation to the junction quoted in this example is

FIGURE 4.10L.
When all of the webs are of equal thickness and the ratio of web thickness
to plate thickness equals 0.25 then the modulus shape correction factor
is 1.05.
When all of the webs are of equal thickness and the ratio of web thickness
to plate thickness equals 0.5 then the modulus shape correction factor is
1.13.
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Part 5
Ratio: Thickness of thin junction arm, T2

Thickness of junction arm, T 1
It can be estimated that since the thickness ratio of two of the webs is 0.25
and of the remaining two is 0.5 then the modulus shape correction factor
will be about midway between 1.05 and 1.13 that is 1.09.
Therefore the effective junction modulus equals 1.09 times plate modulus
= 1.09 × 20 = 10.9mm
2
e. The solidification pattern of the complex junction using the inscribed circle
method can be summarized as:
(1) the thinnest webs of 5mm thickness solidify first and form a small hot spot
with an effective modulus of 10.3mm at the junction with the 20mm thick
plate (the experimental results shown in FIGURE 4.9 which are to be
preferred show that in fact there is not a ‘hot spot’ and the web has a mild
chilling effect);
(2) the junction between the thicker web of 10mm thickness and the 20mm
thick plate is a hot spot with an effective modulus of 10.8mm;
(3) the approximate effective junction modulus of the complex X junction is

10.9mm.
The inscribed circle method predicts therefore that solidification takes place in
the following order:
(a) 5mm Web, Effective Mc = 2.5mm
(b) 10mm Web, Effective Mc = 5mm
(c) 20mm Plate, Effective Mc = 10mm
(d) T Junction: 5mm−20mm, Effective Mc = 10.3mm
(e) T Junction: 10mm−20mm, Effective Mc = 10.8mm
(f) X Junction: 5mm−10mm−20mm, Effective Mc = 10.9mm.
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4.11 Influence of Cores and Sand Thicknesses on Modulus

a. All of the feeding distances and minimum feeder sizes given in this NES assume
that the rate of heat extraction from the casting by sand is uniform over all of
the casting and feeder surfaces except where deliberate changes have been made
to the mould as in the case of chills applied to the casting, or insulation around
the feeder. However, the cooling rate of one part of the casting will be affected
by close proximity to another part of the casting or to the edge of the moulding
box.
4.12 Minimum Allowable Sand Thicknesses Between Moulding Box and Casting
a. As a general rule it is wise to specify that no part of the casting or of a sand
moulded feeder should be closer to the edges of the moulding box than a distance
equal to 4 times the casting (or sand moulded feeder) modulus or 2 times the
insulated feeder modulus, otherwise the moulding box will exert a chilling effect
on the casting. The casting may be placed closer to the box sides than these
minimum distances where directional solidification is initiated from the part of
the casting closest to the box provided there is no danger of metal running out
of the mould or of the boxes being damaged.
FIGURE 4.11 MINIMUM ALLOWABLE THICKNESSES OF SAND BETWEEN THE

MOULDING BOXES AND CAST FEATURES
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4.13 Effect of Sand Thickness Between Parts of Castings

a. The close proximity of different parts of a casting separated by only a thin wall
of sand has the effect of increasing the solidification time of both parts of the
casting. This is illustrated in FIGURE 4.12 which shows schematically the heat
extraction from tubes and plates of constant thickness but varying separation.
When the distance separating the parts of the casting is less than 1.5 times the
casting thickness then the sand between the parts becomes very hot and exerts
less cooling effect on the casting. Hence the effective modulus of the casting is
increased. FIGURE 4.13 shows the relationship between sand thickness and
casting thickness.
b. It will be noted that while the effective modulus of plates increases uniformly
as the distance which separates them becomes smaller, the same is not true for
tubes. This is, because, from a modulus point of view, tubes change their shape
from being plates when the inside diameter is large in relation to casting
thickness (for which the modulus = ½T) to being cylinders when the inside
diameter is very small (for which the modulus = ¼T). As a result, the tendency
for the effective modulus to increase, which is a result of the internal diameter
becoming smaller, is balanced by the tendency for the effective modulus to
decrease as a result of the change in shape.
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FIGURE 4.12 EFFECT OF SAND THICKNESS ON THE COOLING OF TUBES AND

ADJACENT PLATES
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Part 5
FIGURE 4.13 EFFECT OF SAND THICKNESS BETWEEN PLATES AND CORE DIAMETER OF
TUBES ON THE MODULUS
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4.14 Influence of Chills on the Moduli of Castings

a. Chills reduce the solidification time of castings and hence their effective moduli,
that is the solidification time of a plate chilled with aluminium bronze face chills
applied to one side of the plate is reduced to that of an unchilled plate one third
the thickness, that is the effective thickness is about one third the real
thickness. It is useful to imagine the effect of chills as being caused by an
increase in the effective cooling surface area of the casting. The approximate
increases in the effective surface area or cooling perimeter in the case of the
modulus estimated from the ratio of:
area of casting cross section are
cooling perimeter
(1) Aluminium−Bronze chills of thickness = casting thickness
The effective surface area of the chilled part of the casting is 5 times its
geometric surface area
That is Mc(NiAlBz chill) = Vc

Ac (sand) + 5 Ac (NiAlBz chilled)
or Mc (NiAlBz chilled)
= Cross sectional area
Sand perimeter + (5 × NiAlBz chilled perimeter)
(2) Moulded Silicon Carbide chills of thickness = casting thickness
The effective surface area of the chilled part of the casting is 1.4 times its
geometric surface area
That is Mc (SiC chill) = Vc

Ac (sand) + 1.4 Ac (SiC chilled)
or Mc (SiC chill)

Sand perimeter + (1.4 × SiC chilled perimeter)
Where Mc = modulus of part of casting

Vc = volume of part of casting
Ac = cooling surface area of part of casting
For example, a ring of 50mm thickness and 100mm width is chilled along its
bottom surface with aluminium−bronze metal chills of width = 100mm and
along its top surface with silicon carbide mouldable chill. Find the effective
modulus of the chilled part of the casting.
Mc = Cross sectional area

Cooling perimeter
= 100 × 50 = 7mm
50 + (100 × 5 ) + (100 × 1.4) + 50
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4.15 Influence of Insulating Mould Inserts on the Moduli of Castings

a. Insulating mould inserts increase the solidification time of castings and hence,
their effective moduli. It is useful to imagine their effect as being caused by a
reduction in the effective cooling surface area of the casting. The approximate
factors by which the insulated surface area must be multiplied to obtain the
effective cooling surface area (or cooling perimeter in the case of the modulus
estimated from the ratio of area of casting cross section divided by the cooling
perimeter) are:
Insulated surface area correction
Casting thickness mm
factor, w
12 0.2
25−50 0.5
That is Mc (insulated) = Vc
Ac (sand) + [w × Ac (insulated)]
or Mc (insulated)
Sand perimeter + (w × insulated perimeter)
The types of insulating mould inserts which have been evaluated and their
limitations in use are discussed in clauses 4.20a. to 4.21.5a.
4.16 Feeder Position—Feeding Distances of Parts of Castings of Uniform Thickness

4.16.1 Parts of Castings 12mm to 75mm Thick
a. The ability for feed metal to be transferred along parts of castings of uniform
thickness is limited at the later stages of solidification by bridging of solidified
crystals growing out from the cooling surfaces of the casting towards the centre
of the casting. The distance ALONG the casting over which the feeder can
supply feed metal depends on the speed with which bridging occurs ACROSS
the casting, and this in turn depends upon the distance separating the cooling
surfaces from each other, that is upon the casting thickness and width. The
thicker and wider the casting the more time there is available for feed metal to
be transferred along the casting before bridging occurs. Feeding distances
therefore increase with increasing casting width and thickness as shown in
TABLE 4.1 which is to be used in conjunction with FIGURE 4.14. Increasing
the casting width above 10 times the casting thickness has no further effect on
the feeding distances because the edges are so far away from each other that
they do not affect the flow of feed metal from the feeder.
b. The method of using TABLE 4.1 is as follows:
STEP 1 Identify casting features which initiate directional solidification, for

example free ends and natural feeder sites (usually parts which have
a higher modulus than the parts surrounding them, for example
flanges).
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STEP 2 Determine the casting thickness and width and from these the ratio
of width/thickness. The smallest dimension of a part of a casting is
always taken as its thickness. Length and width are sometimes
difficult to differentiate from each other but usually the length is
measured in the direction in which directional solidification occurs,
that is between feeder and an edge, chill or other feeder, while the
width is normal to this direction.
STEP 3 Note the feeding distances given in TABLE 4.1 for the particular
thickness and width/thickness ratio of the part of the casting.
(1) Maximum ‘feeder to cast end’ distances
The maximum ‘feeder to cast end’ distance is measured between the

nearest cast end and the EDGE of the feeder. Where a feeder is
placed near a corner of the plate the distance between the diagonal
from the corner of the plate and the edge of the feeder is greater than
the maximum ‘feeder to cast end’ distance; however, the increased
chilling effect of the external corner is sufficient to promote
directional solidification between the corner and the feeder.
(2) Maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distances
The maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distances are measured between

the edges of the feeders which are closest to each other. Two columns
of maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distances are given in TABLE 4.1.
The largest maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distances in column b1 are
between two feeders which are surrounded by a thicker part of the
casting which acts as a feeder. However, when four feeders are
spaced so that the nearest feeder is a maximum ‘feeder to feeder’
distance away, then the distance across the diagonal of the square
is greater than the maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distance. The
distances given in column b2 of TABLE 4.1 ensure that the distance
across the diagonal does not exceed the maximum ‘feeder to feeder’
distance given in column b1. The figures given in b2 were obtained
by multiplying those in b1 by 1 .
2
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Part 5
Feeder to
Cast End
(‘f−c.e.’) & Feeder to Feeder to
Casting Width Feeder to
Feeder to Feeder (‘f−f’)
Central Chilled
Thickness Thickness Central Chill End
mm
T Mouldable (‘f−c.ch.’) (‘f−ch.e.’)
W Chill mm ! mm !
mm T (‘f−c.m.ch.’)
+
(a) (b1) (b2) (c) (d)
less than 3 50 85 50 −
From 3−10 50 85 − −
12 to 18 greater
than 10 75 150 105 125 85
less than 3 100 110 100 −
From 3−10 100 130 − −
19 to 24 greater
than 10 125 225 160 165 144*
less than 3 150 140 150 −
From 3−10 150 170 − −
25 to 37 greater
than 10 175 290 205 225 225
less than 3 165 150 165 −
From 3−10 170 225 − −
38 to 49 greater
than 10 215 350 250 250 253*
less than 3 180 160 190 −
From 3−10 190 280 − 295
50 to 74 greater
than 10 250 370 260 290 300*
less than 3 200 175 200 −
3−10 225* 300 − −
75
greater
than 10 − − − −
* Obtained by extrapolation − No results available

! Aluminium−bronze chills + Silicon carbide mouldable chills 60%
100 mesh, 27% 150 mesh, 13%
220 mesh, bonded with 3.3% silicate
and CO2 gassed
TABLE 4.1 FEEDING DISTANCES OF PARTS OF CASTINGS OF UNIFORM

THICKNESS BETWEEN 12mm AND 75mm THICK
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Part 5
FIGURE 4.14 ILLUSTRATING THE USE OF FEEDING DISTANCES GIVEN IN TABLE 4.1
4.34
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Part 5
In some cases it may be more convenient to move one row of feeders closer
together while leaving the other row more widely separated as shown in the
sketch below. This is possible providing that the ‘feeder to feeder’ distance
across the diagonal does not exceed the maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ (b1)
distance.
When the distance separating each feeder of one row of feeders is equal to or less
than ¼ of the maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distances given in column b2 then the
full distances given in column b1 can be used to separate feeders measured
normal to the row.
(3) Maximum ‘feeder to central chill’ distances.
Aluminium−bronze face chills create a chilled edge effect and increase

feeding distances as indicated in TABLE 4.1. The feeding distances are
measured from the edge of the chill to the edge of the feeder. The chills
referred to in TABLE 4.1 and FIGURE 4.14 are made of
aluminium−bronze and to be effective is to be of thickness at least equal
to that of the cast section being chilled. The thickness of the chill is
measured at right angles to the plane of contact between the chill and the
casting. The width of central chills is to be 2 times the casting thickness
(T). Moulded face chills of silicon carbide grit bonded by the silicate
process may also be used to initiate the solidification of sections of even
thickness. The maximum ‘feeder to central mouldable chill’ distances for
chills of thickness T and width 2T are equal to the normal maximum
‘feeder to cast end’ distances as shown in TABLE 4.1.
4.35
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Part 5
(4) Maximum ‘feeder to chilled end’ distances.
The maximum ‘feeder to chilled end’ distances are also measured from the
edge of the chill, that is the cast end. Aluminium−bronze chills of square
cross section of length of side equal to the casting thickness and length
equal to the width of the casting is to be used.
STEP 4 Position the first feeder to take advantage of any features of the
casting which initiate directional solidification, for example the
feeder must not be further from a cast end than the maximum
‘feeder to cast end’ distance. The feeding distances in TABLE 4.1 are
measured from the edge of feeders and chills, not their centre.
Because of this it is necessary to determine a feeder diameter before
positioning more feeders or chills.
STEP 5 It is impossible to determine the minimum size of feeder required

to ensure soundness until the final number of feeders and their
position has been decided, and therefore an approximate feeder size
must be calculated. The approximate feeder size can be calculated
from the geometric modulus. The modulus is either already known
at this stage or can be easily estimated from the relationships given
in FIGURE 4.4. (Note: For plates Mc = ½T, for bars
Mc = ¼T and for parts of castings of uniform cross sectional shape
Mc = Cross sectional area/Cooling perimeter.) The approximate
feeder diameter is calculated from the following equations:
Minimum sand moulded feeder diameter = 7.2 ¢ casting

Geometric Modulus
Minimum insulated feeder diameter = 5 ¢ casting

Geometric Modulus
The feeder diameters calculated from the casting modulus are not
the final feeder sizes since these dimensions cannot be determined
until the casting volume has been taken into account, as described
in clause 4.23c. However, they are minimum in the sense that the
feeder sizes which are finally calculated in clauses 4.23a. to 4.23e.
will not be smaller.
STEP 6 Compare the remainder of the casting with the feeding distances
and decide whether more feeders are required using the maximum
‘feeder to feeder’ distances, and whether chills can be used to reduce
the number of feeders. This method is illustrated in FIGURE 4.15.
c. It must be emphasized that the feeding distances given in TABLE 4.1 are not
optimum distances but maximum distances and it is good practice to ensure
that all parts of castings are well within these distances rather than always at
the limit of effectiveness of the feeder.
4.36
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Part 5
FIGURE 4.15 ILLUSTRATING HOW FEEDING DISTANCE RULES SHOULD BE USED TO

ENSURE SOUNDNESS
4.37
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Part 5
EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF FEEDING DISTANCE INFORMATION

EXAMPLE 1
A ring casting 500mm inside diameter, 600mm outside diameter, 20mm thick
is to be cast. Calculate the number and size of feeders required to ensure
soundness:
a. WITHOUT CHILLS;
b. USING CHILLS.
STEP 1 Identify casting features which initiate directional solidification

and natural feeder sites. The ring contains no natural feeder sites or features
which initiate directional solidification.
STEP 2 Determine the width/thickness ratio of the casting.
The casting width = 50mm.
The casting thickness = 20mm.
NOTE: The thickness is the smallest dimension
Width/thickness = 50/20 = 2.5
STEP 3 Note the feeding distances given in TABLE 4.1 for:
W/T = less than 3 and T = from 19 to 24mm
max ‘f−c.e.’ = 100mm
max ‘f−f’ b1 = 110mm
max ‘f−c.ch’ = 100mm
STEP 4 Position the first feeder to take advantage of casting features which
initiate directional solidification or natural feeder sites. In the absence of either,
the first feeder may be placed anywhere around the circumference.
4.38
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Part 5
STEP 5 Calculate the approximate feeder diameter (Df). The modulus must
first be calculated before the approximate feeder diameter can be determined.
The geometric modulus can be calculated from the relationship
Modulus (Mc) = Cross-sectional area
Cooling perimeter
= Width × thickness
(2 × width) + (2 × thickness)
= 50 × 20
(2 × 50) + (2 × 20)
= 7.2mm
Approx Df = 5 ¢ 7.2
= 36mm for insulated sleeved feeders
= 7.2 ¢ 7.2
= 52mm for sand-moulded feeders
In this example it will be assumed that sand-moulded feeders are to be used.
STEP 6 Compare the remaining part of the casting with the feeding
distances.
(1) WITHOUT CHILLS
When one feeder is placed on the ring the ‘feeder to feeder’ distance around the
ring is equal to the average ring circumference minus the approximate feeder
diameter.
Distance to be fed = Average circumference−Approx Df
= π ¢ Average diameter−52mm
= π ¢ (500 + 50)−52
= 1676mm
4.39
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Part 5
This is more than the maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distance of 110mm and
therefore more feeders are necessary. Since there are as many feeders as ‘feeder
to feeder’ distances on a ring, the sum of the maximum ‘feeder to feeder’
distance plus the approximate feeder diameter may be divided into the average
circumference to determine exactly how many feeders are required.
That is the minimum numbers of feeders = Average circumference
max ‘f–f′ + Approx Df
= 1728 = 10.7
110 + 52
Therefore a minimum of 11 sand-moulded feeders are necessary if chills are not

used. The feeders must be equally spaced around the ring.
NOTE The feeder size calculated above is only approximate and the
minimum size of feeder required for soundness may be larger than
this.
(a) USING CHILLS

The number of feeders around the ring can be reduced by using centre
chills between each feeder. The minimum number of feeders and chills can
be found by a similar method to that used above remembering that the
maximum distance between the two feeders with a central chill will be
twice the maximum ‘feeder to central chill’ distance plus the width of the
chill and that there will be as many feeders as there are distances between
feeders.
Chill width = 2T = 2 ¢ 20 = 40mm
Chill thickness = T = 20mm
Minimum number of feeders
= Average circumference
Approx Df + ‘f–c.ch′ + chill width + max ‘f–c.ch′
= 1728 = 5.9
52 + 100 + 40 +100
Therefore 6 feeders are necessary.
4.40
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Part 5
EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the number and position of feeders required to ensure soundness in

a tube 30mm long of uniform thickness = 16mm, of outside diameter = 96mm
and inside diameter = 64mm:
(a)assuming no chills are used;
(b)assuming metal chills are used.
(2) The edges of the tube are the only natural casting features which
initiate directional solidification, and therefore the first feeder
should be placed a distance equal to the maximum ‘feeder to cast
end’ distance from the edge.
(3) To find the feeding distances, the width to thickness ratio of the
casting must be determined. The direction of feeding is from the
edge to the feeder that is, parallel to the centre line of the tube and
therefore the width is measured normal to this around the
circumference of the tube. Because there are no cooling edges
around the circumference of the tube the width of the casting is
infinite; the casting thickness is 16mm.
(4) Note the feeding distances from TABLE 4.1 for T = 16mm and W/T
greater than 10.
4.41
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Part 5
max f−c.e 75mm

max f−fb1 150mm
max f−fb2 105mm
max f−c.ch 125mm
max f−ch.e 85mm
(5) The first feeder can be positioned a distance equal to the maximum
‘feeder to cast end’ distance from the edge of the tube. The first
feeder is normally placed on top of the tube to ensure that the liquid
shrinkage of the tube is fed (See Clause 4.25a.).
(6) The approximate feeder diameter is determined from the geometric

modulus of the casting. The casting is ‘plate-like’ and therefore the
modulus is one half of the thickness.
Mc = T/2 = 8mm
Approx feeder diameter = 7.2 ¢ 8 for a sand-moulded feeder
= 5 ¢ 8 for an insulated-sleeved feeder
In this example the feeders will be insulated, therefore the

approximate feeder diameter = 40mm.
(7) Compare the remainder of the casting with the feeding distances.
The position of additional feeders on the casting must be assessed
in two directions, both along the tube and around its circumference.
(a) WITHOUT CHILLS
(i) Feeder position around the circumference. The average

circumference of the tube (equal to π ¢ average dia) can be
obtained from the outside and inside diameters of the tube
using Calculator 2 shown in FIGURE 4.16.
Average circumference = 250mm
The minimum number of feeders around the circumference of the

tube will be equal to the number of maximum ‘feeder to feeder’
distances plus approximate feeder diameters divided into the
average tube circumference.
Minimum number of feeders = Average circumference
Approx Df + max ‘f–f′b2
= 250 = 1.7
40 + 105
Therefore a minimum of two feeders is required around the tube

circumference. Since it is difficult to mould feeders in the base of the
mould the feeders are positioned either side of the parting line.
4.42
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Part 5
FIGURE 4.16 CALCULATOR USED TO DETERMINE AVERAGE DIAMETER AND

CIRCUMFERENCE OF A RING OR TUBE FROM ITS OUTER AND INNER DIAMETER
4.43
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Part 5
(ii) Feeder position along the tube. The length which remains
unfed along the tube is equal to the tube length minus
maximum ‘feeder to cast end’ distance plus approximate
feeder diameter.
Unfed tube length = Tube length − (max ‘f−c.e’+ approx

Df)
= 300 − (75 + 40)
= 185mm
This is greater than the maximum ‘feeder to cast end’ distance

and therefore another row of feeders is required. The total
distance which can be fed by an additional row of feeders is
then the sum of two maximum ‘feeder to cast end’ distances,
a ‘feeder to feeder’ b2 distance and two approximate feeder
diameters.
Total therefore equals:
max ‘f−c.e’+ Approx Df + max ‘f−f’b 2 + Approx Df + max

‘f−c.e’
= 75 + 40 + 105 + 40 + 75
= 335mm
The total distance which can be fed, 335mm, exceeds the

distance which must be fed, that is the length of the tube,
300mm, and therefore the tube can be fed by two rows of
feeders, each row consisting of a feeder on each side of the tube
on the parting line.
4.44
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Part 5
(b) USING CHILLS
(i) Feeder position around the circumference. The use of a

chill along the base of the tube may permit the number of
feeders around the circumference to be reduced from two to
one. To avoid overheating of the chill during filling the tube
could be filled by the Durville method described in Section 5.
The total distance which can be fed by a feeder on the top of
the tube to a chill on the bottom of the tube is equal to the
approximate feeder diameter plus two maximum ‘feeder to
central chill’ distances (one on each side of the feeder) plus the
width of the chill = 2T = 2 ¢ 16 = 32mm.
The total distance which can be fed, 322mm, exceeds the

distance which must be fed, that is the average circumference
250mm, and therefore it is possible to use one feeder on the top
of the tube with a chill along the base of the tube instead of two
feeders, one on each parting line.
4.45
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Part 5
(ii) Feeder position along the tube. The use of end chills on
each end of the tube may be considered with a view to reducing
the minimum number of feeders along the tube from two to
one. The total distance which can be fed by a central feeder on
the top of the tube is equal to the approximate feeder diameter
plus two maximum ‘feeder to chilled end’ distances (one on
each side of the feeder).
Total distance = Approx Df + (2 ¢ max f − ch.e)
= 40 + (2 ¢ 85)
= 210mm
This is less than the total distance which must be fed, that is
the tube length of 300mm and therefore the use of end chills
does not reduce the number of feeders which are required.
NOTE The feeder sizes used in this example are only

approximate and the minimum feeder sizes may be
greater than this.
4.16.2 Parts of Castings less than 12mm thick
a. Thin parts of castings solidify so quickly across their thickness that it is

virtually impossible to ensure directional solidification of uniformly thin
sections towards an adequate source of feed metal. In any case the feeding
distances are so small as to be impracticable to use. However, large areas of thin
parts of castings of uniform thickness less than 12mm can be made reasonably
free from shrinkage by ensuring the absence of features which promote
directional solidification. This philosophy is in direct conflict with the
recommendations for casting thicknesses greater than 12mm. It will not
produce sound metal but the finely dispersed shrinkage is so small that it
usually meets the acceptance standards for Class II castings.
b. Variations in the thickness of thin parts of castings must be avoided as

solidification will always be initiated in the ‘thinner’ areas which will ‘bleed’
feed metal from the area around them and concentrate the shrinkage to an
unacceptable level. Conversely, the sensitivity of thin parts of castings to small
changes in thickness may be used to advantage by tapering the thickness so that
directional solidification proceeds towards a source of feed metal. The
solidification pattern of parts of castings of thickness less than 12mm is
illustrated in FIGURE 4.17.
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(Clauses 4.17.1.a. to 4.18.1.b.) rules in Clauses 4.16.1.a to 4.16.1c.
FIGURE 4.17 ILLUSTRATING METHODS OF ENSURING SOUNDNESS IN PARTS OF

