Journal of the Geological Society

Late Palaeogene–Quaternary geology of Halmahera, Eastern Indonesia: initiation

of a volcanic island arc
R. HALL, M. G. AUDLEY-CHARLES, F. T. BANNER, S. HIDAYAT and S. L. TOBING

Journal of the Geological Society 1988; v. 145; p. 577-590

doi:10.1144/gsjgs.145.4.0577

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© 1988 Geological Society of London

Journal of the Geological Society, London, Vol. 145, 1988, pp. 577-590, 12 figs Printed in Northern Ireland

Late Palaeogene-Quaternary geology of Halmahera, Eastern Indonesia:

initiation of a volcanic island arc
R .H A L L , l
M . G . AUDLEY-CHARLES,' F . T. BANNER,' S . H I D A Y A T 2
&L S . L . T O B I N G ~
Department of Geological Sciences, University Collcge London, Gower Street, London W C l E 6BT, UK
Geological Research and Development Centre, Bandung, Indonesia

Abstract The Late Palaeogene-Quaternary stratigraphy of Halmahera is described, and new forma-
tion names are proposed, based on recent field investigationsof the NE and central part of the island.
This stratigraphic information provides new insights into the Neogene history of Halmahera and the
development of the present island arc. The Late Palaeogene and younger rocks rest unconformably on
an ophiolitic Basement Complex which formed part of a Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary fore-arc.
After volcanic arc activity ceased in the Eocene the former fore-arc terrane was uplifted and deeply
erodedintheLatePalaeogene.Some of theLatePalaeogene-EarlyMiocenerivervalleysare
currently being re-excavated by the present rivers. Slow subsidence began in the mid-late Oligocene
and by theend of theMiocene all easternHalmahera was thesite of shallow-watercarbonate
deposition. There is no evidence for arc volcanism in central Halmahera at this time and the reported
Oligo-Miocene volcanism in nearby regions is interpreted as volcanism related to the Sorong Fault
system. The Miocene shallow water region subsided rapidly in the Early Pliocene and the sedimentary
basin formed was filled with mark succeeded by siliciclastic turbidites, with increasing amounts of
calc-alkaline volcanic debris from a Pliocene volcanic arc built on the western arms of Halmahera,
probably on the eroded Early Tertiary arc. This phase of rapid subsidence in the Pliocene back-arc
region resulted from the initiation of subduction of the Molucca Sea lithosphere eastwards beneath
Halmahera. Differential subsidence on NW-SE and NE-SW sets of faults in the region immediately
behind the active arc led to the formation of deep sediment-filled basins adjacent to the eastern arms.
A major deformation event in the Pleistocene resulted in folding and local thrusting at the junction
betweeneasternandwesternHalmaheraandvolcanismceased in thePliocenearc. Thethird
Halmahera arc, the Quaternary arc, currently active in the northern partof the islands, began activity
within the last 1 Ma and is built upon the deformed and partly eroded Pliocene arc. The Pleistocene
deformation event and shift in positionof the arc are interpreted as the result of the interaction of the
eastward-dipping Molucca Sea plate with adjacent plates, either with a fragment of the Australian
continent in the Sorong Fault zone and/or with the Philippine Sea plate beneath northern Halmahera.

At the end of the Eocene a major plate reorganization event 1000 km east of Sulawesi beforesubductionbegan.As
occurred in the western Pacific which is recognizable over a Molucca Sea subduction
proceeded,
Australia moved
verywideregion (Hayes & Lewis1984)along the Pacific obliquely northwards with respect to the Pacific but regional
margin and in SE Asia. On Halmahera (Fig. 1) this event geological and palaeomagnetic evidence is not yet sufficient
led to imbrication of ophiolites,metamorphic rocks and to lix the past position of Halmahera relative to Australia.
sediments which hadformedpart of aCretaceous-Early The history of the region after the Late Eoceneis at present
Tertiary
fore-arc terrane (Hall er al. 1988) traceable very poorly known since the geology of the regions around
northwardsinto the Philippines at least as faraseast the complex knot of Halmahera has not yet been
Mindanao. This fore-arc terraneis the Basement Complex of investigated indetail.Marine geophysical studies of these
theNEandSE arms of Halmahera.The present and regions provideimportantconstraintsontherecentplate
recently active volcanic arc built on the NW arm and islands tectonic history but information from land-based studies is
off westernHalmahera is situatedabove aneast-dipping essential to extend our knowledgebackbeyondafew
subduction zone (Fig. 2). Thus the Early Tertiary fore-arc millionyears. The geological setting of Halmaheraand
terrane, which forms the east Halmahera basement, is now previousknowledge of the region is summarized in our
situated in a back-arc position relative to the present arc. On earlier paper dealingwith the Basement Complex (Hall et
the eastside of the Molucca Seaeastwardsubduction al. 1988); here we describe the cover rocks to the Basement
beneath Halmahera has formed the Halmaheravolcanic arc, Complex and relate new field geological information to the
and on the west side oceanic lithosphere has been subducted development of the Halmahera volcanic arc.
westwards beneathnorth Sulawesi, forming the Sangihe
volcanic arc (Fig. 1). Studies of recent seismicity show that
,theMolucca SealithospherehasaninvertedU-shaped
configuration (Fig. 3, Hatherton & Dickinson 1969;
Late Palaeogene and Neogene stratigraphy of
Cardwell et al. 1980)withaminimum of loo0 km of
Halmahera
subductedlithosphere.
Therefore, the east
Halmahera Halmahera is covered by tropical rainforest and therefore
Basement Complex must have been
situated
at least field geological investigations are accomplished by geologists
577
578 R. HALL E T A L .

