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➢ Many networks require 24 hour, seven day a week uptime
for their computer networks.
➢ Achieving 100% uptime is perhaps impossible but securing
a 99.999% or five nines uptime is a goal that organizations
often set.
➢ Fault tolerance is achieved by redundancy.
➢ Fault tolerance is the ability of a system to continue
providing a high level of service, even in the event of
hardware failures.
REDUNDANCY
➢ Redundancy refers to capacity beyond the minimum
required to meet required performance levels.
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A goal of redundant topologies is to eliminate network outages
caused by a single point of failure.
All networks need redundancy for enhanced reliability.
Networks with redundant paths and devices allow for more
network uptime.
Redundant topologies eliminate single points of failure.
If a path or device fails, the redundant (spare) path or device can
take over the tasks of the failed path or device.
REDUNDANT TOPOLOGIES
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A network that is based on
switches or bridges will
introduce redundant links
between those switches or
bridges to overcome the
failure of a single link.
These connections introduce
physical loops into the
network.
BROADCAST STORMS
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The switches continue to propagate broadcast traffic over
and over creating a broadcast storm.
This broadcast storm maycontinue until one of the switches
is disconnected.
The switches and end devices will be so busy processing
the broadcasts that user traffic is unlikely to flow.
The network will appear to be down or extremely slow.
BROADCAST STORMS
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In a redundant switched network it is possible for switches to learn the
wrong information.
A switch can incorrectly learn that a MAC address is on one port, when
it is actually on a different port
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A physical topology that contains switching or bridging loops is
necessary for reliability, yet a switched network cannot have
loops.
This creates a dilemma.
The problem is solved via the spanning tree algorithm (STA)
REDUNDANT TOPOLOGY AND
SPANNING TREE
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REDUNDANT TOPOLOGY AND
SPANNING TREE
REDUNDANT TOPOLOGY
At right, physical loop still AND
exists, but STP has removed
SPANNING TREE
the logical loop, by blocking
the ports that connect Cat-4 Physical
cable still
and Cat-5 present
STP removes
(logical) loops to
create (logical)
‘trees’, with no
loops.
SPANNING-TREE PROTOCOL
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Identify the shortest path from each switch/bridge to the root
bridge, and block all other paths.
Shortest path is based on cumulative link costs.
Link costs are based on the speed of the link.
SPANNING-TREE PROTOCOL
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Recall that router interfaces form a barrier to broadcasts.
STP therefore operates only within a single broadcast domain on an Ethernet network
(unless there are multiple VLANs; see later).
Switches exchange special frames (BPDUs – see later) to allow STP to determine the
spanning tree on the network (broadcast domain). These frames are not recognized by
routers or end devices.
SCOPE OF STP
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SPANNING TREE ALGORITHM
The spanning tree algorithm can be outlined
in the four following steps:
SPANNING-TREE PROTOCOL
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SPANNING-TREE PROTOCOL
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SPANNING-TREE PROTOCOL
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When the network has stabilized, it has converged and
there is one spanning tree per network.
At this point, for every switched network the following
elements exist:
One root bridge per network.
All 3 switches have the same default Bridge Priority value of 32,768
All switches see the BIDs sent.
As a switch receives a BPDU with a lower root BID it replaces that
in the BPDUs that are sent out.
Eventually all bridges see the same Root BID value and decide
that the bridge with the smallest BID value will be the root bridge.
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Root
Bridge
Cost=19 1/1 1/2 Cost=19
Cat-A
BPDU BPDU
Cost=0 Cost=0
BPDU BPDU
1/1
Cost=19 Cost=19 1/1 Root
Root Port Port
Cat-A
BPDU BPDU
Cost=0 Cost=0
BPDU BPDU
1/1
Cost=19 Cost=19 1/1 Root
Root Port Port
Cat-B Cat-C
1/2 BPDU 1/2
BPDU Cost=38 (19+19)
Cost=38 (19+19)
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Cost=19
A Designated Port is a port that forwards traffic away from the
root and towards the leaves.
Each segment in a bridged network has one Designated Port,
chosen based on cumulative Root Path Cost to the Root Bridge,
OR (tie-breaker) based on the lowest BID
Root
Root Path Cost = 0 Bridge Root Path Cost = 0
Cost=19 1/1 1/2 Cost=19
Segment 1 Segment 2
Cat-A
Designated Port Designated Port
DESIGNATED PORTS
Cat-B 32,768.CC-CC-CC-CC-CC-CC Cat-C
1/2 32,768.BB-BB-BB-BB-BB-BB 1/2
Root Path Cost = 19 Root Path Cost = 19
Designated Port Segment 3 Non-Designated Port 34
Cost=19
SPANNING-TREE PORT STATES AND
TIMERS
A switch should not change a port state from inactive to
active immediately, and each port on a switch that is using the
Spanning-Tree Protocol has one of five states.
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LISTENING PERIOD
The listening period is called the forward delay and lasts for 15
seconds.
In the listening state, user data is not being forwarded and MAC
addresses are not being learned.
BPDUs are still processed.
Ports transition from the listening to the learning state.
The listening period exists to cater for the possibility that several
changes may take place at around the same time.
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In the learning state user data is not forwarded, but MAC addresses are
learned from any traffic that is seen.
The learning state lasts for 15 seconds and is also called the forward
delay.
BPDUs are still processed.
A port goes from the learning state to the forwarding state.
The learning state allows for the MAC address table to become full or
nearly full, minimizing the necessity for flooding of frames once the
forwarding state has been entered.
LEARNING STATE
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In the forwarding state user data is forwarded and MAC
addresses continue to be learned.
BPDUs are still processed.
Disabled State
A port can be in a disabled state.
This disabled state can occur when an administrator shuts
FORWARDING STATE
down the port or (NORMAL
the port fails.
OPERATION)
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STP STATES
Learn
Forward MAC Default
State
Frames? Addresses Duration
?
Up to 20 Max Age
Blocking No No
seconds Timer
Allow for
15
Listening No No continuing
seconds changes
Allow for
15 population
Learning No Yes
seconds of MAC
table
Forwardin
Yes Yes –
g
The MaxAge timer is the maximum time a port
remains blocking without receiving BPDUs. 40
MaxAge timer as well as forward delays are
When the network topology changes, switches and bridges
recompute the Spanning Tree and cause a disruption of user
traffic.
Convergence on a new spanning-tree topology using the IEEE
802.1D standard can take up to 50 seconds.
This convergence is made up of the max-age of 20 seconds,
plus the listening forward delay of 15 seconds, and the learning
forward delay of 15 seconds.
SPANNING-TREE RECALCULATION
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