CASTINGS OF THICKNESS LESS THAN 12mm
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4.17 Use of Taper to Induce Directional Solidification

4.17.1 Minimum Taper Required to Ensure Soundness of Plate Castings
a. Directional solidification occurs because some parts of castings solidify before

other parts, either because of the shape of the casting, for example the presence
of cast ends, or because of the measures taken to initiate directional
solidification, for example by use of chills. The solidification time of castings
increases with the geometric modulus, that is with increasing thickness and
width, and therefore a way to induce directional solidification is by increasing
the modulus towards the feeder. In the case of plates this means increasing the
casting thickness. The disadvantages arising from an increase in casting
thickness are:
(1) increased finished casting weight or finishing costs if the taper must be
removed. These costs are especially high in thicker sections, because the
minimum taper increases with casting thickness;
(2) foundry costs may be increased because feeders of a larger diameter are
required on the thick part of the taper. (This cost increase may be offset
by the fact that a smaller number of feeders are required.)
b. The minimum taper required to promote directional solidification of plates

5mm to 50mm thick and ensure soundness depends on section thickness
according to relationship.
D = 65 (T2½− T1½)
where D = the distance over which the taper is required, mm
T1 = the section thickness at the thin end of the taper, mm
T2 = the thickness at the thick end of the taper, mm
The experimental results from which this equation was derived were limited to
the thickness range between 5mm to 50mm.
c. In the absence of experimental results outside this range, recommendations

cannot be made for the minimum taper necessary. However, it is probable that
a straight taper of 1 in 10 will be satisfactory for plates of thickness greater than
50mm. Because the taper required to promote soundness increases with casting
thickness, taper is a more valuable tool when dealing with thin sections.
Conversely, reverse tapers caused by variations in section thickness due to
inaccuracies in patterns or in moulding are also more deleterious in thin
sections.
d. Calculator 3, shown in FIGURE 4.18, may be used to read off the thickness
required at given distances from the ‘thin’ end if directional solidification is to
be ensured as illustrated in the example.
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EXAMPLE OF THE USE OF TAPER TO INDUCE DIRECTIONAL

SOLIDIFICATION
Find the dimensions of the minimum taper for the spigot on the valve body shown in
the sketch below.
A curved taper applied to the spigot of the valve is not unduly difficult for the pattern
maker to apply to the casting pattern and can be readily removed during machining.
The curve can be defined by specifying the thickness along the spigot at 50mm
intervals, as shown in FIGURE 4.18. From the calculator the thicknesses along the
spigot are:
Distance from Cast End Thickness
mm mm
0 10
50 12
100 14.2
150 16.6
4.17.2 Minimum ‘Straight’ Taper Required to Ensure Soundness in Plate Castings
a. If a combination of straight tapers is deemed preferable, the taper should be that

appropriate for the thickest part of the tapered section. Between 5mm and
15mm thickness the minimum straight taper should be 1 in 20; between 15mm
and 30mm the minimum straight taper should be 1 in 15; and between 30mm
and 50mm the minimum taper should be 1 in 12.5. Calculator 4 shown in
FIGURE 4.19 may be used to read off the thickness at given distances from the
thin end of the casting using these tapers. An example of its use follows:
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EXAMPLE OF THE USE OF CALCULATOR 4 TO DETERMINE THE

MINIMUM STRAIGHT TAPER REQUIRED TO ENSURE SOUNDNESS IN
A PLATE CASTING
b. Find the combination of straight tapers necessary to ensure directional

solidification in a plate 1000mm long of thickness 10mm. The centre of the plate
is a natural feeding site and therefore the plate can be tapered from both ends.
The total distance which must be tapered is therefore equal to half the plate
length minus the approximate feeder diameter:
Length of plate – Approx Df
Total distance to be tapered =
2
It is not possible in this instance to determine an approximate feeder diameter

because the final thickness of the casting and hence the casting modulus of the
part to which the feeder will be attached will not be known until after the taper
has been determined. However, if the distance to be tapered is assumed to be
equal to one half the plate length, that is 1000/2 = 500mm, a small extra safety
factor is introduced. The thin end of the plate T1 is 10mm thick and therefore
Calculator 4(C) should be used first. This shows that the distance between the
end and the maximum thickness of 15mm which can be fed with a taper of 1 in
20 is 100mm. To ensure directional solidification in the remaining 400mm the
taper must be increased to 1 in 15. Calculator 4(B) shows that the maximum
distance between 15mm thickness and 30mm thickness which can be fed by a
taper of 1 in 15 is 225mm. Thus using two straight tapers the plate can be fed
for a total distance of 100 + 225 = 325mm. This leaves a further distance to be
tapered of 500 − 325 = 175mm. Calculator 4(A) shows that applying a taper of
1 in 12.5 over a distance of 175mm from 30mm thickness increases the thickness
at the centre of the plate to 44mm.
4.17.3 Minimum Taper Required to Ensure Feeding around the Circumference of Tubes
a. The use of taper is especially advantageous around the circumference of tubes

because it may obviate the need for feeders on or below the parting line which
are more difficult to mould than feeders on the top of the casting. A taper around
the circumference can be produced in a tube by off-setting the centre line of a
cylindrical core with respect to the centre line of the pattern. The closest
approximation to the shape of the optimum taper which is produced by a
combination of two circles is not exactly the same as the optimum taper defined
by the equation given in Clause 4.17.1b. It is slightly less than the optimum at
the base of the tube and slightly more than the optimum about two thirds of the
way around the circumference. However, tests have shown it to be satisfactory
and Calculators shown in FIGURE 4.20 and FIGURE 4.21 allow the outside
and inside diameters of the casting to be related to the thickness at the top and
bottom of the tube.
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FIGURE 4.18 EXAMPLE ILLUSTRATING USE OF CALCULATOR 3 TO DETERMINE TAPER

REQUIRED TO ENSURE SOUNDNESS IN SPIGOT
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FIGURE 4.19 ILLUSTRATING USE OF CALCULATOR 4 TO DETERMINE STRAIGHT TAPER

REQUIRED FOR SOUNDNESS
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EXAMPLE OF USE OF CALCULATOR 5 TO DETERMINE TAPER

REQUIRED TO ENSURE FEEDING AROUND THE
CIRCUMFERENCE OF A TUBE
b. A taper is to be applied to ensure feeding around the circumference of a tube of

outside diameter 300mm and minimum thickness 20mm. Find the thickness at
the top of the tube and the amount by which the centre of the core must be
off-set with respect to the pattern.
From Calculator 5 the thickness at the top of the tube is 49mm and therefore
the diameter of the core can be determined:
Core diameter = tube OD − (max tube thickness + min tube thickness)
= 300−(49 + 20) = 231mm
The core centre line must be off-set by half the difference between the thickness
at the top of the tube and the thickness at the bottom of the tube
Core off-set = 49 – 20 = 14.5mm
2
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4.17.4 Feeding Distances along Tubes Tapered around their Circumference
a. The maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distances between feeders along the top of
tubes tapered around their circumference is equal to the maximum ‘feeder to
feeder’ distance for bars of square cross section, that is width/thickness ratio
is less than 3 and of the same thickness as the maximum tube thickness. In the
example above the maximum tube thickness is 49mm and therefore from
TABLE 4.1 the maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distance for castings 38 to 49mm of
width to thickness ratio less than 3 is 150mm.
a. Maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distance for bars of

W
= less than 3 and thickness =T
T
b. Maximum ‘feeder to cast end’ distance for bars of
W = less than 3 and thickness = T
T
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FIGURE 4.20 ILLUSTRATING USE OF CALCULATOR 5 TO DETERMINE THE TAPER

REQUIRED TO ENSURE FEEDING AROUND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF A TUBE
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FIGURE 4.21 CALCULATOR 6, USED TO DETERMINE TAPER REQUIRED TO ENSURE

FEEDING AROUND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF A TUBE WHERE MINIMUM THICKNESS
AND EITHER OUTSIDE DIAMETER OR BORE ARE KNOWN
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4.18 Progressive Feeding of Parts of Castings by other Parts of Higher Modulus

4.18.1 When the Ratio of Moduli is Equal to, or Greater than 1.5
a. For thin parts of the castings to be adequately fed from a thicker part of a casting
the thick part must freeze after the thinnest part. By experiment it has been
found that the effective modulus of the thick section is to be at least 1.5 times
the effective modulus of the thinner section if full feeding is to be ensured and
full feeding distances obtained. Thicker sections of effective moduli less than
1.5 times the effective moduli of thinner sections will contribute to the feeding
of the thinner sections but the feeding distances will be reduced.
b. When taper is used to induce directional solidification care must be taken to
ensure that thicker parts of castings which acted as feeders to the untapered
casting have an adequate modulus differential with the tapered part of the
casting if they are to continue acting as feeders. The moduli of thicker parts of
castings acting as feeders for tapered parts need to be increased to 1.5 times the
modulus of the thickest part of the taper. The modulus of the thickest part of
the taper of thickness T is T/2 so that the modulus of the thicker part of the
casting which acts as a feeder to it must equal T/2 times 1.5.
EXAMPLE OF THICK PARTS OF CASTINGS FEEDING THINNER PARTS
Find the minimum thickness T of a flange which will feed the tube shown below:
The fillet ‘d’ is present on most flanged pressure castings and providing it is less than
a 1 in 3 taper it is considered as part of the uniform tube when calculating the feeding
zone from the flange. The thickness at the flange junction must be taken into account
when considering the non-cooling surface areas of the flange.
Geometric tube modulus = ½ ¢ thickness
= ½ ¢ 20 = 10mm
The minimum effective modulus of the flange must be 1½ times geometric modulus
of the tube if the flange is to feed the tube.
Minimum effective flange modulus = 1.5 ¢ 10 = 15mm
However, the physical dimensions of the flange can only be calculated from the
GEOMETRIC modulus which, because the flange is a bar-like shape, is greater than
the effective modulus of an equivalent plate-like shape.
Geometric modulus = Effective modulus
modulus shape correction factor
= Effective modulus = 15 = 17.7mm, say 18mm

0.85 0.85
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Using Calculator 7 the flange thickness T can be determined from the geometric
modulus of 18mm.
c. With the flange width of 80mm, the geometric modulus at 18mm and one edge
non-cooling, the thickness of the flange is 46mm. This dimension is not quite
correct since the portion of the perimeter which is non-cooling is 35mm long,
not 46mm. Using Calculator 7, FIGURE 4.22, and referring to a bar with no
cooling edges the flange thickness is 66mm. The required thickness lies
somewhere between 46mm and 66mm and by approximate proportion is 50mm.
The geometric modulus of the flange can be checked by calculation:
Mc (flange) = 50 × 80 = 17.8mm
(2 × 80) + (2 × 50) – 35
The thickness of a flange which gives a modulus of 1.5 times the tube modulus
and which will therefore feed the tube is 50mm.
4.18.2 When the Ratio of Moduli is Less Than 1.5
a. The formula developed for tapers can be considered to define the optimum
dimensions of a stepped plate with infinitely small steps as illustrated.
Each step must freeze after the preceding step and supply it with feed metal,
that is the formula defines the relationship between these steps if directional
solidification is to be maintained. This formula can also be used to define the
relationship between the dimensions of finite steps if directional solidification
is to be maintained, that is to define the relationship between the length of a
thin section which can be fed by, and freeze towards, a thicker section.
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FIGURE 4.22 CALCULATOR 7 USED TO DETERMINE GEOMETRIC MODULI OF PARTS OF

CASTINGS OF RECTANGULAR CROSS SECTION FROM THEIR WIDTH AND THICKNESS
MEASUREMENTS
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b. Thus the minimum difference in thickness which will promote directional

solidification depends on the length of the thin section. A small difference in
thickness will promote directional solidification over only a short distance as in
Clause 4.18.2c.(a).
c. A large difference in thickness will ensure directional solidification over a

greater distance (D1) as in (b):
d. The length of the thin section which can be made sound increases with the
difference in section thickness up to a maximum (when the modulus of the thick
section is equal to or greater than 1.5 times the modulus of the thin section)
which is either:
(1) its maximum ‘feeder to cast end’ distance if one end is free;
(2) its maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distance if the thin section is cast between
thicker sections.
e. Thus, to ensure directional solidification of a thin section towards a thick

section its length is not to exceed:
(1) that given by the taper calculator when the modulus of thick section is less
than 1.5 times the modulus of the thin section;
(2) the maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ or ‘feeder to cast end’ distance (depending
on location) for a plate as given in TABLE 4.1 when the modulus of the
thick section is greater than 1.5 times the modulus of the thin section.
f. Calculator 3 shown in FIGURE 4.23 allows these conditions to be checked at a

glance. It shows the maximum length D of a thin section, of thickness T1 which
can be fed from a thicker section of thickness T2. It also allows comparison of
this maximum length with the maximum ‘feeder to cast end’ distance, and the
maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distance. The following sketches illustrate the use
of the calculator.
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g. Will the Thick Section Feed the Thin Section?
The thickness of the thin section is located on the left hand scale (T1) The
minimum thickness of a thicker section (T2, right hand scale) which will feed
it, and the maximum length of the thin section (D) which can be fed from this
thicker section may be determined by placing a straight edge across
FIGURE 4.23 through T1, D and T2, as shown in the sketch below.
h. Is the Thin Section Too Long?
To determine whether the feeding distances of the thin section have been
exceeded either compare with figures for maximum feeding distances shown in
TABLE 4.1 or use the calculator as described below:
(1) Where one end of the thin section is a cast end or is chilled
Compare the position of the line linking T1, D and T2 with that of the point
marked ‘feeder to cast end’ located to the left of the centre scale. If the line
passes above the point as shown in FIGURE 4.24A, the feeding distance
has not been exceeded and the thin section will be sound. However, if the
line passes below the point as shown in FIGURE 4.24B the maximum
‘feeder to cast end’ distance has been exceeded and the thin section will
be unsound. In this case the length of the thin section must be reduced,
or its thickness increased, in which case the whole procedure should be
repeated to ensure that the thick section is still thick enough to ensure
soundness over the whole length of the thin section.
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FIGURE 4.23 CALCULATOR 3, TO BE USED TO DETERMINE THE EXTENT TO WHICH A

THICK PLATE-LIKE PART OF A CASTING WILL FEED A THINNER PLATE-LIKE PART OF A
CASTING
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FIGURE 4.24 USE OF CALCULATOR 3
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(2) When a thin section is fed from each end
When a thin section is fed from each end by a thicker section its length
must not be greater than the maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distance. This
can be determined in the same way as the maximum ‘feeder to cast end’
distance above. The line joining thickness T1 and T2 and passing through
D (the maximum length of the thin section) must pass through or above
the feeder to feeder point as shown otherwise the maximum ‘feeder to
feeder’ distance has been exceeded and the casting will be unsound.
4.19 Feeding Distances and Junctions

a. Junctions are ‘hot spots’ for reasons which are described in clauses 4.7b. to 4.9b.
and therefore they must be either chilled or fed.
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4.19.1 Chilled Junctions
a. The width of Nickel−Aluminium−Bronze chills at junctions should be equal to

4 times junction modulus and the thickness 2 times junction modulus. If
junctions are effectively chilled then the junctions initiate directional
solidification in the junction arms and therefore each junction arm must be fed
independently. The maximum ‘feeder to chilled junction’ distances have only
been investigated for T junctions but were considerably less than the maximum
‘feeder to central chill’ or ‘feeder to cast end’ distances. As a guide the maximum
‘feeder to chilled T junction’ distance was about 4 times junction arm thickness,
T1 as illustrated in FIGURE 4.25.
FIGURE 4.25 CHILLED JUNCTIONS
4.19.2 Fed Junctions
a. The increased modulus of both T and L junctions compared to the modulus of

their junction arms means that the junctions act as feeders to their junction
arms. The maximum ‘feeder to T and L junction end’ distances are equal to the
maximum ‘feeder to cast end’ distances for plates of thickness equal to those of
the junction arms. The maximum spacing between feeders along junctions has
not been investigated but is probably similar to that of bars of square cross
section of thickness equal to that of the thicker junction arm. The maximum
‘junction to cast end’ distances of T and L junctions are equal to the maximum
‘feeder to cast end’ distances for plates of the same thickness as the junction
arms. This information is summarized in FIGURE 4.26.
4.20 Insulating Mould Inserts
a. The feeding distances given in TABLE 4.1 are sometimes difficult to achieve on
complex castings because of practical problems in siting feeders. In addition, it
is sometimes difficult to devise satisfactory methods of chilling isolated ‘hot
spots’ such as bosses, junctions, valve seats and at the same time feed
surrounding parts of the casting. In these circumstances it may be possible to
use insulating inserts made of bonded ceramic fibres in the mould wall to delay
solidification locally relative to the surrounding parts of casting as a method of
controlling solidification. Insulation is most effective on thinner sections (see
clause 4.16.1a.) and can be used in conjunction with chills to extend feeding
distances or to allow isolated thicker sections to be fed through thinner sections.
Bosses are one example of this.
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4.20.1 Materials
a. A number of proprietary ceramic fibre based materials are now on the market,
but only a few typical types have been tested for use as insulating mould inserts
in sand moulds. Two types of material have been found to be suitable:
(1) semi-rigid board with an organic component in the binder;
(2) moist felt containing an inorganic bonding agent, which can be moulded
to shape and then hardened by air drying or curing at 60−80° C.
Unbonded ceramic fibre materials are generally too fragile for use as a mould
insert. Both types of bonded materials (1) and (2) listed above must be used with
care and can cause defects if misused.
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FIGURE 4.26 FEEDING DISTANCES OF T AND L JUNCTIONS BETWEEN PLATES, WITH

FEEDERS POSITIONED OVER CENTRE LINE OF JUNCTION
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4.21 Limitations of Ceramic Fibre Insulating Mould Inserts

4.21.1 Dross Formation
a. Semi-rigid board evolves fume on contact with molten aluminium−bronze.

When inserts made of semi-rigid board are positioned in the base of the mould,
the fumes can cause an unacceptable number of oxide inclusions in the casting
surface above the inserts as shown diagrammatically in FIGURE 4.27. These
defects can be avoided by placing the inserts vertically in the mould or in the top
surface of the mould so that metal rises alongside of or up to the inserts.
b. Moist felt, as supplied, contains considerable quantities of moisture and must

be oven dried for long periods before it becomes dry enough to use in sand
moulds. However, when dry, it can be used in top and bottom surfaces of the
mould.
4.21.2 Dimensional Stability
a. Semi-rigid board. The thickness of 50mm thick castings increases by 10%

when insulated on both faces with semi-rigid board of 10mm thickness under
the effect of a metal head 600mm thick. This increase in thickness with
insulation on both faces of plates 50mm thick can be related to metal head by
the formula:
dT (mm) = 1 + 0.0064h
where dT = Increase in thickness (mm)
h = Liquid metal head (mm)
Insulation on only one face of the mould generally gives half the increase in
thickness.
b. The amount by which the inserts are compressed is probably independent of

casting thickness down to about 20mm thickness, although tests have not been
carried out to confirm this. It should be noted that the increase in thickness
caused by the use of insulating mould inserts for vertical plate-like parts of
castings creates a taper in the casting which can be in the wrong direction for
directional solidification towards a feeder. Although the gradient is only 1 in
100 for plates of 50mm thickness, it can become significant in thinner castings.
NOTE Moist felt is compressed approximately twice as much as semi-rigid boards

and produces a rougher surface finish.
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FIGURE 4.27 RECOMMENDED AND NON-RECOMMENDED METHODS OF POSITIONING

INSULATING INSERTS MADE OF SEMI-RIGID BOARD IN THE MOULD
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4.21.3 Optimum Thickness
a. The optimum insulant thickness is 10mm for castings up to 50mm in thickness.

Increasing the insulant thickness to more than 10mm does not result in any
further increase in casting solidification time.
4.21.4 Feeding Distance and Insulating Mould Inserts
a. Insulating mould inserts are useful for some applications to extend feeding
distances where the use of metal chills is disadvantageous, for example in small
cores where metal chills may be difficult to extract from the casting and/or
unacceptably weaken the core.
b. Insulating mould inserts delay solidification relative to the surrounding sand

mould which can, therefore, be considered to act as a chill in relation to the
insert. The effect of a sand ‘chill’ of width equal to twice the casting thickness
between two insulating mould inserts on soundness in the insulated ‘feeder to
sand chill’ distance is similar to the effect on soundness of a mouldable silicon
carbide chill between two feeders in the uninsulated ‘feeder to central
mouldable chill’ distance, that is the maximum insulated ‘feeder to sand chill’
distance is equal to the maximum ‘feeder to cast end’ distance.
4.21.5 Insulating Mould Inserts and Isolated Thick Sections
a. Thick sections separated from a source of feed metal by intervening thinner

sections can be made sound by insulating the thinner sections so that they
solidify after the thicker sections. The modulus of the thick sections can be up
to 1.22 times greater than the modulus of the thinner sections, Mc, and of length
in the direction of feeding of up to 12Mc. The insulated distance between the
edge of a thick section and a feeder can be up to 150mm for plates of 12.5mm
thickness and up to 100mm for plates of 25mm thickness.
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EXAMPLE: A bush of outside diameter 100mm and inside diameter 50mm is

supported by two ribs of thickness 15mm and width equal to the length of bush
= 100mm inside a tube of outside diameter 250mm and inside diameter 200mm.
Mc, bush = 25 × 100 = 10mm
(2 × 25) + (2 × 100)
Mc, ribs = 15 × 100 = 6.5mm

(2 × 15) + (2 × 100)
Mc, tube = 25 = 12.5mm

2
The bush is isolated from the tube by the ribs which freeze off before either the
bush or the tube. Metal chills cannot be used to lower the modulus of the bush
because the small internal diameter of the bush makes removal of the chill after
casting difficult.
Insulating the ribs brings their moduli up to the modulus of the bush:
Mc, insulated ribs = 15 × 100 = 10mm
(2 × 15) + 100 + (100 + 5)
Chilling the bush with mouldable silicon carbide reduces its modulus to allow
it to be fed through the rib by a feeder placed directly over the junction between
the rib and the tube:
Mc, mouldable chilled bush = 25 × 100 = 7.6mm
(2 × 25) + 1.4 (2 × 100)
TABLE 4.1
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4.22 Feeder Zones

a. When the final positions of feeders and chills have been decided the dimensions
of the feeder zones can be determined and the minimum size of feeder required
to ensure soundness can be calculated. The feeder zone is the part of the casting
around each feeder which the feeder supplies with feed metal. The zones
themselves have no significance in terms of directional solidification or feeding.
However, the determination of the extent of the zones is the intermediate step
between positioning feeders and calculating feeder size. The boundary of each
zone is either a cast or chilled end or midway between two feeders.
b. The dimensions are best tabulated as length, width and thickness for the
calculation of the feeder size. When the feeder zone contains parts with different
thicknesses as may arise when thick parts of castings feed thin parts (for
example, flanges on tubes can often feed the tubes) then the dimensions of both
parts of the zone must be tabulated. The principles of dividing a casting into
feeder zones are illustrated in FIGURE 4.28.
c. One of the reasons for tabulating the dimensions and calculating the volumes
of feeder zones is to find out whether the approximate feeder diameters
calculated from casting moduli (usually at the stage when feeder positions are
being determined) contain adequate volumes of metal to supply the feed
requirements of the casting. While it is easy to define and tabulate the
dimensions of feeder zones of simple shape this is not the case for more complex
shapes such as those shown in Examples 2 and 3, Annex C. In such cases the
definition of feeder zone dimensions can become a laborious exercise which only
serves the purpose, in many cases, of confirming that feeder diameters
calculated from casting moduli do indeed contain adequate volumes of feed
metal. A procedure is suggested in Clause 4.24a. which makes it simpler in many
cases to assess whether feeders with an adequate modulus do contain an
adequate volume to feed their feeder zones. Use of this alternative procedure
makes the tabulation of feeder zone dimensions unnecessary.
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FIGURE 4.28 DETERMINATION OF FEEDER ZONE BOUNDARIES
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EXAMPLE 1
Determine the dimensions of the feeder zones in the feeding system used in
Example 1 (section 4.16.1.c.) for an unchilled ring.
The width and thickness of the ring were 50mm and 20mm respectively. The
average circumference of the ring was 1728mm and the minimum number of
feeders was 11. Each feeder will therefore feed an eleventh part of the ring.
L W T
Feeder Zone 1728

11 50 20
Dimensions
= 157
There are eleven zones of these dimesions

on each ring as illustrated.
EXAMPLE 2
Determine the dimensions of the feeder zones on
the tube used in Example 2 (section 4.16.1c.) fed by
two rows of feeders along each side of the tube,
each row containing two feeders.
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The boundaries of the feeder zones can be visualized more easily on a surface
development of the tube;
There are four feeders on the tube and therefore there are the same number of
feeder zones. The feeders are spaced along the parting line. The boundaries of
the zones are midway between the feeders. Because all of the zones are
symmetrical they have identical dimensions so that only the dimensions of one
of the zones needs to be tabulated.
Zone length = ½ tube length = ½ ¢ 300 = 150mm

Zone width = ½ tube circumference = ½ ¢ 250 = 125mm
Zone thickness = 16mm
The casting contains four zones with identical dimensions

L W T
150 125 16
4.23 Minimum Feeder Size

a. To be effective the feeder must:
(1) contain liquid metal when the last part of the casting has solidified, that
is, the feeder must solidify after the part of the casting it is feeding;
(2) be capable of providing sufficient liquid feed metal to counteract the

shrinkage which occurs on solidification of the part of the casting it is
feeding.
b. The first requirement can be met by ensuring that the geometric modulus of
the feeder is greater than the geometric modulus of the part of the casting to
which it is attached. The amount by which the modulus of the feeder Mf must
be greater than the modulus of the casting Mc has been determined by
experiment as:
Mf = 1.25 times Mc for an insulated-sleeved feeder
Mf = 1.8 times Mc for a feeder moulded in sand
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Because the modulus of cylindrical feeders insulated on their top surface and
attached directly to the casting is ¼ of the feeder diameter, the feeder diameter
is directly related to the casting modulus.
Mf = Df/4
Therefore Df = 4 ¢ 1.25 Mc = 5 Mc for insulated-sleeved feeder
and Df = 4 ¢ 1.8 Mc = 7.2 Mc for feeders moulded in sand
c. The second requirement can be met by ensuring that the volume of the feeder
is above a minimum fraction of the casting volume, so that the feeder contains
a sufficient volume of liquid to compensate for casting shrinkage. The minimum
feeder volumes are:
Minimum Vf = 1/5 Vc for an insulated feeder
Minimum Vf = 3/4 Vc for a feeder moulded in sand
d. All of the relationships defining the minimum feeder modulus and the
minimum feeder volume assume cylindrical feeders of height at least 1.5 times
the feeder diameter, with their top surface covered with insulating material.
Calculators 8 and 9 shown in FIGURE 4.29 allow the feeder diameter to be read
off directly from the casting modulus and feeder zone volume.
e. The two requirements of the feeder, that is, its modulus must be greater than
that of the casting, and its volume must be more than a minimum fraction of
the casting volume, must BOTH be satisfied in every feeder. It is for this reason
that the approximate feeder sizes which were determined when the feeder
positions were decided cannot be used as minimum feeder sizes. The
approximate feeder diameters only satisfied the criteria of minimum modulus,
and further calculation is necessary to ensure that the feeder volume is
adequate. The minimum modulus and volume criteria for determining feeder
size are independent and this means that two feeder sizes may be calculated for
every feeder zone, one from the modulus and one from the volume of the zone.
The minimum feeder size required to ensure soundness is the larger of the two.
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EXAMPLES OF MINIMUM FEEDER SIZE CALCULATION
EXAMPLE 1
Find the minimum feeder diameter (Df) for a ring shaped casting containing
eleven identical feeder zones of dimensions:
L W T
157 50 20
Casting Volume = L ¢ W ¢ T
= 157 ¢ 50 ¢ 20
= 157 000mm3
Casting Geometric
Modulus = Cross-sectional Area
Cooling Perimeter
= 20 × 50
(2 × 50) + (2 × 20)
= 7.1mm
The minimum volume-dependent feeder diameter can be read off Calculator 8

from the volume of the zone whilst the modulus-dependent feeder diameter can
be read off Calculator 9 from the casting geometric modulus. The feeder
diameters which are read off the calculators must always be the nearest
convenient diameter ABOVE the minimum. The feeder sizes which are used are
never to be less than those indicated on the calculators.
From Calculator 8
Min Df (Volume) = 50mm for a feeder moulded in sand
Min Df (Volume) = 50mm for an insulated sleeved feeder
From Calculator 9
Min Df (Modulus) = 51mm for a feeder moulded in sand
Min Df (Modulus) = 50mm for an insulated sleeved feeder
The minimum feeder diameter is the larger of the two.
Feeders moulded in sand
The volume-dependent and modulus-dependent minimum feeder diameters can be

compared and the larger chosen:
Min Df (Modulus) is larger than Min Df (Volume), that is 51mm is larger

than 50mm
Therefore minimum feeder diameter equals 51mm moulded in sand.
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FIGURE 4.29 CALCULATORS 8 AND 9 USED TO DETERMINE THE MINIMUM FEEDER

DIAMETER FOR A RING-SHAPED CASTING FROM FEEDER ZONE VOLUME AND
CASTING MODULUS
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Insulated-sleeved feeders
Both the modulus-dependent and the volume-dependent feeder diameters were less
than 50mm and so the minimum diameter for an insulated-sleeved feeder is 50mm.
EXAMPLE 2
Find the minimum feeder diameter (Df) for the same ring shaped casting in which
chills were used to reduce the number of feeders required to a minimum of 6.
Feeder Zone Dimensions

L W T
Av Circ
50 20
6
= 1728
6
= 288
Feeder Zone Volume = L¢W¢T
= 288 ¢ 50 ¢ 20
= 288 000m3
Modulus = 7.1mm
The minimum volume-dependent feeder diameter can be read off Calculator 8 from
the casting volume.
Min Df (Volume) = 57mm for a feeder moulded in sand

The minimum modulus-dependent feeder diameter is the same as in the previous

example because the modulus is unchanged.
That is, Min Df (Modulus) = 51mm for a feeder moulded in sand

Min Df (Modulus) = 50mm for an insulated sleeved feeder
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Feeders moulded in sand
The volume-dependent and modulus-dependent minimum feeder diameters can be

compared and the larger chosen.
Min Df (Volume) is larger than the Min Df (Modulus)
57mm is larger than 51mm
Therefore minimum feeder diameter = 57mm moulded in sand
It should be noted that the minimum feeder sizes calculated for the ring casting used
in both the foregoing Examples 1 and 2 depended upon the design of the feeding
system: the minimum sand feeder diameter in Example 1 was 51mm and was
modulus-dependent; the minimum sand feeder diameter in Example 2 was 57mm and
was volume-dependent.
EXAMPLE 3
Determine the feeder position and size for a bush of dimensions:
Flange Tube
Outer Diameter mm 800 650
Inner Diameter mm 600 600
Width mm 100 Infinite
Thickness mm 75 25
Length mm Infinite 160
Average Circumference mm 2199 1964
(1) Examine the casting for natural feeder sites and features which initiate
directional solidification. The flange is an obvious feeder site while the end
of the tube will initiate directional solidification. The flange may act as a
feeder for the tube and therefore the moduli (Mc) of flange and tube must
be determined to find out whether Mc (flange) is equal to or greater than
1.5 times Mc (tube).
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Geometric Flange Modulus = Cross-sectional Area

Cooling perimeter
= Width × Thickness
(2 × Width) + (2 × thickness) –
Tube thickness
= 100 × 75
(2 × 100) + (2 × 75) – 25
= 23mm
Effective Flange Modulus = Mc (Geom) ¢ Shape Correction Factor

= 23 ¢ 0.85
= 20mm
Tube Modulus = Cross-sectional Area

Cooling perimeter
= Length × Thickness
(2 × Length) + Thickness
= 160 × 25 = 12mm
(2 × 160) + 25
1.5 ¢ Tube Modulus = 1.5 ¢ 12 =18mm

The effective Flange Modulus is larger than 1.5 ¢ Tube Modulus and
therefore the Flange will feed the Tube.
(2) Determine the width/thickness ratio of the casting
Flange W∕T = 100 = 1.33
75
Tube W∕T = Infinity = INFINITY

25
(Width is measured normal to the direction of feeding. Since the flange feeds the
tube, the width of the tube is its circumference which has no cooling edges and
can, therefore, be considered to be infinite.)
(3) Note the feeding distances given in TABLE 4.1.
FLANGE TUBE
W/T less than 3 W/T less than 10
T = 75mm T = 25−37mm
Max ‘f−c.e’ mm 200 175
Max ‘f−f’ b1 mm 175 290
b2 mm − 205
Max ‘f−c.ch’ mm 200 225
Max ‘f−ch.e’ mm − 225
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(4) Position the first feeder to take advantage of natural feeder sites or
features which initiate directional solidification. A feeder on the flange
must feed around the flange and the flange itself will feed the tube.
(5) The approximate feeder diameter can be calculated.
The approximate feeder diameter (Df) is related to the casting geometric

modulus:
Approx Df (Insulated) = 5 ¢ Mc
= 5 ¢ 23 = 115mm
(6) Compare the remainder of the casting with the feeding distances and add
more feeders if necessary.
Tube
The flange can feed the tube but only for a distance equal to the maximum
‘feeder to cast end’ distance along the tube from the flange. The flange to cast
end distance, 160mm, is less than the maximum ‘feeder to cast end’ distance of
175mm for plates of T = 25mm and therefore no extra feeders are required on
the tube.
Flange
The distance to be fed around the flange is equal to the average circumference
of the flange, 2199mm, and is greater than the maximum ‘feeder to feeder’
distance of 175mm for a bar of W/T = less than 3 and thickness T = 75mm,
therefore more feeders are required.
Minimum number of feeders = Average Circumference

max ‘f–f′ + Approx D f
= 2199 = 7.6
175 + 115
Therefore 8 feeders are required.
(7) Tabulated the dimensions of the feeder zone.
The bush is to be fed by 8 feeders equally spaced around the circumference of

the flange. Each feeder feeds an eighth part of the flange and an eighth part of
the tube. The bush therefore consists of eight identical feeder zones, each of
which comprises part of the tube and part of the flange.
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Feeder Zone Dimensions

L W T
(mm)
Av Circum
8
FLANGE 100 75
= 2199
8
= 275
Av Circum
8
TUBE 160 25
= 1963
8
= 245
(8) Calculate Feeder Size
The feeder zone comprises two parts of differing thickness and therefore
the feeder must solidify after the flange and feed both the flange and the
bush.
The approximate feeder diameter (115mm) calculated in paragraph (5)

would freeze long enough after the flange to feed the flange. However, it
may not contain an adequate volume of feed metal:
Casting Volume = Volume of Flange part of Zone
+ Volume of Tube part of Zone
= (275 ¢ 100 ¢ 75) + (160 ¢ 245 ¢ 25)
= 3 042 500mm3
= 3043 ¢ 103mm3
The minimum volume-dependent feeder diameter for an insulated Feeder,

Calculator 8, is 80mm. This diameter is smaller than the diameter
calculated from the modulus and therefore the minimum feeder size of
this zone is modulus-dependent and equals 115mm.
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4.24 Simplified Method of Determining Whether Feeder Zones are Volume-Dependent

Using TABLE 4.2
a. TABLE 4.2 shows the maximum volumes of feeder zones, defined in terms of the
maximum length of side L of zones of square shape and of average zone
thickness T which insulated feeders can supply with an adequate volume of feed
metal. To use the table it is necessary to calculate the feeder diameter which
satisfies the modulus requirements of the feeder zone (that is Df insulated
equals 5 times Mc) and using this diameter and the average thickness of the
feeder zone read off from TABLE 4.2 the maximum length of side of square zone
which the feeder can supply with an adequate volume of feed metal. This square
zone can be compared with the approximate size of the actual feeder zone and
if the square zone is obviously larger, then the feeder diameter calculated from
casting modulus (of height equal to 1½ times diameter) will contain and
adequate volume of metal to feed the zone. If the square feeder zone appears to
be only slightly larger, equal to, or smaller than the dimensions of the feeder
zone then the volume of the feeder zone must be calculated accurately or a larger
feeder selected which is capable of satisfying the volume requirements of the
zone easily. An example of the use of TABLE 4.2 is given below taken from
Example 3, Annex C. and a further example of the use of TABLE 4.2 is given in
Example 2, Annex C.
Example—One of the feeder zones in a cover plate is shown below on a plan view.
b. The approximate insulated feeder diameter was calculated from the casting
modulus to be 51mm. The zone comprises four parts: hinge boss connecting
arm, thickened rim around cover plate, approximately one sixth of the cover
plate and part of a strengthening web. The definition of the dimensions of all
of these component parts is laborious and unnecessary using TABLE 4.2 which
shows that a feeder of 51mm diameter and 77mm height can feed a square zone
of length of side equal to 198mm and average thickness of 20mm. This square
is drawn approximately to scale over the sketch of the feeder zone and is
obviously larger than the zone. This indicates that the zone is
modulus-dependent and that the insulated feeder of 51mm diameter can satisfy
the volume requirements of the zone. (Calculation showed that an insulated
feeder of only 37mm was needed to satisfy the volume requirements of the zone.)
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4.25 Additional Feeding Volume Requirements when Blind Feeders are Used
a. The minimum feeder sizes given by the rules in Clauses 4.23a. to 4.24b. are
calculated on the assumption that the minimum feeder size of a feeder zone is
not affected by any of the surrounding zones. Sometimes this is not so and the
maximum feeder sizes must be increased to make allowance for shrinkage
requirements of surrounding zones.
Maximum length of side, L, of square feeder zones of average thickness, T, which feeders of
diameter, Df, can supply with an adequate volume of feed metal*, mm
DIAMETER
THICKNESS OF FEEDER ZONE, T, mm
OF
INSULATED
FEEDER Df, 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
mm
38 180 147 127 114 104 96 90 85 80 77 73 71 68 66
51 280 228 198 177 161 149 140 132 125 119 114 110 106 102
64 393 321 278 249 227 210 196 185 176 168 160 154 149 143
76 509 415 360 322 294 272 254 240 227 217 208 199 192 186
89 644 526 456 408 372 344 322 304 288 275 263 253 244 235
102 791 646 559 500 456 423 395 373 354 337 323 310 299 289
114 934 763 661 591 539 499 467 440 418 398 381 366 353 341
127 1098 897 777 695 634 587 549 518 491 468 448 431 415 401
152 1438 1174 1017 910 830 769 719 678 643 613 587 564 544 525
178 1823 1488 1289 1153 1052 974 911 859 815 777 744 715 689 666
203 2220 1812 1570 1404 1282 1187 1110 1046 993 947 906 871 839 811
* To obtain the maximum diameter of circular zones of average thickness T

which feeders of diameter Df can supply with an adequate volume of feed
metal multiply L by 1.1284
TABLE 4.2 MAXIMUM VOLUME OF FEEDER ZONES DEFINED IN TERMS OF THE

MAXIMUM LENGTH OF SIDE L OF SQUARE ZONES OF AVERAGE THICKNESS T
WHICH INSULATED FEEDERS OF DIAMETER D AND HEIGHT = 1.5 ¢ Df CAN
SUPPLY WITH AN ADEQUATE VOLUME OF FEED METAL
b. Feeders must be capable of compensating for the liquid-to-solid shrinkage

contraction which occurs when their feeder zones solidify. The total shrinkage
contraction is made up of two components:
(1) liquid shrinkage—the contraction which occurs as the liquid cools from
the pouring temperature (about 1200° C) to the temperature at which it
starts to solidify (1070° C);
(2) solidification shrinkage—the contraction which occurs when the

liquid changes to a solid between 1070° C and 1050° C.
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c. The liquid shrinkage contraction occurs whilst the casting is completely liquid
and therefore the liquid level in the mould will fall uniformly as the liquid finds
its own level. This means that the liquid contraction of blind feeders in the lower
parts of the mould and their feeder zones will be compensated from feeders in
the top of the mould until parts of the casting between the top feeders and the
blind feeders freeze and prevent any further flow of metal from the top to the
bottom of the mould. The problem is important when large parts of the casting
are in the lower part of the mould, requiring large blind feeders, whilst thin
parts of the casting with small feeders are in the top of the mould. This is
illustrated in FIGURE 4.30. Extra feed metal has therefore to be added to the
top feeders above that given by Calculators 8 and 9 in FIGURE 4.29, to
compensate for the extra metal ‘bled’ away from them before the casting starts
to freeze.
d. In some cases it might be possible to allow corresponding decreases in the

volume of the blind feeders to allow for the fact that the feeding zones fed by the
blind feeders and, indeed, the blind feeders themselves, are receiving feed metal
from the top feeders. However, this requires further calculation which may not
be justified by the small savings in metal which are likely.
e. To ensure sound castings, extra metal equal to 4% of the total weight of the
casting and the blind feeders should be added to the top feeder, that is:
Vf highest feeder = V f Calculated from Feeder Zone + 4 V c + V f Total Blind

100
Where more than one feeder has been taken to the top of the box the additional
metal can be distributed equally among the top feeders. The additional volume
can be added by increasing the feeder height or the feeder diameter.
EXAMPLE OF THE CALCULATION OF ADDITIONAL SIZE

REQUIREMENTS OF FEEDER ON THE HIGHEST FEEDER ZONE OF
A CASTING WHICH HAS BLIND FEEDERS
Design the feeding system for the cover plate of dimensions shown below.
(1) Examine the casting for natural feeder sites and features which initiate
solidification.
The flange around the base of the dome is a natural feeder site, there are
no casting features which initiate directional solidification. The flange
may act as a feeder for the plate and therefore the moduli of flange and
plate are compared to determine whether the flange can effectively feed
the plate over the full feeding distances, that is whether effective modulus
Mc (flange) is greater than 1.5 times the Mc (plate).
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Geometric Modulus
Mc (flange) = Cross-sectional Area
Cooling perimeter
= Width × Thickness
(2 × Width) + (2 × Thickness) – Plate Thickness
= 50 × 50 = 14mm
(4 × 50) – 20
Effective Modulus
Mc (flange) = Mc (Geom) ¢shape Correction Factor
= 14 ¢ 0.85 = 12mm
Mc (plate) = T = 20 = 10mm
2 2
That is, Effective Mc (flange) is less than 1.5 and the flange will not feed the
Mc (plate)
domed plate over the full feeding distance.
(2) Determine the width/thickness ratio of the casting.
The casting is made up of two parts of uniform thickness, namer! the

central domed plate which has no cooling edges and therefore has an
infinite width, and the flange which has a square cross section of length
of side 50mm.
(3) Note the feeding distances.
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FIGURE 4.30 THE EFFECT OF BLIND FEEDER ZONES ON MINIMUM FEEDER SIZE
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FLANGE PLATE
FEEDING DISTANCES W/T less than 3 W/T greater than 10
T = 50 to 74 T= 19 to 24
Max ‘f−c.e’ 180 125
Max ‘f−f’ b1 160 225
b2 − 160
Max ‘f−c.ch’ 190 165
Max ‘f−ch.e’ − 144
(4) Position the first feeder.
A feeder must be placed around the flange circumference.
(5) The approximate feeder diameter can be calculated from the flange
geometric moduli.
Flange approx Df (insulated) = 5 ¢ Mc

= 5 ¢ 14 = 70mm
The nearest size of insulated sleeve supplied which is larger than this has
a diameter of 75mm.
Plate approx Df (insulated) = 5 ¢ 10 = 50mm
(6) Compare the remainder of the casting with the feeding distances.
Flange
The number of feeders around the flange can be calculated assuming chills are
not to be used.
Minimum number of feeders (flange) = Average Circumference

max ‘f–f′ + approx D f
= π(270 + 50) = 4.3

160 + 75
Therefore a minimum of 5 feeders is necessary around the flange circumference.
Domed Plate
The modulus of the flange is not high enough to give the full feeding distances
across the domed plate, therefore the feeding distances across the dome must
be measured from the edge of the feeders on the flange and not the flange itself.
The distance over the circumference of the domed plate which is to be fed is
therefore:
Average Circumference – (2 × Flange Thickness) + (2 × Flange Width)
2
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Since the thickness of the flange equals its width, the distance to be fed is
Av Circum = π(270 + 20) = 456mm
2 2
Max ‘f−f’ b1 distance = 225mm
The distance to be fed, 456mm over the circumference of the domed plate, is
greater than the maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distance and therefore further
feeders are required on the plate. The distance over the circumference of the
dome measured from the edge of the flange is 456mm minus the flange
thickness which equals 356mm. This is also greater than the maximum ‘feeder
to feeder’ distance and therefore the flange cannot be used as a feeder of
diminished effectiveness (because the modulus ratio between flange and plates
is less than 1.5) to give the reduced feeding distances described in
clauses 4.18.2a. to 4.18.2h.
The approximate diameter of insulated feeder sleeve required is
5 × Mc = 5 × 20 = 50mm
2
This is a standard diameter supplied by sleeve manufacturers.
If one feeder is placed on the top of the dome the distance between this feeder
and the feeders on the flanges equals:
½(456 − App Df) = ½(456 − 50) = 203mm
which is less than the max ‘f−f’b 1 distance, that is 225mm, therefore one feeder
is sufficient to feed the domed plate and the whole casting can be made sound
with this feeder and the five feeders on the flange.
(7) Tabulate the dimensions of the feeder zones.
Approximations are adequate for the zone dimensions which are difficult
to determine accurately because of the curved dome of the plate.
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Top Feeder
The zone of the top feeder extends halfway between the top feeder and the
feeders on the flange. That is the top feeder will feed a circular plate of
approximate diameter 203 + 50 = 253mm.
TOP FEEDER ZONE
DIAMETER THICKNESS
DIMENSIONS
mm 253 20
Flange Zone
The flange is divided into five identical zones each of which feeds one fifth of that
part of the domed plate which is not fed by the top feeder.
Flange part of Zone

L W T
Av Circum
5
50 50
= 1005
5
= 201
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Plate part of Zone

The plate part of the zone is the strip above the flange which is not fed by the
top feeder. The length of the strip will be equal to its average circumference
around the casting.
Average strip circumference = ½ (Circumference at bottom of strip
+ circumference at top of strip)
This is approximately equal to π(270) + π (253)
2
= 822mm
The width of the strip is half of the distance measured over the top between the
flange and the top feeder.
= ¼ (Av Circumference over Dome) – Flange Thickness – ½ Approx Df

2
= ¼ (270 + 20) – 50 – (½ × 50) = 76mm

2
L W T
Av Circum
5
PLATE ZONE
DIMENSIONS 76 20
= 822
5
= 164
Therefore the casting consists of the following zones
ONE TOP PLATE DIA T

ZONE 253 20
FIVE FLANGE ZONES L W T
Flange 201 50 50
Plate 164 76 20
(8) Calculate the feeder size.

Top Plate Zone
The feeder size is calculated from the zone volume and compared with the
modulus dependent feeder diameter of 50mm calculated in sub-clause (5).
Feeder Zone Volume = π × (Zone Dia)2 × Thickness = π × 253 2 × 20

4 4
= 1 005 451mm3 = 1005 ¢ 103mm3

The minimum volume-dependent feeder diameter can be read from
Calculator 8.
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The minimum feeder diameter is therefore 56mm.

The nearest size of insulated sleeve supplied which is larger than this has a
diameter of 64mm.
Flange Zones
The feeder size is calculated from the zone volume and compared with the
modulus-dependent feeder diameter of 75mm calculated in sub-clause (5)
Zone Volume = Vol (Flange part) + Vol (Plate part)
= (201 ¢ 50 ¢ 50) + (164 ¢ 76 ¢ 20)
= 751 780mm3 = 752 ¢ 103mm3
The minimum volume-dependent feeder diameter can be read from
Calculator 7 (FIGURE 4.22).
The minimum feeder diameter is therefore 75mm.
(9) Calculate the increased height of metal required in the top feeder to
compensate for liquid shrinkage in the zones below it.
The top feeder must compensate for all of the liquid shrinkage of the zone
below it and the increased height to compensate for this is 4% of the sum
of the casting and blind feeder volume
Casting Volume = Sum of the volume of the casting feeder zones
= 5 Flange Zone Vols + 1 Top Zone Vol
= 5 ¢ 752 ¢ 103mm3 + 1005 ¢ 103mm3
= 4765 ¢ 103mm3
Blind Feeder Volume = π/4 (Flange feeder diameter) 2 ¢ height
+ connector volume
Blind Feeder height must be at least a diameter above the part which it is
feeding.
The flange feeders feed 76mm up the the domed plate.
The total height of the feeder is therefore:
Feeder Height = Connector height + dist up the plate + 1 Feeder dia
= 2/ ¢ Feeder diameter + 76 + 75
3
= 201mm
Blind Feeder Volume = (π/4 ¢ 752 ¢ 201) + (2/3 ¢ 75 ¢ 2/3 ¢ 75 ¢ 75)
= 887 991 + 187 500 = 1 075 491
There are five feeders:
Total Blind Feeder Volume = 5 ¢ 1 075 491
= 5 377 455mm3 = 5378 ¢ 103mm3
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Total (blind feeder + casting volume)

= 5378 ¢ 103 + 4765 ¢ 103mm3
= 10 143 ¢ 103mm3
The additional feeder height can be read from the top feeder diameter of 64mm
and the total (casting + blind feeder) volume using Calculator 10 as shown in
FIGURE 4.31.
When the feeder diameter = 64mm the additional feeder height = 126mm
Therefore the total top feeder height = 1.5 ¢ feeder diameter + 126
= (1.5 ¢ 64) + 126 = 222mm
To avoid increasing the top feeder height the five blind feeders could be made
open and increased in height so that they are level with the height of the top
feeder, or the feeder diameter of the top feeder can be increased to that of a
shorter feeder with the same volume, for example a feeder of 75mm diameter
¢ 162mm height has the same volume as a feeder of 64mm diameter ¢ 222mm
height.
4.26 Feeder Height, Shape and Connection to Casting
a. Feeder Height. All of the feeders calculated by the preceding rules are for
cylindrical feeders of height equal to 1.5 times the feeder diameter and insulated
on their top surface. The feeder height may be greater than 1.5 times the feeder
diameter but it should not be less. The height of blind feeders must be at least
a diameter above the highest parts of the casting which they feed to maintain
liquid pressure in the casting and prevent surface sinks (see FIGURE 4.34 and
step 4.25e.(9) of the worked example.
b. Feeder Shape. Feeder shapes other than cylindrical can be substituted for the
cylindrical feeders calculated from the preceding rules provided that the ratio
between feeder modulus and casting modulus is not reduced. The modulus of
feeder shapes other than cylinders can be calculated from the relationship
Modulus = Cross-sectional area

Cooling perimeter
The height of the feeder can be adjusted so that its volume is equal to that of
the minimum size of cylindrical feeder. Calculator 11 shown in FIGURE 4.33
allows the diameter and length of oval feeders to be derived from the minimum
cylindrical feeder diameter and allowance made to the height to maintain an
adequate feeder volume.
c. Connectors. It is not always desirable or practicable to attach feeders directly
to the casting and often connectors must be inserted between the feeder and the
casting. Successful designs for connectors, made in mineral fibre material, are
shown in FIGURE 4.34(a), (b), (c) and (d). These connector dimensions give
progressive solidification from the casting through the connector to the feeder
and is not to be changed unless steps are taken to ensure a similar solidification
pattern. Connectors attached to feeders which are gated should have the base
slab of insulating material omitted to prevent metal flowing over the insulation
and possibly being contaminated before entering the casting. More examples of
successful designs which have been developed under production conditions are
shown in Annex D.
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FIGURE 4.31 CALCULATOR 10 TO DETERMINE THE TOTAL ADDITIONAL HEIGHT ON

TOP FEEDERS REQUIRED TO COMPENSATE FOR LIQUID CONTRACTION
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d. Feeders on Flanges. Feeders on flanges may present problems of ensuring

nonturbulent filling and practical moulding problems. Some successful designs
are shown in FIGURE 4.34(e) and (f). When spigots are tapered towards flanges
it is usually advisable to pad feeders down to the spigot so that the feeders can
feed the tapered spigot directly. This avoids the necessity of increasing the
flange thickness so that the flange can feed the thickest part of the taper. The
feeding distances around the tapered spigot are equal to those of bars of square
cross section as shown in FIGURE 4.32.
FIGURE 4.32 FEEDING ARRANGEMENT FOR FLANGED TAPERED SPIGOT
The maximum distance between the feeders on the flange must not exceed either the
maximum ‘feeder to feeder’ distance for the tapered spigot, or the maximum ‘feeder
to feeder’ distance for the flange itself.
4.27 Summary of Rules for designing a Feeding System

a. The following notes are intended to summarize important rules applicable to
the design of Feeding Systems. Where necessary, reference is made to the part
of Section 4. where full information can be found:
(1) ensure that machining allowances have been added where necessary to
the drawing and that it represents the ‘as cast’ shape;
(2) evaluate the natural solidification pattern of the casting, that is:
(a) locate free edges, ‘hot spots’, junctions, differences in thickness
(b)
(i) where necessary, calculate the casting modulus of parts of the

casting. (Clauses 4.4a. and 4.5a.)
Mc = Volume = Cross-sectional Area
Cooling Surface Area Cooling Perimeter
Mc (bar) = ¼T
Mc (plate) = ½T
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FIGURE 4.33 CALCULATOR TO DETERMINE ELONGATED FEEDER DIMENSIONS OF THE

SAME MODULI AS CYLINDRICAL FEEDERS
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Part 5
FIGURE 4.34 CONNECTORS FOR FEEDERS AND METHODS OF FEEDING FLANGES
4.98
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Part 5
(ii) check whether shape corrections need to be applied to the

modulus (Clauses 4.6a. to 4.9b.).
(iii) check whether the core is fully cooling and that all sand
thicknesses between parts of the casting are greater than
1.5 times casting thickness. (Clauses 4.11a. to 4.13b.)
(iv) ensure the effective moduli of parts of the casting which must
act as feeders are 1.5 times the moduli of the fed parts.
(c) note the feeding distances using width/thickness ratio and casting
thickness (TABLE 4.1);
(d) position the first feeder;
(e) find the approximate feeder diameter from the modulus;
(f) add chills, feeders and taper to the casting where necessary;
(i) Chills: Aluminium−bronze chills effectively increase the

cooling surface area of the parts of the casting they contact by
5 times; silicon carbide mouldable chills effectively increase
the area by 1.4 times.
The width of chills is normally 2 times casting thickness.
The thickness of chills is normally 1 times casting thickness.
(ii) Taper Clauses 4.17.1a. to 4.17.4a.
Calculator 3 Calculator 5
Calculator 4 Calculator 6
(g) divide the casting into feeder zones and note their dimensions;
(h) calculate feeder sizes from the casting volume and modulus and use
the largest:
Vf sand = 3/4 Vc
Vf insulated = 1/5 Vc } Calculator 8
Df sand = 4 times 1.8 Mc = 7.2 Mc  Calculator 9


Df insulated = 4 times 1.25 Mc = 5 Mc

Feeder height = 1.5 times feeder diameter.
For feeder shapes other than cylindrical, calculate the modulus of a

cylindrical feeder and then use a different shape with the same
modulus as the cylindrical feeder, ensuring the volume is adequate
(Calculator 11);
(i) feeders on the top of the casting must feed the liquid shrinkage of
all blind feeders and the casting below it. Additional volume in top
feeders equal 4% times total casting plus blind feeder volume
(Calculator 10).
4.99
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4.100
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Part 5
5. FILLING THE MOULD DESIGN OF THE RUNNING AND GATING SYSTEM
5.1 Introduction
a. The excellent corrosion resistance of nickel−aluminium−bronze castings is

due to the protective aluminium oxide films which form on all surfaces which
are exposed to the atmosphere. These oxide films, which are such an advantage
to the designer, cause some of the most difficult problems for the founder,
because they form not only on the finished casting, but also on any molten metal
surface exposed to the atmosphere.
b. Any disturbance of the liquid surface mixes the oxide film into the metal and
new films form to cover the new exposed surfaces.
c. Many nickel−aluminium−bronze castings are rejected because of voids

associated with oxide inclusions. To avoid mixing the oxide skins into the metal
the metal must be introduced into the mould as quiescently as possible.
d. Unless suitable techniques are used to fill the mould, scrap castings will be
produced. This Section includes all the information currently available on two
of the most successful techniques currently in use, namely, the Durville and
bottom-gating systems. The information is presented, where possible, in the
form of simple charts. A step-by-step outline of the procedure to be followed is
shown in FIGURE 5.1.
5.2 Filling Rate
a. Choice of filling rate is largely a matter of judgement on the part of the founder,
there being insufficient information available to define accurately the optimum
filling time without practical experience of a similar or analagous casting.
b. In general the filling rate should be such that:
(1) the thinnest part of the casting is filled before solidification begins
(see inset on FIGURE 5.2) in any part of the casting; this may not always
be practicable;
(2) appreciable temperature gradients are avoided in parts of casting of

uniform thickness; this is not as important in parts of thickness greater
than 25mm where the start of solidification is delayed sufficiently for
adverse temperature gradients to be eliminated before solidification
begins;
(3) the minimum of turbulence occurs during filling; this is largely dictated
by metal speed which should not exceed 75mm per second in the ingates.
5.1
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Part 5
A useful general rule which appears to embody current practice is that
Filling Time = k casting weight.
c. Present experimental results suggest that k equals 5 for castings containing

parts of thickness greater than 6mm when the casting weight is measured in
kilograms and the filling time is measured in seconds. This value of k is suitable
for all castings containing parts of thickness greater than 6mm.
d. This relationship may be read off Calculator 12 shown in FIGURE 5.2 which
also shows the average time to start to freeze for parts of castings 5mm to 50mm
thickpoured at temperatures in the range 1150 to 1250° C. From FIGURE 5.2
using a value of 5 for k, a casting weighing 100kg should be filled in 50 seconds,
one weighing 500kg should be filled in approx 100 seconds and one weighing
1000kg should be filled in approx 150 seconds.
e. Whilst this relationship gives a guide to values used in practice, it is
recommended that measurements should be made of filling times and cast
weights of successful castings for comparison with values predicted by the
relationship given in Clause 5.2b. above. In this way, founders with experience
of particular types of casting may be able to refine or simplify this general rule
on the basis of measurements made of successful filling systems.
f. It must be stressed, however, that the most important pouring variable is the
METAL SPEED into the casting and this takes precedence over any other
consideration. Metal speed into the casting is dependent on the size of the
ingates. The filling time and pouring temperature are generally satisfactorily
chosen by founders on the basis of experience.
5.3 Mould Rotation Techniques

5.3.1 Design Principles
a. Most of the medium size aluminium−bronze castings made to Class 1 standards
can be poured by Durville and similar techniques in which the mould is filled
by rotating the mould and pouring basin together so that the metal is
transferred smoothly from the pouring basin into the mould cavity.
(See FIGURE 1.9.)
b. Special tilting equipment is required for this method to give a controlled smooth
movement which prevents turbulence. Some foundries use cranes to lower
moulds during casting; this method of tilting can result in jerkiness during
pouring. If Durville or semi-Durvelle techniques are to be employed specially
designed, machine-driven, tilting tables should be used and the rate of pouring
carefully controlled.
c. It is essential also that the metal flow pattern within the casting is studied as
some complex shapes cannot be filled by tilting without turbulence. Webs are
sometimes added to casting designs to run the metal smoothly into the lowest
part of the casting and prevent turbulence (FIGURE 5.3). These webs must be
included as part of the casting in the determination of feeder size and position,
and normally they should solidify before the parts of the casting to which they
are attached, that is their thickness should be less than half the thickness of the
part of the casting to which they are attached.
d. At present little information on optimum rates of pouring is available and no
specific recommendations can be made at this stage on the use of this technique.
5.2
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Part 5
(Clause 5.2a. to 5.2f., FIGURE 5.3)
(Clause 5.3.1a. to 5.6.b)
(Clause 5.7.a. to 5.8.a.)
(Clauses 5.9.a. to 5.10.h.)
(Clauses 5.11.1.a. to 5.19.a.)
TABLE TABLE 5.2

5.1
FIGURE 5.1 SUGGESTED SEQUENCE FOR DESIGN OF RUNNING AND GATING SYSTEM
5.3
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Part 5
Casting Pouring Temperature ° C

Thickness (Plates Modulus of
Only) Casting* 1150+ 1200 1250+
Average Time Interval Between Pouring and Start of
mm mm
Solidification (Seconds)
5 2.5 2 2.5 3.0
9 4.5 6.5 8 12
12 6 12 14 17
15 7.5 19 23 27
20 10 33 40 48
25 12.5 52 63 77
30 15 74 90 109
35 17.5 100 120 147
40 20 130 160 190
45 22.5 165 200 240
50 25 215 258 318
+ Extrapolated results * To be used if casting is not of plate-like shape
FIGURE 5.2 CALCULATOR TO DETERMINE REASONABLE FILLING TIME
5.4
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Part 5
e. Special care must be taken to ensure cores and loose pieces of the mould are
fixed securely to prevent them moving during rotation of the mould and causing
variations in the casting thickness.
5.4 Temperature Variations in Durville Filled Moulds

a. Use of Durville techniques does not result in increased maximum ‘feeder to cast
end’ and ‘feeder to chill’ distances as might be expected by considering the heat
distribution during metal transfer from the pouring basin to the mould cavity.
This is shown diagrammatically in FIGURE 5.3:
FIGURE 5.3 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION AND THE USE OF WEBS IN THE DURVILLE
PROCESS
b. The first metal to enter the casting has the furthest to travel over cold sand
surfaces and is therefore coldest when it comes to rest. The last metal to be
transferred from the ladle travels the shortest distance over surfaces already
heated by previously transferred metal.
c. In fact, the temperature differences which can develop over the maximum
‘feeder to chill’, ‘feeder to cast end’ and ‘feeder to feeder’ distances are not
sufficient to significantly affect these distances and the number of feeders
required for soundness is similar whichever pouring technique is used. The
main advantage of the Durville and similar methods which encourages their use
is the relative ease with which the castings may be filled without developing
high metal speeds and turbulence (and consequent dross inclusions), NOT ease
of feeding.
d. Its main disadvantages lie in the special powered tilting apparatus required to
operate the process to maximum advantage, also the care needed in
manufacturing the mould to prevent movement of cores etc, during rotation of
the mould.
5.5
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Part 5
5.5 Static Bottom-Gating Systems

a. The object of this type of gating system is to direct the metal into the lowest part
of the casting with the minimum of turbulence. To do this special channels are
made in the mould. The principal components of a typical bottom-running
system are shown in FIGURE 1.8 (Section 1.) which for convenience is
reproduced below.
FIGURE 1.8 MAIN FEATURES OF A BOTTOM RUNNING SYSTEM

(Reproduced from Section 1.)
b. Metal is poured into the sump of the pouring basin from which it travels via a
vertical channel called the ‘sprue’ to a point either below or at the same level
as the lowest part of the casting. It is then distributed in the mould through
horizontal channels called ‘runners’ to convenient points at which it enters the
casting through ‘ingates’ which may be either vertical or horizontal channels.
The main advantage of this type of running system is that no special mould
tilting equipment is required.
c. The main drawback to the method is the high speed developed by the metal
falling to the bottom of the sprue, particularly when large castings are being
made. This momentum must be destroyed and the drossy metal formed by
turbulence during initial filling of the system must be run off into ‘dross traps’
so that it does not enter the casting. The system must be very carefully designed
and moulded to avoid turbulence during pouring and to restrict the speed of the
metal entering the casting to not more than 75mm per second. The running
system is to be formed by a pattern and no parts should be left to the discretion
of the moulder.
5.6
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Part 5
d. The most important parameters which are used in the design of bottom-gating
systems are runner and ingate cross-sectional areas. These control metal speed
and metal distribution. Other factors which also affect metal flow, but which are
difficult to incorporate into simple rules, are:
(1) temperature losses in the mould during filling: these affect metal
viscosity; they also affect the thickness of the skin of solid metal which
forms at the sand metal interface when metal is poured into the mould and
thus the internal dimensions of the runners and ingates;
(2) friction: frictional losses vary with the dimensions and complexity of the
runners and ingates generally being increased by increasing surface area
and by changes in direction of metal flow.
The effect of these factors can be equalized among the ingates to a large extent
by making running systems as symmetrical as possible. This usually means
using a large number of runners with few (preferably one) ingates on each
runner.
e. To reduce metal speed in thin walled (less than 12mm thick) castings below
75mm per second, it is sometimes necessary to use large ingates which are
difficult to join to the casting without interfering with its solidification. In such
cases consideration should be given to filling methods using mould rotation
techniques.
f. The basic procedure which should be followed when designing a bottom running
system is:
(1) choose a reasonable average filling rate taking clauses 5.2a. to 5.2f. into
consideration;
(2) choose the ingate sites;
(3) calculate the size of:
(a) ingates;
(b) runners;
(c) sprue;
(d) pouring basin, well base and dross traps.
The information required to carry out this procedure is set out in clauses 5.7a.
to 5.19a.
5.6 Temperature Variations in Bottom-gated Moulds
a. Feeding distances are not significantly affected by bottom gating providing that
the feeding distances do not exceed those given in TABLE 4.1.
b. The effectiveness of top feeders on large (greater than 500kg) castings can be
reduced by temperature losses which occur during filling. In such cases it may
be necessary to use more than one running system for a casting as described in
clause 5.14a. However, no experimental tests of these systems have been carried
out to determine their effectiveness.
5.7
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Part 5
5.7 Filling Rates

a. Average filling rates are found by dividing the total weight of metal cast by the
time taken to fill the mould. When choosing the filling time for a bottom-gated
casting (clauses 5.2a. to 5.2.f.) it is important to remember that the filling rate
of a sprue-controlled system will vary throughout pouring, that is, it will be
faster than the average rate at the beginning of the pour and slower than the
average rate at the end. This is because the pressure difference between the level
of the metal in the pouring basin and the level in the mould cavity decreases as
the mould fills, as shown in FIGURE 5.4. This complicates the calculation of
total filling time of bottom-gated castings of non-uniform section. Thus sections
low in the mould fill in a shorter time than would be calculated from the average
filling rate, whereas thin sections high in the mould take longer and could freeze
during filling giving a cold shut.
b. Because the filling rate is greatest at the beginning of the pour, the danger of
turbulence in the metal is also usually greatest at beginning of the pour. It is
necessary, therefore, to calculate the runner and ingate dimensions from the
initial filling rate of the mould at the beginning of the pour and not from the
average filling rate.
c. The average filling rate of a bottom-poured casting of uniform cross-sectional

area, for example a rectangular plate, is one half the initial filling rate, see
sketch below. However, few castings are made which have a uniform
cross-sectional area and experience with a wide range of castings has shown that
the average filling rate is usually two thirds the initial filling rate, that is, initial
filling rate equals 1½ times average filling rate.
d. The reduction in filling rate during filling is shown in FIGURE 5.5 as a fraction
of the initial (maximum) filling rate, for the fraction of the mould which has
been filled. This figure is correct only for moulds of uniform cross-sectional
area. However, it may indicate whether any difficulties are likely to occur during
filling.
5.8
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Part 5
EXAMPLE OF USE OF CALCULATOR 13 (FIGURE 5.5)
It has been found in practice that a thin part near the top of a particular casting
must be filled in less than 12 seconds otherwise a cold shut occurs. The weight
of the thin part is 25kg, the bottom of the ‘critical’ part is 700mm above the
bottom of the sprue and the top is 900mm above the bottom of the spure, the
total height of the sprue plus the metal in the pouring basin is 1000mm.
Determine the INITIAL filling rate required to ensure the ‘critical’ thin part is
filled in 10 seconds:
Step 1 Calculate the average filling rate required in the ‘critical’ thin part to
avoid cold shuts.
25 = 2.5kg per second
10
Step 2 Find from Calculator 13 shown in FIGURE 5.5 the difference between
the average filling rate in the thin part at the casting of 2.5kg per second and
the initial (maximum) filling rate.
(1) Express the upper and lower levels of the critical thin part as a fraction
of the total metal head ‘h’ at the start of pouring, that is, 1000mm.
h1
= lower level = 700 = 0.7
h 1000
h2 900 = 0.9
= upper level =
h 1000
(2) From Calculator 13 shown in FIGURE 5.5 the ratio

average filling rate between levels h1 and h 2
initial filling rate = 0.43
Step 3 Calculate the initial filling rate required to ensure that the average
filling rate in the ‘critical’ part of the casting is 2.5kg/second, that is
Initial filling rate required = 2.5 kg∕second
0.43
= 5.8kg/second
5.9
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Part 5
FIGURE 5.4 SHOWING REDUCTION IN POURING RATE DURING FILLING OF MOULD

USING A BOTTOM-GATING SYSTEM
5.10
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Part 5
FIGURE 5.5 CALCULATOR 13 TO DETERMINE THE REDUCTION IN INITIAL FILLING

RATE DURING FILLING FROM ONE LEVEL TO ANOTHER IN MOULDS OF UNIFORM
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
5.11
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Part 5
5.8 Simplified Calculation of Initial Filling Rate from Cast Weight

a. The relationship between cast weight and initial filling rate can be simplified
when the relationship between cast weight and filling time described in
Clause 5.2b. is used, that is filling time equals 5 times (cast weight, kg)½. In such
cases the initial filling rate is directly related to cast weight
Initial filling rate = 0.3 cast weight, kg when:
Initial filling rate = 1.5 times average filling
Average filling rate = cast weight/filling time
Filling time, kg = 5 cast weight, kg
5.9 Choosing the Ingate Sites—Horizontal or Vertical?

b. The metal is to be gated into the lowest part of the casting to avoid turbulence
and splashing within the mould cavity during filling. The following shows a.
Bad and b. Good methods of bottom gating:
The metal may enter the mould in a horizontal or a vertical direction depending upon
the casting shape and the position of the parting lines. Due to practical limitations,
vertical ingating is often the only way in which the metal can be introduced into the
lowest part of the casting; in this case the runners must be moulded below the casting
allowing the ingates to be pushed up into the casting, as shown in b. below:
5.12
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Part 5
However, horizontal ingates shown in a. above are preferable for the following
reasons:
(1) Sprue Height The height of the sprue can be reduced which means that
for the same filling rate, the metal speed at the sprue exit will be lower and
there will be less danger of turbulence;
(2) Change of Flow Direction The metal changes direction only twice in
a running system with horizontal ingates whereas it changes direction
three times in a running system with vertical ingates. These changes in
direction of the flow increase turbulence, sand erosion, air aspiration and
admixture of inclusions and oxide into the metal;
(3) Moulding Vertical ingating requires an extra parting line to be made in

the mould.
Despite the advantages of horizontal ingating it is often necessary in the case of

complex castings to use vertical ingates to prevent metal ‘cascading’ in the mould and
forming dross inclusions.
5.13
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Part 5
5.10 Positioning of Ingates
a. The ingates should direct the metal into the mould so that it can travel the
greatest distance along the floor of the mould before coming in contact with the
vertical mould walls. This allows the momentum of the metal to be absorbed
gradually without excessive turbulence.
b. More even flow occurs if the mould is tilted up about 2° (slope approximately
1 in 30) to the horizontal in the direction of flow as shown below.
c. When the sprue is moulded normal to the parting line (parallel to the sides of
the boxes) the inclination of the mould interferes with the flow of the metal in
the sprue, but providing the sprue entrance diameter is larger than the
minimum and the mould is not tilted by more than 1 in 10, this should not cause
a problem.
d. Alternatively the sprue can be moulded off the vertical in the moulding box so
that when the mould is inclined the sprue is vertical.
5.14
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Part 5
e. Most dross is formed by turbulence during the early stages of filling. The metal
containing this dross is to be directed into dross traps or into the feeders and
not into the casting. There are a number of advantages in using as many ingates
as possible:
(1) the large total ingate cross-sectional area will ensure that the flow of
liquid metal into the casting is below turbulent velocity;
(2) the individual cross-sectional area of each ingate is small so that the
ingates do not interfere with directional solidification of the casting;
(3) the large total ingate area allows high filling rates without turbulence,
giving the advantages of lower melt superheat and the associated
improved temperature gradients.
f. The metal is always to be gated into the thicker parts of the casting where
possible; preferably into the feeders or thick sections which have been designed
to solidify last and have feeders attached to them. (When the metal is gated
through insulated feeders or connectors, the base slab of insulating material is
to be omitted—see Section 4., Clause 4.26c.).
5.15
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Part 5
g. The casting should be run so that the minimum of metal has to pass through
the thinner body sections. If however a feeder has to be filled by metal through
a thin body section, the size of the feeder should be kept to a minimum by
making the maximum use of feeding aids such as mineral-fibre insulation. The
amount of metal run over chills should also be kept to a minimum, as this will
heat up the chills.
h. It is preferable not to gate directly under a core because the core acts as a
strainer and any oxide inclusions in the metal may adhere to the bottom of the
core. The methods shown in FIGURE 5.6 have been successfully used for gating
into flanges and no oxide or dross inclusions were found in the flanges when
these methods were used. More examples of methods for gating into flanges
which have been proven in production are shown in Annex D. and, in particular,
attention is drawn to Example 4, FIGURE D.8 showing how flange ingates are
extended to the feeders.
5.11 Calculation of the Dimensions of a Bottom-Gating System

a. The requirements of an ideal bottom-gating system during filling are to supply

liquid metal to the casting in suitable quantities with minimal temperature loss
at slow speeds without affecting the solidification pattern of the casting. The
most important of these requirements is slow metal speed in the ingate and in
the casting. In practice these requirements are often incompatible and
compromises have to be made, for example, to reduce temperature losses during
filling to a minimum the mould must be filled quickly; however, high filling
rates generate fast metal speeds, unless the runner and ingate cross-sectional
areas are large enough; large ingates can affect the solidification pattern of the
casting. The effect of these compromises, however, should never be to increase
metal speed during filling above 75mm per second in the ingates or in the
casting.
5.12 The Ingates

a. Total Ingate Cross-Sectional Area. The dimensions of the runners and the
ingates determine the speed at which the metal flows through them, that is, the
greater their area the lower the metal speed for a given filling rate. To avoid
turbulence and consequent dross formation the speed of the metal entering the
mould cavity through the ingates should not exceed 75mm per sec. This means
that for a given rate of filling the total ingate cross-sectional area (CSA) should
never be less than the minimum which will ensure that the speed through the
ingates during all stages of the pour is less than the critical figure quoted above.
In bottom-gated castings the filling rate is usually greatest during the initial
stages of the pour (Clauses 5.7a. and 5.7d.) and the Initial Filling Rate (that is
1½ times the average filling rate) should be used to calculate the minimum
cross-sectional area of the ingates and runners. The minimum total ingate
cross-sectional area is given by the relationship:
Minimum total ingate CSA mm2 = 2026 times Initial Filling Rate, kg/sec
5.16
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Part 5
FIGURE 5.6 RECOMMENDED METHODS OF GATING AND FEEDING FLANGES
Example A casting weighing 70kg is to be filled in 50 seconds. The total

weight of the running system, feeders and connectors is 22kg.
Find the total cross-sectional area of the ingates
Total cast weight = 70 + 22 = 92kg
Filling time chosen = 50 secs
Average filling rate = 92 + 50 = 1.8kg/s
Initial filling rate = 1.5 ¢ 1.8 = 2.7kg/s
Minimum total ingate CSA = 2026 ¢ 2.7 = 5470mm2
5.17
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Part 5
b. Number of Ingates Most castings are best gated through more than one
ingate. There are a number of reasons for this:
(1) a large number of ingates usually means that the total ingate CSA can be
larger with a consequent reduction in metal speed;
(2) the temperature losses which occur when the metal flows through the
running system can be distributed around the casting;
(3) there is more scope with a greater number of ingates to ensure that, by
correct choice of ingate dimensions, individual ingates have a minimal
effect on casting solidification time.
c. The way in which the total ingate CSA is apportioned among the ingates
controls the quantity of metal flowing through each ingate. In general, the
quantity of metal distributed to the ingates should reflect the volume of the part
of the casting which is filled by the ingate, otherwise a disproportionate amount
of metal may have to flow through one ingate to fill a casting, and, in so doing,
interfere with the planned solidification pattern of the casting.
d. Calculation of Ingate Dimensions When ingates are evenly distributed

about a casting, supplying similar volumes of metal to the mould they can be
of equal cross-sectional area. In such cases the ingate CSA is given by:
Ingate CSA = Total ingate CSA

Number of ingates
EXAMPLE OF CASTING REQUIRING INGATES OF EQUAL

CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA (CSA)
A large casting weighing 2400kg as-cast is to be filled in 245 seconds through ingates
attached to nine feeders spaced around the flange as shown. Calculate the
cross-sectional area of the ingates.
Cast weight = 2400kg

Filling time = 245s
Average filling rate = 2400 245 = 9.8kg/s
Initial filling rate = 1.5 ¢ 9.8 = 14.7kg/s
Minimum total ingate CSA = 2026 ¢ 14.7 = 29 782mm2
Minimum ingate CSA = 29 782 = 3309mm2 = 57 ¢ 57mm
The ingates are attached directly to feeders of 152mm diameter and so they do not
have to solidify before the part of the casting to which they are attached since they
can be fed by the feeder. They can therefore be enlarged above the minimum to
52 ¢ 64mm.
5.18
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Part 5
e. When the volumes of the gated parts of the casting are disparate the ingates
have to supply unequal volumes of metal and the total ingate area is then to be
apportioned among the ingates so that the ingate CSA is proportional to the
volume of metal which has to flow through it.
5.19
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Part 5
f. Only an approximate correction of ingate dimensions is necessary to ensure that

the volume of metal flowing through ingates reflects the volume of the part of
the casting which is gated. This can be achieved by estimating the fraction of
the casting volume served by each ingate and ensuring that the cross-sectional
area of each ingate is a similar fraction of the total ingate cross-sectional area.
That is: Ingate CSA – Volume of gated part of casting

Total ingate CSA Casting volume
EXAMPLE OF THE CALCULATION OF INGATE DIMENSIONS FOR

INGATES OF UNEQUAL AREA
A T-piece casting is composed of three tubes of equal length and thickness, each
ending in a flange. Each flange has a different thickness, namely 25mm, 50mm and
75mm, and the casting is filled through ingates attached to each flange.
Total cast weight = 90kg

Filling time = 45s
Average filling rate = 2kg/s
Initial filling rate = 1.5 ¢ 2 = 3kg/s
Minimum total ingate CSA = 2026 ¢ 3

= 6078mm2
Each of the three ingates provides metal for an equal length of tube and a flange of
varying thickness. The percentage of the total volume of the casting supplied by each
of the ingates is shown in the following table:
VOLUME OF GATED PART OF
FLANGE THICKNESS
CASTING AS PERCENTAGE OF
mm
CASTING VOLUME %
75 40
50 33
25 27
The total ingate CSA is therefore to be distributed among the ingates in the same
proportions, as follows:
Ingate CSA for 75mm flange = 6078 ¢ 0.40 = 2431mm2

5.20
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Part 5
5.12.1 Ingate Shape
a. All ingates are to be taken off the top of the runner bar which will then be full
before the ingates start to fill.
All corners are to be radiused as much as possible to allow smooth flow through
the system. The lengths of the ingates are not critical and are determined by the
distance between the runner bar and the ingate site on the casting.
Ingates should normally solidify before the part of the casting to which they are
attached to prevent them from interfering with the planned solidification of the
casting. However, ensuring that the ingate modulus is less than the casting
modulus does not guarantee that the ingate will solidify before the casting,
because the ingate is heated by metal flowing into the casting and in
consequence its solidification time is increased. At present there is insufficient
information available to formulate a factor to calculate an effective ingate
modulus. Nevertheless, an ingate thickness equal to one half the casting
thickness should provide an adequate margin of safety to ensure that the ingate
freezes before the casting. If a thicker ingate is necessary because, for example,
the shape of the casting precludes attaching thin, wide ingates, then the ingates
need to be considered in the design of the feeding system as part of the casting.
EXAMPLE OF THE CALCULATION OF INGATE DIMENSIONS FOR

T-PIECE CASTING (SEE 5.12f.)
The Cross-Sectional Areas (CSAs) of ingates calculated to give a good

distribution of metal to the three flanges shown above are tabulated below
together with the maximum ingate thickness (equal to one half the casting
thickness) and the minimum ingate width (equal to ingate CSA divided by the
maximum ingate thickness).
5.21
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Part 5
Maximum Ingate Minimum Ingate

Flange Thickness Ingate CSA
Thickness Width
mm mm mm2 mm
75 38 2431 64
50 25 2006 80
25 13 1641 126
It is desirable to use ingates of less than the maximum thickness and so the final
dimensions of the ingates were:
75mm flange 30 ¢ 100; 50mm flange 20 ¢ 125; 25mm flange 10 ¢ 200
These gave a total ingate CSA 1.23 times greater than the minimum.
5.13 Runners
a. Total runner cross-sectional area The runners conduct metal from the
well-base to the ingates. As with ingates the parameters which must be
controlled are metal speed and metal quantity. Once the runners are full, the
metal speed is the same in all of the runners and its value depends upon the total
cross-sectional area of the runners. The quantity of metal flowing through each
runner, however, depends upon the cross-sectional area of the runner as a
proportion of the total runner cross-sectional area. The cross-sectional area of
each runner is to be not less than one half the cross-sectional area of the ingates
which it supplies.
That is, Minimum Runner CSA = ½ (CSA of Ingates on the runner)
b. Position of sprue on runner The position of the sprue in the running system
needs to be considered with the design and number of runners. The sprue is to
be positioned so that runners are short, to minimize temperature losses between
the sprue and the ingates, close to the maximum number of ingates, and close
to thin ingates or those of small cross-sectional area which will lose heat faster
during filling than larger ingates. As far as possible the system should be
symmetrical with equal ingate cross-sectional areas on each runner. Examples
of preferred and non-preferred sprue positions in typical running systems are
shown in FIGURE 5.7.
c. Stepped runners in multiple ingate systems When the runner supplies

more than one ingate the amount of metal flowing through the runner is
reduced after each ingate. The cross-sectional area of the runner can, therefore,
be reduced by half the cross-sectional area of the ingate without increasing the
metal speed in the runner as shown in FIGURE 5.8.
Total ingate CSA = C + D + E +F Total runner = C + D + E + F

2
5.22
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Part 5
FIGURE 5.7 EXAMPLES OF NON-PREFERRED AND PREFERRED RUNNING SYSTEMS FOR

TWO CASTINGS
5.23
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Part 5
FIGURE 5.8 SHOWING REDUCTION OF RUNNER AFTER INGATE TO EQUALIZE FLOW

THROUGH INGATES
The steps in the runner after each ingate also serve to prevent the momentum of the
metal filling the runner from being transmitted to the end ingate on each runner
causing premature filling (spurting) through the end ingate into the casting before
other ingates start to fill.
d. When all the ingates on a runner are of equal cross-sectional area and the runner
is of uniform width then the reduction in thickness of the runner after the
ingate is equal to the initial thickness of the runner divided by the number of
ingates on the runner:
T2 – T1 = Initial runner thickness
Number of ingates on runner
e. The corners of the runner are to be radiused where the area is reduced to allow
as smooth a flow as possible. The ingates are to be positioned just before the
reduction in area to take advantage of the back pressure thereby produced in
the liquid metal, so forcing it into the ingate.
5.24
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Part 5
f. Square section runner bars are often used, as this shape exposes the minimum
amount of metal to the atmosphere and the mould walls, and therefore restricts
to a minimum the degree of oxidation and temperature loss in the running
system.
g. If runners are to be used which are deeper than they are wide, care must be
taken to ensure that the area of the junction between the ingate and the runner
is not less than the cross-sectional area of the ingate, otherwise the metal will
spurt from the runner into the ingate causing turbulence. This can be avoided
when the runner is of uniform width by ensuring that the width of the runner
is greater than the thickness of the ingate.
EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION OF INGATE AND RUNNER

DIMENSIONS
A casting weighing 90kg as-cast is to be bottom gated. The filling time is to be

45 secs through ingates attached to all three flanges.
Total ingate CSA
Average filling rate = 2kg/s

Initial filling rate = 1.5 ¢ 2 = 3kg/s
Total ingate CSA = 2026 ¢= 6078mm2
Number of ingates = 3
CSA of ingates of equal CSA = 6078 3 = 2026mm2
5.25
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Part 5
Ingate dimensions
The small flange and its tube represent only about 10% of the total cast weight
and the tube joining the small flange to the main body tube is half the thickness
of the main body tube, and will solidify before it. Most of the casting, therefore,
is to be filled through the ingates for the large end flanges.
The proportion of the total ingate area used to fill the small flange is to be
similar to its relative weight (about 10%), the remaining 90% of the ingate area
being divided equally between the two larger flanges.
Large flanges
Minimum ingate CSA = 0.45 ¢ 6078 = 2735mm2

Casting thickness = 32mm
Maximum ingate thickness = 32/2 = 16mm
Minimum ingate width = 2735 16 = 171mm
Selected ingate dimensions = 14 ¢ 200mm,

that is CSA = 2800mm2
Small flange
Minimum ingate CSA = 0.1 ¢ 6078 = 608mm2

Casting thickness = 22mm
Maximum ingate thickness = 22/2 = 11mm
Selected ingate thickness = 10mm
Ingate width = 608 10 = 61mm
Position of sprue
The sprue can be positioned midway between the ingates into the two large
flanges which will be close to the smallest ingate (the ingate into the small
flange) thus minimizing the temperature drop between the small flange and the
sprue.
Runner dimensions
Minimum runner CSA = ½ times ingate CSA supplied by runner
2-ingate runner
The 2-ingate runner supplies ingates of CSA

(10 ¢ 61) + (14 ¢ 200) = 3410mm2
Minimum runner CSA = 3410 2 = 1705mm2
This is provided by a square section runner of length of side 41mm. After the
first ingate the runner only supplies one ingate of CSA = (14 ¢ 200) = 28002;
therefore, its CSA is stepped down to 2800 2 = 1400mm2. This can be
achieved by reducing the depth of the runner to 34mm.
1-ingate runner
The dimensions of the runner supplying the 1-ingate runner are the same as
those for the second ingate on the 2-ingate runner, that is 41 ¢ 34mm.
5.26
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Part 5
5.14 Multi-running System Castings

a. The temperature losses during filling of large castings can be substantial, both
between the sprue and the end of the runner and from the bottom to the top of
the mould, for example metal entering a larger condenser casting near the sprue
at a temperature of 1218° C had dropped by nearly 90° C to 1129° C in the last
ingate on the runner 2.36m away, similar temperature losses were recorded
between the ingates at the bottom of the mould and the metal entering the top
feeders. These temperature losses can cause feeders to be inadequate and, in
such cases, additional running systems may be needed to establish the required
temperature distribution between different parts of the mould, for example
between different ingates and/or between the bottom of the casting and feeders
on the top. Typical large casting shapes which may be filled by more than one
running system are shown in FIGURE 5.9. (Neither of these systems have been
tried in practice.)
b. The successful use of multi-running system castings depends upon skill and
team work among the foundry personnel involved in pouring to ensure that
sprues are filled at exactly the right moment. The sprues must be filled together
when metal is introduced into different parts of the casting at the same level this
is usually done to avoid using long runners). When metal is introduced into the
top of a mould to fill top feeders with hot metal, the secondary running system
must introduce metal into the mould as soon as the metal level in the mould
reaches the secondary ingate(s); if filling starts too early, metal will splash into
the mould causing oxide inclusions; if filling starts too late, there is a danger
that metal will enter the secondary ingate(s) from the mould and freeze,
blocking the ingate(s) and preventing the use of the secondary running system.
5.27
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Part 5
FIGURE 5.9 TYPICAL CASTINGS FOR WHICH THE USE OF MORE THAN ONE RUNNING
SYSTEM MAY BE NECESSARY
5.28
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Part 5
c. BNF have not carried out trials of multi-running systems, so that their
effectiveness and limitations are not known. However, a number of foundries
are known to use them regularly to produce large castings not required to
radiographic standards of soundness. It is felt that multi-running systems can
be used for high quality castings provided a high standard of technical control
is available at all stages of pattern and mould making, and during filling.
5.29
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Part 5
5.15 The Sprue

a. The dimensions of the sprue are critical because they control the filling rate of
the casting.
b. The sprue is to be tapered to conform to the shape of the falling stream of metal
as far as is practical, as shown in FIGURE 5.10a, b and c. If the taper is too great,
FIGURE 5.10d, erosion of sand will occur. Nevertheless, the taper should err on
the side of too much taper rather than too little.
FIGURE 5.10 DESIGN OF THE SPRUE
5.30
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Part 5
c. The filling rate of the mould is controlled by the part of the running system
which has the smallest total cross-sectional area. The sprue exit diameter is the
most convenient position for this, but it will only control the filling rate when
the sprue entrance diameter is large enough to prevent the liquid falling freely.
d. The dimensions which determine the filling rate are the total head of metal in
the mould and the sprue entrance and sprue exit diameters. These dimensions
are related to the initial filling rate on Calculator 14 (FIGURE 5.11). The length
of the sprue can be found by subtracting the height of metal in the pouring basin
from the total head of metal in the mould. The minimum height of metal in the
pouring basin should be not less than 75mm, otherwise a vortex may form
during pouring (see Clause 5.16a.). Calculator 14 is constructed assuming that
there are no losses due to friction or turbulence in the running system and that
the height of metal in the pouring basin is 75mm. The metal height in the
pouring basin may be greater than 75mm provided that the total metal height
is used when the sprue entrance and exit diameters are being plotted on
Calculator 14. If the metal height in the pouring basin is greater than 75mm,
the consequence of using Calculator 14 is that more than the minimum taper
is added to the sprue and therefore, the risk of eroding the mould is increased
slightly. The risk of forming a vortex in the pouring basin is slightly reduced.
The formulae from which Calculator 14 was constructed are given in
FIGURE 5.14.
EXAMPLE OF THE USE OF CALCULATOR 14 (SEE FIGURE 5.11)
A casting weighing 100kg must be filled in 60 seconds. Find the sprue size.
The casting is to be made in three boxes each of depth 200mm and the running
system is to be moulded on the first parting line. The feeders are to be taken to
the top of the box. The pouring basin is moulded in a separate box on top of the
mould and the metal head above the top of the third box is approximately
100mm.
The sprue height will be 400mm
Total metal head = height of metal in sprue + height of metal in pouring basin
= 400 + 100 = 500mm
The average filling rate will be 100 = 1.67kg/s

60
Initial filling rate = 1.5 ¢average filling rate = 1.5 ¢.67 = 2.51kg/s
From Calculator 14 shown in FIGURE 5.11
Sprue entrance diameter = 24mm
Sprue exit diameter = 12.4mm
e. The average filling rate of bottom-poured castings is 2/3 the initial filling rate.
This factor is not constant for all castings but depends upon the shape of the
casting, that is, upon variations in the cross-sectional area of the mould during
filling. The factor of 2/3 is based on experimental observations of the running
systems of castings weighing from 5 to 3000kg and therefore includes an
allowance for the friction losses in these running systems.
f. The entrance and exit diameters of the sprue are to be radiused with fillet radii
equal to one half of the entrance and exit diameters respectively.
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FIGURE 5.11 CALCULATOR 14 TO BE USED TO DETERMINE SPRUE DIMENSIONS FROM

THE INITIAL FILLING RATE (DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT = 1; ENTRANCE DIAMETER
= 1.2 ¢ MINIMUM ENTRANCE DIAMETER)
5.32
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Part 5
g. The initial filling rate of the sprue is to be stamped or painted on to the sprue
pattern. This procedure will make the storing and selection of sprue patterns
easier and prevent duplication of patterns. In addition it will reduce the risk of
a common error which sometimes occurs in the foundry, ie when the correct
sprue pattern is mislaid or temporarily unavailable during the moulding of a
casting there is a temptation on the part of the moulder to use a sprue with a
similar height to the correct sprue but with different entrance and exit
diameters. By specifying the initial filling rate to the moulder it should be
possible for him to draw another sprue pattern of the correct filling rate from
the stores. The alloy code is to be stamped with the initial filling rate to avoid
confusion if other alloys are cast in the same foundry because the filling rates
given on Calculator 14 are only applicable to nickel−aluminium−bronze,
although the volume of metal flowing through a sprue of any given dimensions
will be the same whatever metal is poured through it.
5.16 The Pouring Basin

a. The pouring basin is to be rectangular to discourage the formation of a vortex
and have a sump lower than the sprue entry. During pouring the basin is to be
kept full and the metal stream pitched into the sump as shown in FIGURE 5.12
so that dross formed at the ladle lip floats on the surface of the metal in the basin
and does not enter the running system.
b.
DETAILS SEE TABLE 5.1)
FIGURE 5.12 POURING BASIN DESIGN
5.33
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Part 5
The metal exit diameter must be radiused to allow the metal to flow out of the basin
smoothly. Unfortunately inclusion of this radius increases the tendency to form a
vortex, and the metal level in the basin must be kept high enough to prevent this. A
radius of half the sprue entrance diameter is recommended (FIGURE 5.12c) for the
exit to the sprue and the metal level in the pouring basin should not fall below 3 times
D (Sprue Entrance Diameter).
c. The overall dimensions of the pouring basin are not critical but it must be large
enough to enable the pourer to maintain the metal level with ease.
d. The size of the pouring ladle and the degree of control over pouring which is
possible will also influence the size of the pouring basin. The quality of casting
will not be affected by making the basin larger than that detailed in TABLE 5.1.
e. The dimensions of pouring basins suitable for use with rates between 1 and
15kg/sec are detailed in TABLE 5.1 which should be used in conjunction with
FIGURE 5.12c.
Initial Height Above
Width Length Height of Sump Sump Length
Filling Sprue
W L hs l
Rate Entrance h
kg/sec mm mm mm mm mm
<2 100 120 150 40 75
2−4 120 140 200 80 100
4−6 140 180 250 80 125
6−8 160 220 300 80 160
8−10 180 260 350 80 200
10−15 200 300 400 80 230
TABLE 5.1 MINIMUM POURING BASIN DIMENSIONS
5.17 The Well-base

a. The well-base breaks the fall of the metal at the bottom of the sprue and,
because it has a bigger cross-sectional area than the sprue, it slows the metal
down. The minimum recommended dimensions of the well-base are shown in
FIGURE 5.13. They are not as critical as the dimensions of sprues and ingates.
FIGURE 5.13 DESIGN OF THE WELL BASE
5.34
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Part 5
5.18 The Dross Traps

a. These are cavities placed at the end of each of the runners to catch the first metal
entering the running system to prevent it from entering the casting. They are
essential parts of bottom gating systems as it is impossible to prevent the
formation of dross in the pouring system during the early stages of pouring
before the running system has properly filled.
b. The dimensions of the dross traps are not critical but in general they should be
large enough to contain all the metal poured during the first 1 to 1.5 seconds of
the pour depending upon the filling rate: lower initial rates require
proportionately larger dross traps. TABLE 5.2 shows some typical dimensions
for a common range of initial filling rates through each runner.
INITIAL FILLING RATE L W T

THROUGH EACH
RUNNER
mm mm mm
kg/sec
less than 2 75 50 50
between 2 and 14 100 75 75
between 4 and 15 125 100 100
TABLE 5.2 DROSS TRAP DIMENSIONS
Example
Find the dimensions of the dross traps for a casting which is to be filled with an
initial filling rate of 5kg/sec through four runner bars of equal cross-sectional
area.
Initial Filling Rate
Initial Filling Rate through each runner =
Number of Runners
= 5/4 = 1.3kg/s
TABLE 5.2 shows that the dimensions of the dross traps at the end of each
runner are 75 ¢ 50 ¢ 50mm.
5.19 Calculation and Recording of Running and Gating Designs in Everyday Practice
a. It is important to keep records of feeding and filling methods and advisable to
keep records of the calculations on which these methods are based. A specimen
record sheet for running and gating systems is shown in FIGURE 5.14 which
can be used for recording purposes or during calculations. In addition,
disposable copies of Calculators can be used which can be drawn upon and filed
with the records of each casting design.
EXAMPLE OF USE OF RECORD SHEET (SEE FIGURE 5.14)
The mould for the large casting in the example shown on page 132, was filled
from a single running system, comprising two runners and nine ingates of equal
area. All of the nine feeders around the flange were gated and the sprue was
placed near the centre of the running system to supply four ingates on one side
and five on the other.
Cast weight = 2400kg Filling time = 245 secs
5.35
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Part 5
5.20 Summary of Rules for Designing Running and Gating Systems

a. The following notes are intended to summarize the rules for design of Running
and Gating Systems. Where necessary, reference is made to appropriate clauses
etc where more detailed information can be found.
(1) Mould Rotation Method
(a) Choose the Filling Time using casting weight

(t, sec = 5 times Wt.kg) and time to start of solidification as
constraints (CALCULATOR 12)
(b) Add webs, if necessary, to ensure smooth flow and check whether
these interfere with the designed pattern of directional solidification
(2) Bottom-Gating Method
(a) Choose the Filling Time using casting weight

(t, sec = 5 times Wt.kg) and time to start of solidification as
constraints (CALCULATOR 12)
(b) Calculate the Initial Filling Rate:
The average filling rate is equal to the weight of casting and feeders
divided by the time to fill the mould.
Initial Filling Rate ≃ 1.5 times Average Filling Rate.
Consider variations in the filling rate during the pour
(CALCULATOR 13)
(c) Choose the Ingate Sites:
Gate into the lowest part of the mould. Horizontal ingates are
preferable and if used the mould is to be tilted if possible 2 to 5
degrees. Gate into thick parts of the casting, under feeders and as
far as possible from chills. It is preferable not to gate under cores
(d) Determine the Dimensions of the Ingates:
Minimum Total Ingate CSA mm2 = 2026 ¢ Initial Filling Rate kg/s.
Ingate CSA is to be proportional to volume of gated part of casting.
Ingate thickness < ½ casting thickness
(e) Determine the Dimensions of the Runners:
Runners are to be symmetrical with minimum number of

ingates/runner.
5.36
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Part 5
FIGURE 5.14 SPECIMEN RECORD SHEET FOR CALCULATING AND RECORDING

RUNNING AND GATING SYSTEMS
5.37
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Part 5
Sprue is to be positioned so that runners are short, and closest to ingates which cool
quickest. Square section runners are recommended.
Minimum Runner CSA = ½ CSA of ingates supplied by runner. CSA of runner-ingate
junction ≽ingate CSA
The runner is to be stepped after each ingate, except for the last ingate on the runner:
CSA of runner after ingate = CSA of runner before ingate minus half ingate CSA.
Runner thickness reduction at step = Runner thickness on runner

Number of ingates
if ingates are of equal area on the runner and runner is of uniform width.
Large castings may need multiple runners
(f) Determine the Dimensions of the Sprue:
From the initial filling rate and the total head of metal find the sprue entrance and
exit diameters using CALCULATOR 14.
Total head of metal equals height of metal in the pouring basin plus height of sprue.
Mark the initial filling rate on the sprue pattern
(g) Determine the Dimensions of the Pouring Basin, Well-Base and Dross Traps:
(i) Pouring Basin
The pouring basin is to be kept full throughout the pour. The basin is to
be rectangular and have a sump lower than the sprue entrance diameter.
The sprue entrance diameter must be radiused with a fillet radius equal
to half the sprue entrance diameter.
Typical Pouring Basin dimensions are given in TABLE 5.1.
(ii) Well-Base
Diameter = 2 times Sprue Entrance Diameter

Depth = 2 times Runner Depth
Fillet on Sprue Exit = ½ times Sprue Exit Diameter
(iii) Dross Trap
TABLE 5.2 gives typical Dross Trap dimensions for a range of initial flow
rates through each runner.
5.38
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Part 5
ANNEX A.
RELATED DOCUMENTS
A.1 Reference is made to:
Referred to in
Clause
NES 747 Pt 2 Nickel Aluminium Bronze (Naval Alloy) Annex E.
Sand Castings and Ingots
DG Ships/PS/9010 Classification, Inspection Requirements Scope 1.,
(*NES 745) and Acceptance Standards of Steel and Annex E.
Copper-Base Alloy Castings
DG Ships/PS/9011 Welding of Copper-Based Alloy Castings 3.1a.
(*NES 771)
* In course of preparation. When published will supersede stated document.
A.1 ANNEX A.
NES 747
Part 5
ANNEX A. A.2
NES 747
Part 5
ANNEX B.
DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS
B.1 For the purpose of this NES the following definitions apply:
Blind Feeder Feeder formed completely within the mould, its top
often being below the level of other parts of the
casting.
Bottom Running (Gating) Controlled method of filling a mould by conducting
Method the metal through special channels made in the
mould to a point of entry at the lowest level of the
casting.
Chill Block of metal, or other material, with higher heat
conductivity than sand which is cast or machined to
shape then moulded into the sand to reduce the
solidification time of the part of the casting in its
immediate vicinity.
Cope Top half of the mould.
Core Separate refractory shape placed in mould cavity to
allow the production of hollow sections.
Core Print Extension of core into mould to locate the core.
Dimensional Tolerances Maximum permissible variations in casting
dimensions from desired measurements.
Directional Solidification Progressive completion of solidification towards a
source of feed metal.
Drag Bottom half of the mould.
Dross Non-metallic inclusion, generally of oxide, which
floats on, or is suspended in, the metal.
Dross Traps Enlargements at the ends of the runners designed to
trap ‘drossy’ metal formed during initial filling
stages.
Durville Process A mould rotation method of pouring which involves
complete inversion of the mould to allow filling from
a coupled pouring basin.
End Effect The region near the edges of a cast section of uniform
thickness which solidifies before the rest of the
section, is fed by it, and is therefore always sound.
Feeder Additional volume of metal cast integral with the
component to compensate for shrinkage occurring
during solidification.
Feeding Distances The maximum separation between the edges of
feeders and other design features on the casting, eg a
cast end, chill or other feeder, which can be tolerated
if directional solidification towards the feeder (or
feeders) and consequent soundness is to be ensured.
Feeding Zone A part of a casting fed by a single feeder.
Fettlers Witness A change in section to indicate the cutting point for
removal of the feeding or gating system from the
casting.
B.1 ANNEX B.
NES 747
Part 5
Fettling Removing flashing, feeding and gating systems from

the casting.
Flashing Slivers of surplus metal attached to the casting
usually caused by incorrectly fitted moulding boxes.
Freezing Range Temperature interval between liquidus and solidus.
Hot Spot Part of a casting which due to increased section or
other reason solidifies after the rest of the section.
Ingate Channel in the mould designed to introduce metal
from the runners into the casting.
Inscribed Circle Method A method of predicting the pattern of solidification in
castings, at changes of section, from the diameter of
the largest circle or sphere which can be inscribed in
them.
Junction Feature formed by the junction of two or more cast
sections of equal or unequal section; often gives rise
to a ‘hot spot’ as defined above.
Liquidus Temperature at which molten alloy begins to solidify.
Machining Allowance Increase in casting thickness above design thickness
made to ensure that cast surface can be machined off
without reducing thickness below designed limit.
Mineral Fibre Industrially produced insulating material
manufactured and supplied in the form of sheet or
‘sleeves’ to assist efficient feeding.
Modulus (M) Volume of casting or part of casting, divided by
cooling surface area of the casting, ie that part in
contact with air or the mould; it is empirically
related to the solidification time of the casting by the
equation:
Solidification time = K(M) 2
where K is Chvorinov’s factor and is a constant for a
given alloy and mould material.
Mould Refractory shape formed generally in a sand
containing a bonding agent in which a cavity
corresponding to the outside shape of the pattern has
been produced and into which the molten metal is
poured and later solidifies.
Mould Rotation Methods Methods of filling moulds which depend on either full
or partial inversion of the mould during filling.
Mouldable Chill Chill formed of a refractory material with higher heat
conductivity than sand and which can be shaped in a
similar way using a bonding agent.
Pattern Wood, metal or resin model constructed to size made
to allow a mould cavity to be formed of the required
shape.
Patternmaker’s Additional allowance made to drawing dimensions to
Contraction Allowance compensate for contraction occurring after
solidification, ie solid contraction.
Pipe Type of localized solidification shrinkage.
ANNEX B. B.2
NES 747
Part 5
Pouring Basin Cavity moulded into top of mould into which metal is
poured.
Parting Line Plane on which pattern and mould are split, eg in
two part mould the plane on which the cope and the
drag meet.
Rapping Shocking the pattern in the mould to ensure it will
remove cleanly.
Runner Horizontal channel in the mould designed to transfer
metal from the well-base to the ingates on a casting.
Shape Factor The ratio of the perimeter of a casting or part of a
casting to its section thickness.
Shrinkage (Liquid) Change in volume of metal between pouring
temperature and liquidus.
Shrinkage (Solidification) Change in volume accompany solidification due to
change in state from liquid to solid.
Solidus Temperature at which solidification of alloy is
complete.
Sprue Vertical channel in mould formed to conduct metal
from pouring basin into a gating system.
Turbulence Non-streamlined flow of metal within a running
system giving rise to inclusions of air or oxide.
Well-Base Enlargement at bottom of the sprue to reduce
velocity of falling metal.
Withdrawal (Moulding) Taper added to casting pattern to ensure that pattern
Taper can be withdrawn from mould without damaging the
mould.
B.3 ANNEX B.
NES 747
Part 5
ANNEX B. B.4
NES 747
Part 5
ANNEX C.
CASTING DESIGN EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1—STUD HOUSING
STEP 1. Examine the casting for natural feeder sites and features which initiate
solidification
The ring contains no natural feeder sites or features which initiate directional
solidification.
STEP 2. Determine the width/thickness ratio
The width/thickness ratio of the casting can be found using the average thickness of the
ring.
Width/thickness = 150/½ (65 + 85) = 2
STEP 3. Note the feeding distances
W/T less than 3
FEEDING DISTANCES
T = 75mm
max ‘f−c.e’ 200
max ‘f−f’ 175
max ‘f−c.ch’ 200
STEP 4. Position the first feeder

The first feeder can be anywhere around the ring.
STEP 5. Calculate the approximate feeder diameter
Casting Modulus = Cross-sectional area
(Mc) Cooling perimeter
= (70 × 65) + (80 × 85)

(2 × 150) + (2 × 85)
= 24mm
approx Df (insulated) = 5 ¢ Mc = 5 ¢ 24
= 120mm
Nearest size of feeder sleeve supplied = 127mm
STEP 6. Compare the remainder of the casting with the feeding distances
When one feeder is placed on the ring the ‘feeder-to-feeder’ distance around the ring is
equal to the average ring circumference minus the approximate feeder diameter
OD = 790mm, ID = 490mm
Distance to be fed = Average circumference − Approx Df
= 2011−127 = 1884mm
C.1 ANNEX C.
NES 747
Part 5
The distance to be fed is greater than any of the feeding distances and so more
feeders must be placed around the ring. The number of feeders depends upon
whether chills are used:
a. Without using chills

Average circumference
Number of feeders =
max ‘f–f′ + approx Df
= 2011 = 6.7
175 + 127
That is, the minimum number of feeders = 7
b. Using chills
Number of feeders =
Average circumference
max ‘f–c.ch′ + Approx Df + max ‘f–c.ch′ + chill width
= 2011
200 + 127 + 200 + (2 × 85)
= 2.9
Therefore a minimum of three feeders is required when central chills are

placed between the feeders.
The final design used aluminium bronze chills midway between three
feeders.
ANNEX C. C.2
NES 747
Part 5
STEP 7 Tabulate the dimensions of the feeder zone
Each of the three feeders feeds a third of the casting and there are three identical zones:
FEEDER ZONE DIMENSIONS
L W T
2011 65 + 85
150
3 2
= 670 = 75
STEP 8. Calculate feeder size
The volume-dependent feeder diameter can be easily calculated:
Zone volume = 70 ¢ 150 ¢ 75
= 7 537 500 = 7538 ¢ 103mm3
Df (vol) = 110mm (Insulated) (From CALCULATOR 8)
The modulus-dependent feeder diameter (Df (mod) = 127mm dia) is greater than the
volume-dependent feeder diameter (Df (vol) = 110mm dia) and therefore the minimum
feeder diameter is 127mm
STEP 9. Calculate the increased height of metal in the top feeder to compensate for
liquid shrinkage in the zones below it
All of the feeders are the same height, that is:
1.5 ¢ diameter = 127 ¢ 1.5 = 191mm
and therefore each feeder will only need to compensate for the liquid shrinkage of its own
feeder zone.
Running and Gating
STEP 10. Determine the initial filling rate
a. Choose a filling time
CALCULATOR 12 shows that when the total weight of casting plus feeders is
200kg, the mould should be filled in 70 seconds when constant k = 5. The table
included with CALCULATOR 12 shows that a casting with a modulus = 25mm
poured at 1200° C will start to freeze in 258 secs, or 4.3 mins.
A filling time of 70 secs was considered reasonable.
b. Determine the initial filling rate
Average filling rate = weight of casting plus feeders divided by filling time
= 200/70 = 2.9kg/sec
Initial filling rate = 1.5 ¢ average filling rate

= 1.5 ¢ 2.9 = 4.4kg/sec
C.3 ANNEX C.
NES 747
Part 5
Calc 8 Calculator to determine the minimum feeder diameter from the

volume of the feeder zone.

casting modulus.
ANNEX C. C.4
NES 747
Part 5
STEP 11. Choose the ingate sites
The most suitable ingate sites are directly under each of the three feeders so that the
ingates can be fed from the feeders; in this way the cross-sectional area of the ingates can
be large without creating an unfed ‘hot spot’ in the casting
STEP 12. Determine the dimensions of the ingate
Each of the three ingates supplies an equal fraction of the cast weight (that is one third)
and, therefore, the ingates are of equal CSA
Minimum ingate CSA = 8914 3 = 2972mm2 = 62mm dia
The ingates are fed directly by feeders of 127mm dia and so they can be larger than the
minimum size without interfering with the directional solidification of the casting:
Ingate size chosen = 75mm dia = 4418mm2 CSA
STEP 13. Determine the dimensions of the runners
The sprue can be positioned in the centre of the ring with three runners radiating out
from it; in this configuration the system is symmetrical about the sprue and runners are
as short as possible with the minimum number of ingates on each runner.
Runner CSA = ½ CSA of ingates supplied by runner
= ½ ¢ 4418 = 2209mm2.
Minimum runner width = 80mm (to accommodate 75mm dia ingate).
Runner depth = 2209 80 = 28mm.
C.5 ANNEX C.
NES 747
Part 5
STEP 14. Determine the sprue dimensions
Initial filling rate is 4.4 kg/sec.
The height of the sprue is determined by the depth of the moulding boxes:
Height from drag parting line = 300mm.
Height of metal in pouring basin = 100mm.
Total height of metal in sprue = 300 + 100 = 400mm.
The dimensions of the sprue can be read off CALCULATOR 14 from the initial filling rate
and the total height of sprue plus pouring basin.
Sprue entrance diameter (D) = 32mm.
Sprue exit diameter (d) = 17mm.
The fillet radius on the entrance diameter = D/2 = 32/2 = 16mm.
The fillet radius on the exit diameter = d/2 = 17/2 = 9mm.
STEP 15. Determine the dimensions of the pouring basin
The pouring basin dimensions (in mm) from TABLE 5.1 for an initial filling rate between
4 and 6kg/s are:
h W L hs l
140 180 250 80 125
STEP 16. Calculate the dimensions of the well base
Depth of well base = 2 ¢ runner thickness

= 2 ¢ 28 = 56mm
Diameter of well base = 2 ¢ sprue entrance diameter

= 2 ¢ 32 = 64mm—but this will need to be increased to
~100mm to accommodate the 80mm wide runners.
STEP 17. Calculate the dimensions of the dross traps
The initial filling rate is 4.4kg/sec. Each runner bar has its own dross trap so that the
filling rate of each runner bar is 4.4/3 = 1.5kg/sec.
TABLE 5.2 in Section 5. shows that suitable dross trap dimensions for an initial filling
rate of less than 2kg/sec are 75 ¢ 50 ¢ 50mm.
ANNEX C. C.6
NES 747
Part 5
EXAMPLE 2—COVER PLATE
solidification
The casting consists of a ‘domed’ plate of uniform thickness, except for a central boss
and a peripheral flange. The flange is a natural feeder site, while the boss and the
junction between the horizontal and the vertical walls of the dome are possible ‘hot
spots’.
Can the flange feed the plate?
Mc flange = 50 × 100 = 18mm

2 (50 + 100)– 20
Mc plate = T = 10mm
2
Effective Mc flange = 18 ¢ 0.85 = 15.3 is greater than 1.5 ¢ Mc plate,

therefore the flange can feed the plate.
Effect of the boss on the solidification time of the domed plate:

Mc boss = Volume
Cooling surface area
= 50 2 π∕4 × 60 = 12mm
50 π 40 + 2 (502 π∕4)
The modulus of the boss is greater than that of the plate (12mm compared
with 10mm) and, therefore, the boss constitutes a ‘hot spot’.
STEP 2. Determine the width/thickness ratios
Flange W: 100; T: 50; W/T: less than 3

Plate W: infinity because there are no cooling edges
T: 20; W/T: 10+
C.7 ANNEX C.
NES 747
Part 5
STEP 3. Note the feeding distances

Max Max Max Max
T W/T
‘f−c.e’ ‘f−f’b 1 ‘f−f’b 2 ‘f−c.ch’
Flange 50 less than 3 180 160 − 190
Plate 20 greater than 10 125 225 160 165
The first feeder can be positioned on the flange.
STEP 5. Calculate the approximate insulated feeder diameters
Df flange = 5 ¢ 18 = 90mm: nearest diameter supplied = 89mm

(1mm is within the sleeve manufacturer’s tolerance)
Df plate = 5 ¢ 10 = 50mm: nearest diameter supplied = 51mm
Df boss = 5 ¢ 12 = 60mm: nearest diameter supplied = 64mm
Around flange
Flange average circumference = 590π= 1853mm

average circumference 1853
Number of feeders = = = 8 (7.4)
approx Df + max ‘f–f′b1 89 + 160
Over plate
The flanges feed the plate, but the distance between the flanges measured over the top
of the plate equals (160 ¢ 2) + 530 = 850mm. The max ‘f−f’b 1 distance = 225mm; if
a central chill were used, the maximum separation between the flanges would be
2 ¢ ‘f−c.ch’+ 2T = (2 ¢ 165) + 40 = 370mm. Both of these distances are less than the
850mm separating the flanges measured over the top of the ‘dome’ and, therefore, more
feeders or chills are needed on the top of the cover plate.
There are two ‘hot spots’ which must be dealt with in the ‘dome’ of the cover plate: a.
the L-junction between the horizontal and the vertical walls of the ‘dome’ and b. the
central boss.
a. L-Junction A convenient site for feeders is above the L-junction, and the distance
between the L-junction and the flange (160mm) is equal to the max ‘f−f’b 2
distance:
Number of feeders around circumference of L-junction

= Circumference = 530π = 1665∕211 = 8 off (7.5)
Approx Df + ‘f–f′b2 51 + 160
ANNEX C. C.8
NES 747
Part 5
b. Boss If the boss were chilled on the bottom with a metal chill, and on the top and
sides with silicon carbide mouldable chill, its modulus would be reduced
considerably:
50 2π∕4 × 602
Mc chilled boss =
(1.4 × 50π × 40) + (5 × 502π∕4 + (1.4 × 50 2π∕4)
= 117810 = 117810 = 5.5mm

8796 + 9818 + 2479 21363
This is almost half the plate modulus (5.5mm compared with 10mm) and,
therefore, the boss would be effectively chilled by a combination of silicon
carbide and metal chills. However, the ‘boss to L-junction feeder’ distance =
½ [530 − (2 ¢ 51) − 50] = 189mm. This (189mm) exceeds the max ‘f−c.e’
distance of 125mm and, therefore, the boss cannot be chilled and must be fed.
The ‘fed boss to L-junction feeder’ distance = ½ [530 − (2 ¢ 51) − 64]
= 182mm, which is less than the max ‘f−f’b 1 distance of 225mm.
C.9 ANNEX C.
NES 747
Part 5
STEP 7. Tabulate the dimensions of the feeder zones
The complete tabulation of the dimensions and volumes of each of the feeder zones which
comprise the cover plate casting are shown below. In addition, a method is also shown
of estimating whether the approximate feeder diameter is adequate for the volume which
it has to supply making use of TABLE 4.1. See also Section 4. Clause 4.24a.
FLANGE ZONE L W T Vol ¢ 103
Flange 590 π/8 = 232 100 50 1160
Plate 510 π/8 = 200 160/2 = 80 20 320
Total volume = 1480 ¢ 103mm3

PLATE Vol ¢
L W T
ZONE 103
Side 510 π/8 = 200 160/2 = 80 20 320
π 5302 − π [182 * + 64] 2
Top 4 4 = 21 636mm2 20 433
8
Total = 753 ¢ 103mm3

BOSS ZONE AREA T Vol ¢ 103
Plate π 2 2
4 (182* + 64) = 47 529mm 20 950
Boss 502π/4 = 1963mm2 40 79
Total = 1029 ¢ 103mm3
* Distance between L-junction feeder and boss feeder = 530/2 − (64/2 + 51) =
182mm.
To determine whether feeder zones are volume-dependent or

modulus-dependent, it is often easier to use TABLE 4.1. The maximum lengths
of side of square feeder zones of the average zone thickness taken from
TABLE 4.1 are tabulated below for the modulus-dependent feeder diameters
which were calculated in STEP 5 above.
Maximum Length
Average Feeder Diameter (Df)
of Side (L) of
Zone Thickness (T) (Modulus Dependent)
Square Zone
mm mm mm
Flange 50 89 288
Plate 20 51 198
Boss 20 64 278
The flange zone feeder is obviously modulus-dependent, since the length of the
flange zone is approximately 1/8 ¢ circumference µ 230mm, which is less than
L (288mm), and the width of the flange zone is only 80mm, which means that
the plate part of the zone could be of a volume equivalent to 200mm long and
50mm thick instead of 80mm long and 20mm thick without exceeding the
capacity of the 89mm diameter insulated feeder to feed it.
ANNEX C. C.10
NES 747
Part 5
The boss zone is of circular shape of diameter 246mm plus the central boss.
In fact a feeder of 64mm diameter could feed a square zone of length of side
approximately equal to 278mm, or a disc of diameter = 278 ¢ 1.284 = 357mm
and therefore it will easily feed the volume requirements of the plate part of the
boss zone and of the boss.
The length of the plate zone is approximately 1/8 ¢ circumference, which it is

about 200mm and approximately equal to L. The width of the vertical wall
(80mm) and along the horizontal wall bring the volume of the zone close to that
contained in the square zone of the length of side equal to 198mm and therefore
this is a case where it is advisable to calculate the volume-dependent feeder
diameter for comparison with the modulus dependent feeder diameter (51mm).
STEP 8. Calculate feeder diameter

ZONE Vol ¢ 103 Df vol Df mod
Flange 1480 63 89
Plate 753 51 51
Boss 1029 56 64
All of the feeder zones are modulus-dependent.
Blind feeder height on flanges = Flange thickness + 160/2 + Df
= 50 + 80 + 89 = 219mm
Total blind feeder volume = 8 ¢ (feeder volume + connector volume)
= 8 (892 π/4 ¢ 219) + 8 (89 ¢ 2/3 ¢ 89 ¢ 2/3 ¢ 89)
= 13 406 ¢ 103mm3.
Casting volume = (8 ¢ 1480) + (8 ¢ 753) + 1029
= 18 893 ¢ 103mm3.
Total casting + blind feeder volume = (13 406 + 18 893) ¢ 103mm3
4% of total volume = 0.04 ¢ 32 299 ¢ 103mm3
= 1292 ¢ 103mm3.
Although the additional volume necessary to compensate for liquid shrinkage need only
be added to the tallest feeder, which is the central feeder above the boss, in practice the
heights of the eight feeders on the L-junction are increased to bring them out to the top
of the moulding box. The increase in the volume of the eight L-junction feeders can be
used to offset part of the additional volume requirements for liquid shrinkage and the
remainder of the additional volume necessary for liquid shrinkage can be obtained by
increasing the height of all nine of the top feeders.
If the 51mm dia feeders on the L-junction are brought to the top of the box, that is their
height is increased from 1.5 ¢ 51 = 77mm to 96mm, the increase in top feeder volume
= 8 ¢ π/4 ¢ 512 ¢ (96−77) = 310 ¢ 103mm3.
C.11 ANNEX C.
NES 747
Part 5
A further increase in height is necessary to provide an extra volume of
1292 − 310 = 982 ¢ 103mm3.

Height increase = 982 × 10 3
Total CSA of top feeders, mm 2
= 982 000
π∕4 [ (8 × 51 2) + 64 2) ]
= 982 000 = 50mm

19 560
Total height of top feeders = 96 + 50 = 146mm.
A bottom gating method is to be used.
Total cast weight, kg = liquid metal density ¢ (casting + blind feeders + top feeders)
volumes
= 6.6 ¢ 10−6 [18 893 + 13 406) ¢ 103 + (146 ¢ 19 560)]
= 232kg.
Filling time (weight) = 5232 = 76s.

Filling time (thickness) = 20mm = 63s.
Average filling rate = 232/76 = 3.1kg/s.
Initial filling rate = 3.1 ¢ 1.5 = 4.6kg/s.
(Using the simplified method of calculating the initial filling rate described in Section 5.
Clause 5.8a., the initial filling rate
= 0.3 232 = 4.6kg/s.)
Suitable ingate sites are under the flange feeders. To avoid gating into the boss, thin webs
of thickness less than 20/2, say 8mm, are placed to join the side of the plate to the boss.
Total Ingate CSA = 2026 ¢ 4.6
= 9320mm2
8 ingates of equal CSA = 9320/8 = 1165mm2
This area could be obtained using ingates of 39mm diameter. However, as the ingates are
fed by the flange feeders they can be larger, say 45mm diameter. (Total Ingate CSA =
12,720mm 2.)
ANNEX C. C.12
NES 747
Part 5
The flange feeder of 89mm diameter will also feed the ingate and so the zone volume
should be increased by the volume of the ingate of height—approx 100mm
= π 45 × 100
2
Ingate volume
4
= 159 ¢ 103mm3
Flange zone volume = 1480 + 159 = 1639 ¢ 103mm3.
However the minimum feeder diameter remains unchanged at 89mm.
Total runner CSA = 2,720/2 = 360mm2.
2 runners of CSA = 6360/2 = 3180mm2.
Runner width for 45mm diameter ingate, say, 50mm.
Runner depth = 64mm.
There are four ingates on each of the two runners and so three steps are needed on each
runner. As the ingates are of equal area the reduction in runner thickness equals the
runner thickness divided by the number of ingates:
Runner thickness after first step = 64 − (64/4) = 48mm.
Runner thickness after second step= 48 − (64/4) = 32mm.
Runner thickness after third step = 32 − (64/4) = 16mm.
STEP 14. Determine the dimensions of the sprue
Metal head= height of ingates + casting + feeders + pouring basin
= 100 + 210 + 146 + 120 = 576mm.
Initial filling rate = 4.6kg/s.
Sprue exit diameter =37 ¢ (metal head) −¼ ¢ IFR½*

37 4.6 = 16mm.
=
(576) 0.25
Sprue exit fillet radius = 16/2 = 8mm.
Sprue entrance diameter = 15.13 IFR½*.
= 15.134.6 = 32mm.
Sprue entrance fillet radius = 32/2 = 16mm.
* These equations were used to construct CALCULATOR 14.
Initial filing rate = 4−6kg/s

Pouring basin dimensions (mm) h = 140; W = 180; L = 250; hs = 80; I = 125.
C.13 ANNEX C.
NES 747
Part 5
STEP 16. Determine the dimensions of the well-base and dross traps
Well-base: Diameter = 2 ¢ Sprue entrance diameter = 2 ¢ 32 = 64mm.
Depth = 2 ¢ Runner depth = 2 ¢ 64 = 128mm.
Dross traps (2 off) 100 ¢ 75 ¢ 75.
EXAMPLE 3—HINGE COVER PLATE
solidification
The central lug is a natural feeder site and a central feeder above the lug may feed to the
edge of the plate although the effect of the ribs on the plate must be determined. The
hinge lugs are also natural feeding sites but the possibility of chilling the lugs must be
considered.
Ribs
The ribs of thickness T2 = 7mm form a Tee junction with

the plate of thickness T1 = 20mm
T2/T1 = 7/20 = 0.35
FIGURE 4.10 shows that the webs do not create a ‘hot spot’ in the plate.
ANNEX C. C.14
NES 747
Part 5
STEP 2. Determine the width/thickness ratios
A circular plate has similar solidification characteristics to the smallest square plate
which can be constructed around the circle.
The width of the cover plate is therefore approximately equal to its diameter
Width/thickness = 340/20 = 17
Inspection shows that the central lug and hinge lugs, the lengths of which are at most
1.5 times their thickness, are not long enough to exceed their feeding distances.
STEP 3. Note the feeding distances (mm)

PLATE
FEEDING DISTANCES W/T = greater than 10
T = 19 to 24
max ‘f−c.e.’ 125
max ‘f−f’ b1 225
b2 160
max ‘f−c.ch’ 165
max ‘f−ch.e’ 144
A central feeder can be placed above the central lug on the smooth outer face of the plate.
A feeder in this position is in direct contact with the plate, is immediately over the central
lug, and can be easily fettled.
STEP 5. Calculate the approximate insulated feeder diameter
The central feeder must freeze after both the central lug and the plate
Mc (central lug)=Vc/Ac
= 70 × 55 × 55
2(55 × 70) + 2 (55 × 70) + (55 × 55)
= 211 750 = 12mm

18 425
Mc (plate) = T/2 = 20/2 = 10mm
Approx Df = 5 ¢ Mc = 5 ¢ 12 = 60mm
C.15 ANNEX C.
NES 747
Part 5
The distance between the edge of a feeder of 60mm diameter and the edge of the plate
is:
340 – 60 = 140mm
2
This is greater than the maximum ‘feeder to cast-end’ distance of 125mm and the
diameter of a central feeder must be at least 340 − (125 ¢) = 90mm dia to feed to the
edge of the plate if the plate were of uniform thickness from the edge to the feeder. This
is not the case, however, and allowance must be made for the steps around the
circumference of the plate on the inside edge of the facing surface, shown at ‘a’ below
The sketch shows that a circle can be inscribed in the step at ‘a’ which is 12% larger than
the largest circle which can be inscribed in the main section of the plate 20mm thick. This
may create a hot spot and so the facing surface is to be chilled with mouldable chill
material to ensure that the edge of the plate creates an effective ‘end effect’. (See NOTE
below.)
NOTE A plate has been cast sound without using chill material around the edge of
the plate. However, a second plate was unsound when the central feeder was
positioned on the central lug instead of on the surface of the plate above the
lug and because the thickness of the cast plate varied across the plate, due
to core movement. This illustrates the fact that if the feeding rules are used
at or above the limit of their applicability then casting soundness becomes
more sensitive to small changes in design and wall thickness and more care
must then be taken to keep consistent manufacturing tolerances, otherwise
reproducibility of results and reliability will be impaired.
ANNEX C. C.16
NES 747
Part 5
The hinge lugs of dimensions 50mm dia ¢ 32mm are connected to the plate by short
arms of length µ 12mm and square cross section of length of side 25mm.
Mc (Hinge Lugs) = Vc
Ac
Vc = 32 × π × 502 = 62 830mm 3
4
Ac = (2 × π × 50 2) + (π × 50 × 32) – ~ (25 × 25) = 8330mm 3
4
Vc = 8mm.
Ac
Mc (connecting arm) = T = 6mm
4
The moduli of the lugs, plate and arm are similar so that neither the hinge lugs nor the
connecting arm can be used to feed the plate without considerable padding nor can the
plate feed the lugs. The lugs are therefore chilled with aluminium bronze chills to reduce
the effective modulus of the lugs.
The effective cooling surface area of the chilled side of the lug is 5 times the geometric
surface area (Section 4. Clause 4.14a.)
Mc (chilled lugs) = Vc/effective Ac
= 62 830
(5 × π π
× 50 ) + ( × 50 2) + (π × 50 × 32) – π 25 × 25
2
4 4
= 62 830 = 4mm
16 183
STEP 7. Tabulate the dimensions of the feeder zone
The central feeder will feed all of the casting except the parts around the hinge lugs.
C.17 ANNEX C.
NES 747
Part 5
Hinge Lug Feeder Zones
Each hinge lug feeder feeds a segment of about 1/6 of the plate circumference.
DIA T W L
HINGE LUG 50 32 − −
CONNECTING ARM − 25 25 12
PLATE − 20 85 130
Central Feeder Zone
The central feeder will feed the central lug, the ribs and the plate minus the parts of the
plate fed by the two hinge lug feeders. The casting is to be bottom-gated and since the
central lug is the lowest part of the casting in the mould the metal is to be gated into the
lug. The central feeder will feed this ingate and therefore the dimensions of the ingate
must be included in the zone. The cross-sectional area of the ingate is as large as possible
to reduce the speed of the metal up the ingate and avoid a ‘fountain’.
DIA T W L
LUG − 55 55 70
INGATE 55 − − 50
RIBS − 7 15 114
* PLATE 340 20 − −
(See STEP 12 of calculation)
* A volume of 2 (20 ¢ 85 ¢ 130) is fed by the hinge lug feeders
ANNEX C. C.18
NES 747
Part 5
STEP 8. Calculate feeder size
Hinge Lug Feeders
Volume dependent feeder size.

Zone volume = (π × 50 2 × 32) + (25 × 25 × 12) + (20 × 85 × 130)
4
= 291 332 = 291 ¢ 103mm3
Min Insulated Df (volume) = 37mm (From CALCULATOR 8)
However, to freeze after the plate the modulus-dependent feeder diameter must not be
less than 50mm. The minimum diameter is therefore 50mm.
Central feeder zone
The volume of the central feeder zone including the central lug, ingate and ribs but
excluding the part of the plate fed by the hinge lug feeders equals
Zone volume = (π × 340 2 × 20) – 2 (20 × 85 × 130) + (55 × 55 × 70) +
4
(π × 55 2 × 50) + 2 (7 × 15 × 114) + 2 (7 × 15 × (114 – 48.5))
4
= 1 741 096 = 1741 ¢ 103mm3
Min Df (volume) = 67mm (From CALCULATOR 8 for an insulated feeder)
This volume-dependent feeder diameter is larger than the modulus-dependent feeder

diameter of 50mm calculated in STEP 5 for the approximate feeder diameter.
However, the diameter of the central feeder must be at least 90mm otherwise the ‘feeder
to cast-end’ distance will be greater than the maximum (See STEP 6). The minimum
feeder diameter is therefore 90mm.
All of the feeders are filled to the same level so that none of the feeders has to feed the
liquid shrinkage of another zone and therefore no calculation needs to be done.
C.19 ANNEX C.
NES 747
Part 5
a. Choose the filling time
The weight of the casting plus feeders is about 26kg.

CALCULATOR 12 shows that with a value of constant k= 5 the filling time
= 25 sec.
The table included in CALCULATOR 12 shows that the average time interval
between pouring and the start of solidification of a plate of 20mm thickness
poured at 1200° C is about 30 sec.
b. Determine the initial filling rate
The average filling rate can be calculated from the casting weight and filling time.
A filling time of about 26 sec was considered reasonable. The average filling rate
is equal to the casting weight/time.
Average filling rate = 26/26 = 1.0kg/sec
The initial filling rate is about 1½ times average filling rate
1.0 ¢ 1.5 = 1.5kg/sec
The decision was made in STEP 7 to gate the metal into the central lug under the central
feeder because this is the lowest part of the casting.
The chilled hinge lugs are also lower in the mould than the plate. Normally it is
preferable not to gate into a chilled part of a casting. However, in this example the hinge
lugs are a critical test region of the casting and the risk of dross being formed during
filling when the metal from the plate falls into the hinge lugs is too great and so for this
reason ingates are positioned under the hinge lugs.
The three ingate sites are therefore a central ingate into the central lug and one ingate
into each of the two hinge lugs.
ANNEX C. C.20
NES 747
Part 5

volume of the feeder zone.

casting modulus.
C.21 ANNEX C.
NES 747
Part 5
About 90% of the casting should be filled through the central lug
Minimum central lug ingate CSA = 0.9 ¢ 3039 = 2735mm2
An ingate of 55mm diameter was chosen giving an ingate CSA of 2736mm2
Minimum hinge lug ingate CSA = 0.1 ¢ 3039 2 = 152mm2
The thickness of the ingate into the hinge lugs must normally be not more than one half
times the hinge lug thickness or it may freeze after the casting and create a ‘hot spot’.
The hinge lugs are chilled so that their effective thickness is only half the real thickness.
(Section 4. Clause 4.14a.).
Effective thickness of hinge lug = 32/2 = 16mm (See STEP 6)
Maximum thickness of ingate = 16/2 = 8mm
Ingate width = 152 8 = 19mm
Two ingates each of dimensions 10 ¢ 20mm were chosen.
ANNEX C. C.22
NES 747
Part 5
It is practicable to use one main runner bar for all three ingates with a secondary runner
off the main runner to supply the hinge lug ingates. The sprue is positioned as close as
possible to the two small ingates into the hinge lugs to minimize temperature losses
between the sprue and the ingates.
a. Dimensions of main runner
Total runner CSA = ½ CSA of supplied ingates

= 0.5 [2736 + 2 (10 ¢ 20)] = 568mm2
A runner of width 55mm and depth 29mm was chosen.
After the secondary runner the main runner only supplies the ingate into the
central lug
Runner CSA after secondary runner= ½ CSA of central lug ingate
= ½ ¢ 2736 = 1368mm2
Runner depth = 1368 55 = 25mm
The depth of the runner is therefore stepped from 29mm to 25mm after the
secondary runner.
C.23 ANNEX C.
NES 747
Part 5
b. Dimensions of secondary runner
The secondary runner need only be of width and depth equal to one half that of the
hinge lug ingates, that is 0.5 ¢ 10 ¢ 20mm. However, the temperature losses
would be too great in such a small runner and so the secondary runner was made
the same size as the hinge lug ingates, that is 10 ¢ 20mm.
The cross-sectional area of the joint between the main and the secondary runner
bars is not to be less than the cross-sectional area of the secondary runner bar.
CSA joint = width of main runner bar ¢ width secondary runner bar
= 55 ¢ 20 = 1100mm2
This is greater than the cross-sectional area of the secondary runner bar
= 10 ¢ 20 = 200mm2 and therefore the metal will not spurt from the main runner
bar into the secondary runner bar.
STEP 14. Determine the dimensions of the sprue
The sprue dimensions can be read from Calculator 14 plotting the initial filling rate
= 1.5kg/s against the total height of sprue and pouring basin.
The height of the mould above the running and gating parting line is 275mm. The height
of metal in the pouring basin is 100mm.
Total sprue height = 275 + 100 = 375mm

Sprue entrance diameter = 19mm
Sprue exit diameter = 10mm
Fillet radius on sprue entrance diameter

= ½ times sprue entrance diameter = 19/2 = 10mm
Fillet radius on sprue exit diameter

= ½ times sprue exit diameter = 10/2 = 5mm.
ANNEX C. C.24
NES 747
Part 5
The dimensions in mm of a pouring basin for an initial filling rate of less than 2kg/s (from
TABLE 5.1) are as follows:
H W L h l
100 120 150 40 75
STEP 16. Dimensions of the well-base
The dimensions of the well-base are related to those of the sprue and the runner
Well depth = 2 times runner thickness = 2 ¢ 31 = 62mm

Well diameter = 2 times sprue entrance diameter
= 2 ¢ 19 = 38mm
STEP 17. Dimensions of the dross traps
Three dross traps of dimensions 75 ¢ 50 ¢ 50mm are adequate for initial filling rate of
1.5kg/s (TABLE 5.1)
C.25 ANNEX C.
NES 747
Part 5
ANNEX C. C.26
NES 747
Part 5
ANNEX D.
EXAMPLES OF RUNNING, GATING AND FEEDING METHODS FOR PRODUCTION
CASTINGS
Examples of feeding and filling methods are given for the following castings
Example 1 12in nb Flap Valve
Example 2 4in nb Test Bars
Example 3 2½ ¢ 2½ ¢ 2½in nb Tee-piece
Example 4 6in Through Valve
Example 5 4in nb SD SL Angled Hull Valve
Example 6 6 ¢ 5in Valve Chest
The castings are to imperial dimensions and therefore the designs for the feeding and
filling methods are given in the same units. The methods have been proven in
production in an MOD foundry since the publication of the first edition of SDP 18.
While these methods contain divergences of detail from the rules given in this NES,
the general approach to filling and feeding is wholly consistent with the underlying
principles on which the rules are based. None of these filling and feeding methods,
however, are to be applied to other casting designs, even those which appear to be
identical, without checking in detail that the position and dimensions of feeders,
chills, taper, ingates, runners and sprues etc are suitable.
Connectors
The connectors for many of the feeders shown in these examples taper down from the
feeder to the casting. This connector design incorporates an additional safety factor
to ensure that the heat centre is in the feeder and not in the connector. For feeders
up to 4in diameter, the dimensions of the connector at the interface with the casting
are D ¢ 2/3 D (D = feeder diameter) and at the interface with the feeder are D ¢ D
(See FIGURE 4.33).
EXAMPLE 1—12 INCH NB FLAP VALVE
Feeding
The base of the casting is chilled and feeders are positioned around the body to
bring all parts of the casting within the feeding distances. Note the large
number of body feeders which are necessary to feed thin castings adequately
when it is not possible to use taper.
Filling
The sprue is positioned in the centre of the running system supplying one ingate
on each runner.
D.1 ANNEX D.
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE D.1 CASTING DRAWING FOR 12 INCH NB FLAP VALVE
ANNEX D. D.2
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE D.2 FEEDING AND FILLING METHOD FOR 12 INCH NB FLAP VALVE
EXAMPLE 2—4 INCH NB TEST BARS
Feeding
The number of body feeders on the body is reduced to a minimum by offsetting

the centre-line of the core with respect to that of the mould and simultaneously
reducing the diameter of the core to give a taper around the diameter of the tube.
Filling
The sprue is positioned in the centre of the running system supplying an equal
number of ingates (one) on each of the two runners.
D.3 ANNEX D.
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE D.3 CASTING DRAWING FOR 4 INCH NB TEST BAR
ANNEX D. D.4
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE D.4 FEEDING AND FILLING METHOD FOR 4 INCH NB TEST BAR
D.5 ANNEX D.
NES 747
Part 5
EXAMPLE 3—2½ ¢ 2½ ¢ 2INCH NB TEE PIECE
Feeding
Solidification is initiated at the junction between the three ‘arms’ of the tee by
the use of silicon carbide mouldable chilling sand. Solidification is encouraged
to proceed towards the flanges by the introduction of a slight taper in the bore
of the casting to assist the directional solidification created by the central chill.
Filling
Bottom-gated filling is through two runner bars stepped with respect to both
width and thickness. The casting is gated into all three flanges.
FIGURE D.5 CASTING DRAWING FOR 2½ ¢ 2½ ¢ 2 INCH NB TEE PIECE
ANNEX D. D.6
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE D.6 FEEDING AND FILLING METHOD FOR 2½ ¢ 2½ ¢ 2 INCH NB TEE

PIECE
D.7 ANNEX D.
NES 747
Part 5
EXAMPLE 4—INCH NB THROUGH VALVE
Feeding Chills used for the valve seat (aluminium−bronze chills) and the
complex junctions formed at the intersection between the three tubes and the
valve seat (silicon carbide mouldable sand chills) ensure soundness in these
critical areas of the casting. Further chilling with silicon carbide sand on the
body between flanges helps to reinforce directional solidification between
feeders on the body and the flanges. A small taper is added between the valve
seat and the 103/8in diameter flange to ensure feeding of the complex junction
near the valve seat.
Filling The sprue is positioned in the centre of the running system supplying
three ingates on each of the two runners. The ingates are thin and wide to ensure
that they solidify before the flanges and extend underneath the lower flange
feeders to supply hot metal directly into the feeders.
ANNEX D. D.8
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE D.7 CASTING DRAWING FOR 6 INCH NB THROUGH VALVE
D.9 ANNEX D.
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE D.8 FEEDING AND FILLING METHOD FOR 6 INCH NB THROUGH VALVE
ANNEX D. D.10
NES 747
Part 5
EXAMPLE 5—INCH NB SD SL ANGLED HULL VALVE
Feeding
The number of feeders on the body of this valve has been reduced to a minimum
by the use of taper from the chilled valve seat out towards the flanges along the
main centre-line of the valve and also on the spigot.
Filling
The casting is gated into all three flanges through thin wide gates, designed to
minimize ingate solidification time.
FIGURE D.9 CASTING DRAWING FOR 4 INCH NB SD SL ANGLED HULL VALVE
D.11 ANNEX D.
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE D.10 FEEDING AND FILLING METHOD FOR 4 INCH NB SD SL ANGLED HULL
VALVE
ANNEX D. D.12
NES 747
Part 5
EXAMPLE 6—6 ¢ 5 INCH VALVE CHEST
A casting drawing for a valve chest is shown in FIGURE D.11 and a moulding drawing
is shown in FIGURE D.12. FIGURE D.11 and FIGURE D.12 are reproductions of
original drawings which are kept filed in the foundry offices as a record of the
successful production method developed for the valve chest. Photographs of the
pattern equipment for the casting with all of the insulating feeder sleeves taped in
position are shown in FIGURE D.13 and FIGURE D.14. FIGURE D.13 shows two
overall views; FIGURE D.14 shows details of (i) the method of gating, chilling and
tapering one of the bottom flanges and its tapered feeder connector (feeder 30) and
(ii) the double connector between feeder 16 and the body of the casting and the shaped
connectors joining feeders 11 and 12 to one of the flanges.
Feeding
The 0.5in thick body section requires a large number of feeders to avoid
exceeding the feeding distances and selective chilling of the valve seat and
guides is also necessary. The body is tapered between the end flanges and two
of the valve seats to facilitate feeding of the chilled valve seat from the flanges.
Filling
The casting is gated into four flanges through thin wide gates designed to
minimize the ingate solidification time. Two runner bars are used, one
supplying three ingates and the other supplying one ingate. The combined
cross-sectional areas of the three ingates on one of the runners is approximately
equal to the cross-sectional area of the remaining ingate on the other runner,
so that similar quantities of metal are provided to each side of the casting.
D.13 ANNEX D.
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE D.11 REPRODUCTION OF A CASTING DRAWING FOR 6 ¢ 5 INCH VALVE CHEST
ANNEX D. D.14
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE D.12 REPRODUCTION OF A MOULDING DRAWING SHOWING A SUCCESSFUL
PRODUCTION METHOD FOR A 6 ¢ 5 INCH VALVE CHEST
D.15 ANNEX D.
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE D.13 PATTERN EQUIPMENT FOR 6 ¢ 5in VALVE CHEST SHOWING CHILL
LOCATIONS DRAWN ON PATTERN AND FEEDER SLEEVES STUCK IN POSITION
ANNEX D. D.16
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE D.14
a. METHOD OF GATING, CHILLING AND TAPERING A BOTTOM FLANGE ON
A 6 ¢ 5in VALVE CHEST SHOWING THE TAPERED CONNECTOR
BETWEEN THE FLANGE AND FEEDER 30
b. CONNECTORS: DOUBLE CONNECTOR BETWEEN FEEDER 16 AND THE
VALVE CHEST BODY AND SHAPED CONNECTORS JOINING FEEDERS 11
AND 12 TO ONE OF THE FLANGES
D.17 ANNEX D.
NES 747
Part 5
ANNEX D. D.18
NES 747
Part 5
ANNEX E.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF SAND CAST NICKEL−ALUMINIUM−BRONZE TO NES 747
PART 2
Description of Alloy
This alloy is based on the copper−aluminium system with additions of iron, nickel and
manganese resulting in a complex microstructure. For optimum corrosion resistance
and mechanical properties all castings are heat treated at 675° C ± 15° C for a minimum
period of 6 hours followed by cooling in still air.
The alloy has a high resistance to corrosion in sea water even at elevated temperatures.
The resistance of the alloy to high temperature oxidation is conferred by a tenacious
surface oxide film consisting essentially of aluminium oxide which is an extremely
refractory material.
To ensure that the heat treatment confers the optimum corrosion resistance and
mechanical properties, it is essential that impurities are not present in the alloy. The
primary source of metal used to make ingots for castings must be high purity virgin
metal.
The following impurities, in particular, have a degrading effect on the alloy:
Magnesium reduces ductility and should not exceed 0.05%.
Phosphorous in concentrations above 0.08% reduces mechanical properties although

levels as low as 0 01% encourage ‘hot shortness’.
Lead should not exceed 0.02% otherwise cracking occurs adjacent to welds.
Carbon reduces impact properties and should not exceed 0.007%. It is picked up when
molten metal is held for extended periods (between 1 and 3 hours) in uncoated crucibles
made of refractories which contain silicon carbide. The carbon takes the form of graphite
flakes which are visible to the naked eye as shiny black deposits on fractured surfaces
and as long thin flakes in unetched polished specimens at a magnification of µ ¢ 100.
Carbon ‘pick-up’ can be prevented by coating the inside of crucibles with an inert
dressing, such as powdered alumina, prior to melting.
Physical and Mechanical Properties
Design data covering physical and mechanical properties are shown in TABLE E.1 and
TABLE E.2.
Melting Range 1053° C−1072° C
Specific gravity 7.7
Thermal conductivity 0.091cal/cm/cm 2/° C/s
Electrical resistivity 15° C 0.22
microhm—metre 200° C 0.25
Coeff:linear expansion 17 ¢ 10−6/° C
Specific heat 0.09cal/g/° C
Permeability 160μ
Electrical conductivity 15° C 8
% 1 ACS 200° C 7
TABLE E.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
E.1 ANNEX E.
NES 747
Part 5
Imperial Units SI Units

0.2% proof stress 15 tonf/in2 230 N/mm2
Tensile strength 38 tonf/in2 587 N/mm2
15% 15%
Elongation %, 5.65 So
Impact (Charpy V—typical) 15 ft lb 20J

Fatigue limit in air (108 cycles) ±9 tonf/in2 ± 170 N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity (typical) 19 ¢ 106lb.f/in2 13 ¢ 104N/mm 2
TABLE E.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Effect of Unsoundness on Mechanical Properties
Unsoundness causes a marked decrease in both tensile strength and ductility although
from experiments carried out at AMTE(HH) the 0.2% proof and Izod values do not
appear to be adversely affected until the unsoundness exceeds 10% when measured
radiographically in accordance with DG Ships/PS/9010B.
Corrosion
Corrosion potential: − 0.24 to − 0.10V (sce) depending on the state of the corrosion
product film, water flow at the metal surface and temperature.
Self-corrosion rate For general long-term use over several years a reasonable design
value is 0.05mm/year but under ideal conditions for NABz in sea water a black film
slowly forms which reduces the corrosion rate in accordance with an equation of the form
Corrosion rate ≃ (time) −0.2.
Crevice corrosion After the initiation period which can be about 3 to 15 months with
negligible corrosion the crevice corrosion propagates at about 1mm per year.
Impingement resistance 4.3m/s is an appropriate design value in clean flowing sea

water.
Stress corrosion The threshold stress for stress corrosion cracking to occur is
dependent on strain rate and the potential within the range −0.075mV to −0.200mV
(sce). The maximum cracking propensity is at −0.15mV (sce).
ANNEX E. E.2
NES 747
Part 5
FIGURE E.1 HIGH STRAIN/LOW CYCLE FATIGUE DATA FOR

NICKEL−IRON−ALUMINIUM−BRONZE TESTED IN SEA WATER AT 32° C
E.3 ANNEX E.
NES 747
Part 5
Fatigue
Fatigue limit in sea water ± 140−185N/mm 2 for 5 ¢ 106 cycles. It is to be noted that
at 105 cycles the value will be lower and this is considerably reduced if a static stress is
also applied.
High strain/low cycle fatigue data for cast nickel−iron−aluminium−bronze tested in

sea water at 32° C is given in FIGURE E.1. Time to failure is shown against cycling
frequency at strains of 1.0, 0.8, 0.6 and 0.4%, that is plus and minus 0.5, 0.4, 0.3 and 0.2%
which corresponds to alternating stresses of approximately plus and minus 270, 255, 240
and 215N/mm2 respectively.
Welding
Welding is permitted using inert-gas techniques. Two grades of filler wire are approved
for weld-repair and fabrication, these being Nartrode E and Bostrand AT−246. Both
wires produce weld metal deposits which are overmatching in mechanical properties to
the cast alloy as shown in TABLE E.3 and TABLE E.4. Average settings for good
deposition characteristics are shown in TABLE E.5.
Nartrode ‘E’ AT − 246
Condi
Condi- 0.1% PS TS El Charpy 0.1% PS TS El Charpy
tion % %
tons N/ tons N/ ft tons N/ tons N/ ft
J J
f mm2 f mm2 lbs f mm2 f mm2 lbs
As
depo- 32.0 493 57.2 881 29 22 30 27.2 419 48 739 23 24 32
sited
675° C
air 25.6 395 48.8 752 27 19 26 25.6 395 48.8 752 22 24 32
cooled
TABLE E.3 WELD METAL DATA
ANNEX E. E.4
NES 747
Part 5
El % Impact values (Charpy)

5.65
TS 0 1% PS
0.1% 0 2% PS
0.2% 0 5% PS
0.5%
So PM HAZ WM
Condi
Condi-
tion
tons N/ tons N/ tons N/ tons N/ ft ft ft
J J J
f mm2 f mm2 f mm2 f mm2 lbs lbs lbs
Cast
38.2 590 − − 13.1 203 − − 26 37 50 NA NA NA NA
metal
Cast
metal
after
43.7 675 16.4 253 17.2 265 18.3 283 18 18 24 NA NA NA NA
675° C
air
cool
Cast
metal/
weld 41.4 639 NA NA NA NA NA NA 8 NA NA 12 16 22 30
metal
tensile
Cast
metal/
weld
metal
tensile 42.1 650 NA NA NA NA NA NA 13 NA NA 15 20 20 28
after
675° C
air
cool
TABLE E.4 WELDMENT DATA
WELDING
1.2mm WIRE DIA 1.6mm WIRE DIA

Polarity DC electrode positive DC electrode positive
Arc voltage 23V 28−30V
Amperage 170A 280−300A
Argon flow 45cu.ft/h (21 1/min) 45cu.ft/h (21 1/min)
TABLE E.5 WELDING DATA—AVERAGE SETTINGS FOR GOOD DEPOSITIONS

CHARACTERISTICS
Welding produces a change in microstructure of the cast alloy adjacent to the fusion
zone causing reduced impact resistance and corrosion resistance locally. All castings
must be heat-treated at 675° C ± 15° C for a minimum period of 6 hours followed by
cooling in still air after weld-repair or weld-fabrication to restore the mechanical
properties in the heat affected zone of the weld.
E.5 ANNEX E.
NES 747
Part 5
ANNEX E. E.6
NES 747
Part 5
ANNEX F.
SUMMARY OF CALCULATORS AND TABLES USED IN NES 747 PART 5, ALSO
SUMMARY OF RULES FOR DESIGNING FEEDING AND MOULD FILLING SYSTEMS
The following is a summary of the Calculators and Tables used in this NES
Calculator Description Fig
1 Calculator to Determine from the Geometric Modulus of FIGURE 4.5
a Casting Shape, the Modulus of an Infinite Plate of the
same Effective Modulus as the Casting
2 Calculator used to Determine Average Diameter and FIGURE 4.16
Circumference of a Ring or Tube from its Outer and
Inner Diameter
3 Example Illustrating Use of Calculator 3 to Determine FIGURE 4.18
Taper Required to Ensure Soundness in Spigot
4 Illustrating Use of Calculator 4 to Determine Straight FIGURE 4.19
Taper Required for Soundness
5 Illustrating Use of Calculator 5 to Determine the Taper FIGURE 4.20
Required to Ensure Feeding around the Circumference of
a Tube
6 Calculator 6 Used to Determine Taper Required to FIGURE 4.21
Ensure Feeding around the Circumference of a Tube
where Minimum Thickness and either Outside Diameter
or Bore are Known
7 Calculator 7 Used to Determine Geometric Moduli of FIGURE 4.22
Parts of Castings of Rectangular Cross Section from their
Width and Thickness Measurements
8 Calculators 8 and 9 Used to Determine the Minimum FIGURE 4.29
Feeder Diameter for a Ring-Shaped Casting
9 Calculators 8 and 9 Used to Determine the Minimum FIGURE 4.29
Feeder Diameter for a Ring-shaped Casting
10 Calculator 10 to Determine the Total Additional Height FIGURE 4.31
on Top Feeders Required to Compensate for Liquid
Contraction
11 Calculator to Determine Elongated Feeder Dimensions of FIGURE 4.33
the same Moduli as Cylindrical Feeders
12 Calculator to Determine Reasonable Filling Time FIGURE 5.2
13 Calculator 13 to Determine the Reduction in Initial FIGURE 5.5
Filling Rate during Filling from one Level to another
14 Calculator 14 to be Used to Determine Sprue Dimensions FIGURE 5.11
from the Initial Filling Rate
F.1 ANNEX F.
NES 747
Part 5
Table Description
TABLE 2.1 Dimensional Tolerances
TABLE 4.1 Feeding Distances of Parts of Castings of Uniform Thickness Between 12mm
and 75mm Thick
TABLE 4.2 Maximum Volume of Feeder Zones Defined in terms of the Maximum Length
of Side L of Square Zones of Average Thickness T
TABLE 5.1 Minimum Pouring Basin Dimensions
TABLE 5.2 Dross Trap Dimensions
SUMMARY OF RULES FOR DESIGNING FEEDING AND MOULD FILLING SYSTEMS
Feeding
F.1 Ensure machining allowances have been added where necessary to the drawing and
that it represents the as-cast shape
F.2 Evaluate the natural solidification pattern of the casting, that is:
a. Locate free edges,‘hot-spots’, junctions, differences in thickness.
b.
(1) Where necessary, calculate the casting modulus of parts of the casting
(Clauses 4.3a. to 4.5a.)
Mc = Volume = Cross Sectional Area
Cooling Surface Area Cooling Perimeter
Mc = (bar) = ¼ T
Mc = (plate) = ½ T
(2) Check whether shape corrections need to be applied to the modulus

(Clauses 4.6a. to 4.9b.).
(3) Check whether the core is fully cooling and that all sand thicknesses
between parts of the casting are greater than 1.5 times casting thickness
(Clauses 4.11a. to 4.13b.).
(4) Ensure the effective moduli of parts of the casting which must act as
feeders are 1.5 times the moduli of the fed parts.
F.3 Note the feeding distances using width/thickness ratio and casting thickness
(TABLE 4.1).
F.4 Position the first feeder.
F.5 Find the approximate feeder diameter from casting modulus.
ANNEX F. F.2
NES 747
Part 5
F.6 Add chills, feeders and taper to the casting where necessary.
a. Chills. Aluminium−bronze chills effectively increase the cooling surface area

of the parts of the casting they contact by 5 times; silicon carbide mouldable
chills effectively increase the area by 1.4 times.
The width of chills is normally 2 times casting thickness.
The thickness of chills is normally 1 times casting thickness.
b. Taper. See Clauses 4.17.1a. to 4.17.4a. and CALCULATORS 3, 4, 5 and 6
F.7 Divide the casting into feeder zones and note their dimensions or use TABLE 4.2 to
compare the size of each feeder zone with the maximum size of square zone which the
feeder calculated from casting modulus can feed.
F.8 If TABLE 4.2 cannot be used calculate two feeder sizes for each feeder zone, one from
feeder zone volume and one from casting modulus. Use the larger of the two feeder
sizes
Vf sand = 3∕4 Vc
Vf insulated = 1/5 Vc } CALCULATOR 8
Df sand = 4 ¢ 1.8 Mc = 7.2 Mc

Df insulated = 4 ¢ 1.25 Mc = 5 Mc } CALCULATOR 9
Feeder height = 1.5 times feeder diameter
For feeder shapes other than cylindrical, calculate the modulus of a cylindrical feeder
and then use a different shape with the same modulus as the cylindrical feeder
ensuring the volume is adequate (CALCULATOR 11).
F.9 Feeders on the top of the casting must feed the liquid shrinkage of all blind feeders
and the casting below it. Additional volume in top feeders equals 4% (total casting
plus blind feeder volume) (CALCULATOR 10).
MOULD FILLING
Mould Rotation Method
F.10 Choose the Filling Time using weight of casting and feeders (t, sec =5 Wt.kg and
time to start of solidification as constraints (CALCULATOR 12).
F.11 Add webs if necessary to ensure smooth flow and check whether these interfere with
the designed pattern of directional solidification.
F.3 ANNEX F.
NES 747
Part 5
Bottom-gating Method
F.12 Choose the Filling Time using weight of casting and feeders (t, sec =5 Wt.kg ) and
time to start of solidification as constraints (CALCULATOR 12).
F.13 Calculate the Initial Filling Rate.
The average filling rate is equal to the weight of casting and feeders divided b the time
to fill the mould.
Initial Filling Rate ≃ 1.5 times Average Filling Rate (CALCULATOR 14).
Consider variations in the filling rate during the pour (CALCULATOR 13).
F.14 Choose the Ingate Sites.
Gate into the lowest part of the mould. Horizontal ingates are preferable and if used
the mould should be tilted if possible 2 to 5° .
Gate into thick parts of the casting, under feeders and as far as possible from chills.
It is preferable not to gate under cores.
F.15 Determine the Dimensions of the Ingates
Minimum Total Ingate CSA mm2 = 2026 times Initial Filling Rate kg/sec. Ingate CSA
should be proportional to volume of gated part of casting. Ingate thickness ≤ ½
casting thickness.
F.16 Determine the Dimensions of the Runners. Runners should be symmetrical with the
minimum number of ingates per runner. The sprue should be positioned so that
runners are short and closest to ingates which cool quickest. Square section runners
are recommended.
Minimum Runner CSA = ½ CSA of ingates supplied by runner.
CSA of runner-ingate junction ≥ ingate CSA.
The runner should be stepped after each ingate except for the last ingate on the
runner.
CSA of runner after ingate equals CSA of runner before ingate minus ½ ingate CSA.
Runner thickness reduction at step if
 Runner thickness
ingates are of equal area on the runner  = Number of ingates on runner
and runner is on uniform width 
Large castings may need multiple runners.
F.17 Determine the Dimensions of the Sprue.
From the initial filling rate and the total head of metal find the sprue entrance and
exit diameters using CALCULATOR 14.
Total head of metal equals height of metal in the pouring basin plus height of sprue.
Mark the initial filling rate on the sprue pattern.
ANNEX F. F.4
NES 747
Part 5
F.18 Determine the Dimensions of the Pouring Basin, Well-base and Dross Traps:
a. Pouring Basin
The pouring basin should be kept full throughout the pour. The basin should
be rectangular and have a sump lower than the sprue entrance diameter. The
sprue entrance diameter must be radiused with a fillet of radius equal half the
sprue entrance diameter.
Typical Pouring Basin dimensions are given in TABLE 5.1.
(1) Well-base
Diameter = 2 times Sprue Entrance Diameter

Depth = 2 times Runner Depth
Fillet on Sprue Exit = ½ times Sprue Exit Diameter
(2) Dross Trap
TABLE 5.2 gives typical Dross Trap dimensions for a range of initial flow
rates through each runner.
F.5 ANNEX F.
NES 747
Part 5
ANNEX F. F.6
NES 747
Part 5
ANNEX G.
NON-ESSENTIAL DOCUMENTS PROVIDING BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Related
Clauses
1. Solidification Papers by N Chvorinov in Giesserei 1.3a., 4.3a.
Time for 1940, 27 May 17, pp 177−1986; May
Castings 31, pp 201−208; June 14, pp
220−235; and ‘Hutnicke Listy’,
1953, 8(1), 7−13; (2), 64−73.
2. Modulus G Sciama and M Jeancolas 4.6a.
Correction Fonderie 03, July 1971, P 239.
Factors: Effect of
Shape
3. The Inscribed Heuvers, Stahl and Eisen, 1929 49, 4.7e.
Circle Method, 1249 and Giesserei, 1943, 30 01
Heuvers
4. Effect of Sand G Sciama, Fonderie, 318 December 4.13a., 4.13b.,
Thickness on 1972, pp 425−439 FIGURE 4.13
Modulus of
Plates and Tubes
G.1 ANNEX G.
NES 747
Part 5
ANNEX G. G.2
NES 747
Part 5
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
A
Aluminium oxide, 1.10
Approximate feeder diameter, 4.31, 4.97
Average
filling rate, 5.8
sprue filling rate, 5.31
B
Blind feeders
additional feeder volume, 4.85
height, 4.94
Bottom running and gating, 5.6
calculation of dimensions, 5.16
design system, 5.16
disadvantages, 5.5
temperature gradients, 5.1
C
Calculators and Tables, 3.3
Casting drawing, 3.1
Ceramic fibre insulating mould inserts, 4.68
Chills, 1.7, 4.30
Connectors for feeders, 4.94
Core
movement during mould rotation, 5.5
support, 2.3
thickness effect on modulus, 4.26
Corners
external, 4.1
internal, 4.1
Correction factors for modulus
effect of junction, 4.16
effect of shape, 4.10
INDEX.1 INDEX
NES 747
Part 5
D
Design, 3.1
Dimensional
inaccuracy, 1.6
stability, 4.68
tolerances, 2.3
Directional solidification, 4.1
taper, 4.48
Dispersed shrinkage, 1.9
Drawings
casting, 3.1
moulding, 3.1
Dross, 4.68
inclusions, 1.10
traps, 5.35
Durville method—see mould rotation, 5.5
E
Effective cooling surface area, 4.31
End effect, 1.6
Entrance diameter sprue, formula, 5.30, 5.31
Exit diameter sprue, formula, 5.31
F
Feeder zones, 4.72
simplified method, 4.84
Feeders, 1.9
blind, 4.85
connectors, 4.94
diameter: modulus-dependent, 4.75, 4.76
diameter: volume-dependent, 4.75, 4.76
flanges, 4.97
height, 4.94
insulation: sleeves, 4.75
insulation: top, 4.10
modulus, 4.10
positioning: castings 12 to 75mm, 4.31
positioning: castings less than 12mm, 4.46
shape: non-cylindrical, 4.94
size, 4.75, 4.76
size approximate, 4.31
size: result of inadequate feeder, 1.9
volume, 4.76
volume: non-cylindrical, 4.94
Feeding
chilled or fed junctions, 4.65
effect of bottom-gating, 5.6
effect of mould rotation, 5.2, 5.5
flanged tapered spigots, 4.97
isolated thick sections, 4.70
rules: summary, 4.97
tapered castings, 4.48
INDEX INDEX.2
NES 747
Part 5
Feeding distances, 4.54, 4.64

insulating mould inserts, 4.70
junctions, 4.65
tapered tubes, 4.54
thick parts feeding thin:
modulus ratio ≥ 15, 4.57
modulus ratio ≤ 15, 4.57
Fillets
ingates, 5.21
junctions, 4.16, 4.17, 4.18, 4.19
pouring basin, 5.33
runners, 5.22
sprue, 5.30
well-base, 5.34
Filling rate, 5.1
average, 5.8
bottom-gating, 5.6
simplified calculation, 5.12
Filling the mould, 5.1
Filling time, 5.2
Flange
feeders, 4.97, 5.16
ingates, 5.16
Flanges feeding tapered spigots, 4.97
Flow chart
casting design sequence, 3.1
for design of running and gating, 5.1
for directional solidification, 4.2
G
Gating
bottom, 5.6
flanges, 5.16
top, 1.11
Geometric modulus, 4.6
H
Heat extraction, non-uniform, 4.26, 4.27, 4.30
‘Hot spots’, 4.16
Heuvers inscribed circle method, 4.16
INDEX.3 INDEX
NES 747
Part 5
I
Inaccuracy, dimensional, 2.3
Inclusions, dross, 1.10
Ingates
cross-sectional area, 5.16
dimensions, 5.18
fillets, 5.21
horizontal, 5.12
into flanges, 5.16
modulus, 5.21
number of ingates, 5.18
of equal area, 5.18
of unequal area, 5.20
shape, 5.21
sites, 5.12
thickness, 5.21
vertical, 5.12
Initial filling rate, 5.8, 5.12
Inscribed circle method, 4.16
Insulating mould inserts, 4.31, 4.65
feeding distances, 4.70
isolated thick sections, 4.70
limitations, 4.68
materials, 4.66
modulus increase, 4.31
thickness, 4.68
Insulation, feeders, 4.26
J
Junctions
‘hot spots’, 4.16
effect on directional solidification, 4.16
effective moduli of all types, 4.19
effective moduli of L and T junctions, 4.18
L
Length of casting, 4.31
Liquid contraction, 1.3
Liquidus temperature, 1.3
Loose pieces, mould rotation method, 5.5
INDEX INDEX.4
NES 747
Part 5
M
Machining allowance, 2.4
Metal chills, 1.7, 4.30, 4.65
Modulus, 4.4
correction factor, 4.10
correction factor junctions, 4.16
dependent feeders, 4.75
effective, 4.10
effective chills, 4.30
effective plates, 4.10
feeder, 4.10, 4.31, 4.75
geometric, 1.4
ingate, 5.21
insulating mould inserts, 4.31
simplified calculation, 4.10
taper, 4.48
Mould
rotation, 5.2
rotation, core movement, 5.5
rotation, disadvantages, 5.5
rotation, feeding distances, 5.5
rotation, loose pieces, 5.5
rotation, temperature variation, 5.5
rotation, webs, 5.5
tilting, 5.2
Mould filling, 5.1
casting weight, 5.2
temperature gradient, 5.5
Mouldable chills
effective modulus, 4.27
Moulding
drawing, 3.1
process, 2.1
O
Oval feeders, 4.94
Oxides, 1.10
P
Pattern, 2.3
equipment requirements, 2.1
maker’s contraction allowance, 2.3
withdrawal taper, 2.1
Patterns, 2.1
Pouring basin, 5.33
INDEX.5 INDEX
NES 747
Part 5
R
Records
feeding and mould filling system, 3.1
mould filling systems, 5.35
Reverse taper, 1.6, 4.48
Runner
CSA and initial filling rate, 5.22
depth, 5.25
ingate junction, 5.25
shape, 5.25
steps, 5.22
Running and gating
bottom, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.12, 5.14, 5.15, 5.16, 5.18, 5.19, 5.20, 5.21, 5.22, 5.24, 5.25, 5.27, 5.29, 5.30, 5.31, 5.33,
5.34, 5.35, 5.36
multi-running systems, 5.27
recording designs, 5.35
summary, 5.36
S
Sand
minimum thickness around casting, 4.26
thickness between parts of castings, 4.27
thickness effect on modulus, 4.27
Shrinkage, 1.6, 4.85
Silicon carbide chills, 4.30, 4.31
Simplified, 4.84
calculation of initial filling rate, 5.12
method for feeder zones, 4.72
modulus calculations, 4.10
Solid contraction, 1.3
Solidification
contraction, 1.3
shrinkage, 1.4
time, mould filling, 5.1
Solidus, 1.3
Solidus temperature, 1.3
Spigots, 4.48
Sprue, 5.8, 5.30
dimensions, 5.31
exit and entrance diameter, 5.31
fillets, 5.30
initial and average filling rate, 5.8
position, 5.22
Steps on runners, 5.22
Summary of rules for designing feeding systems, 4.97
Summary of rules for designing running and gating systems, 5.36
INDEX INDEX.6
NES 747
Part 5
T
Taper, 1.6
disadvantages, 4.48
formula, 4.48
reverse, 4.48
straight, 4.49
withdrawal, 2.1
Tapered
sprue, 5.30
tube feeding distances, 4.54
tubes, 4.50
Temperature gradient
bottom-gating, 5.7
mould filling, 5.1
mould rotation, 5.5
Temperature loss during filling, 5.7, 5.18, 5.27
Thick parts feeding thin parts
modulus ratio ≥ 15, 4.57
modulus ratio ≤ 15, 4.58
Thickness of casting, definition, 4.31
Tolerances, 2.3
casting thickness, 2.3
dimensional, 2.3
general, 2.3
Top-gating systems, 1.11
Turbulence, 1.10
V
Volume-dependent feeders, 4.84
W
Wall thickness tolerances, 2.4
Webs, mould rotation method of filling, 5.2
Weight of casting, mould filling, 5.2, 5.12
Weld fabrication, 3.1
Well-base, 5.34
Width of casting, definition, 4.31
INDEX.7 INDEX
NES 747
Part 5
INDEX INDEX.8
Inside Rear Cover
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Ministry of Defence

Defence Standard 02-747 (NES 747)

Requirements For Nickel Aluminium

Incorporating NES 747 Part 4 Category 2

Amd No Date Text Affected Signature and Date

This standard is raised to Issue 1 to update its content.

This standard supersedes the following:

Naval Engineering Standard

NES 747 Part 5 Issue 1 (Reformatted) January 1989

NICKEL ALUMINIUM BRONZE CASTINGS AND INGOTS

DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE

AMDT INSERTED BY DATE

The issue and use of this Standard

is authorized for use in MOD contracts

by MOD(PE) Sea Systems and

the Naval Support Command

Director of Naval Architecture

3. This NES comprises:

Nickel Aluminium Bronze Castings and Ingots

Part 5 Design and Manufacture of Nickel Aluminium Bronze Sand Castings

4. If it is found to be technically unsuitable for any particular requirement the Sponsor is to be

b. directly applicable to a particular contract are to be dealt with using existing

6. No alteration is to be made to this NES except by the issue of a formal amendment.

a. British Standards British Standards Institution,

b. Defence Standards Directorate of Standardization and Safety Policy,

c. Naval Engineering Standards CSE3a, CSE Llangennech, Llanelli,

d. Other documents Tender or Contract Sponsor to advise.

Note: Tender or Contract Sponsor can advise in cases of difficulty.

Health and Safety

FIGURE 1.9 SCHEMATIC PRESENTATION OF

FIGURE 4.7 IDENTIFICATION OF ‘HOT SPOTS’

4.17.3 Minimum Taper Required to Ensure Feeding around

4.21.3 Optimum Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.70

SECTION 5. FILLING THE MOULD DESIGN OF THE RUNNING

5.5 Static Bottom-Gating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6

5.20 Summary of Rules for Designing Running and

ANNEX E. MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF SAND CAST

1. THE CASTING PROCESS

a. The casting process is potentially the quickest and cheapest method of

b. The problem was highlighted when gunmetal was replaced by Nickel

g. One of the aims of this document is to enable predictions to be made of

(1) the design of the filling and feeding methods;

(2) using these designs to make castings;

(3) quality control;

(4) weld repair.

h. The causes, as well as the severity of defects, must be systematically

Particular attention is to be paid to the following points:

(1) original casting designs must be fully documented;

(3) reliable records must be made of moulding and pouring procedures,

(5) modifications made to feeding and filling methods during production

i. Casting design, production method design, pattern/mould production,

j. This NES is concerned specifically with nickel−aluminium−bronze and is

k. The following Clauses provide an introduction to the principles of casting

1.2 Solidification of Liquid Nickel−Aluminium−Bronze

a. The rate of cooling has a direct influence on the final microstructure of a

(2) ‘Solidification Contraction’ accompanies the change in state as the metal

(3) ‘Solid Contraction’ takes place as the temperature of the casting—now

This ratio is known as the geometric modulus (M).

FIGURE 1.1 ILLUSTRATING SOLIDIFICATION OF NICKEL−ALUMINIUM−BRONZE IN A

FIGURE 1.2 SECTIONS THROUGH A TAPERED ‘KEEL BAR’

(1) Taper is extremely effective in promoting directional solidification in thin

FIGURE 1.3 SECTION THROUGH THE BODY OF A CASTING ILLUSTRATING

FIGURE 1.5 SECTION THROUGH A JUNCTION IN A CASTING SHOWING HOW CHILLS

b. The remedy which foundrymen traditionally applied to prevent the defects