E 120° 130°
I I I

0
P
km 500 j

Fig. 1. Location of Halmahera, Bacan and

principal bathymetric features of the
adjacent regions after Mammerickx ef al.
(1976).

and teams of porters, carrying equipment and food, making tion of Halmahera is still at a reconnaissance level and the
traversesinareasselected by aerialphotographicstudy. difficulties of fieldwork preclude the establishment of
These traverses have a duration of several days, are entirely detailedmeasuredtypesections; the localities from which
on foot, follow riverswhere possible but are modified en the new formations have been describedare shown in Fig. 4.
route by geology, terrain,weather,time, difficulty and This work forms part of a joint project between UCL and
supplies. Details of the traverses and localities referred to in the Geological Research
and
Development
Centre
the text are shownin Fig. 4. Inorderto describe the (GRDC),Bandung,Indonesia,and asthe investigation
succession Late Palaeogene and Neogene rocks have been proceeds we expectthatchanges will berequired tothe
assigned
new formation names.
Somestratigraphical stratigraphydescribed here, to take account of new
terminologyhasbeenintroducedinearlierpublications discoveries andstratigraphicalvariation within the large
(Apandi & Sudana 1980; Supriatna 1980; Sukamto et al. areaunderinvestigation. One aim of the project is to
1981) and comparison of the stratigraphy described here and produce a new geological map of the islands but it is not yet
that of previous authors is shown in Fig. 5. As a result of possible to show the distribution of the formations described
our work we have been able to date much of the Neogene here. We have therefore modified the published geological
sequence more precisely and subdivide it lithostratigraphi- maps (Apandi & Sudana 1980; Supriatna 1980; Yasin 1980)
cally ingreaterdetail.Thisstratigraphyprovides new to summarize present knowledge of the geology and
insights intotheNeogenehistory of Halrnaheraand the structure of Halmahera (Figs 6 & 7) which incorporates the
development of the present island arc. However, the new results of the project so far. Sample numbers referred to in
formation names are necessarily provisional since investiga- the text and shown in Fig. 4 are stored in the Department of
 LATECENOZOICGEOLOGY,HALMAHERA,INDONESIA
PHILIPPINE
B A N D A S E A
AUSTRALIAN
GeologicalSciences,UniversityCollege London(UCL).
Fauna1 identifications were based on thin section determina-
tions. In certain cases the ages of samples have been given
in the text using the P and N zones of Blow (1969,1979) and
the East Indies Letter Stages and the approximate positions
of these stage boundaries are shown in Fig. 5.
Onat Mar1 Formation (mid-late Oligocene)
The Neogene sequence exposed on Halmahera shows some
variation across the island reflecting the history of uplift,
erosionandre-submergence following themajoreventin
Late Eocene which uplifted the Basement Complex (Hall er
al. 1988). Submergence appears to have begun earlier in the
eastern part of the NE arm where, unconformably above the
Basement Complex, the Onat Marl Formation is a relatively
deep water off-reef facies. Inthe type area in theupper
Onat River (Fig. 4) the formation includes soft white marls,
grey mudstonesandsiltstonesinterbedded with graded
calcilutites and calcisiltites which are of middle tolate
Oligocene age (HA99: Chiloguembelina spp.,
Dentoglobigerina, Tenuitella spp., Cassigerinella chipolensis,
note absence of Pseudohmtigerina).
West of the Onat River, reef limestone deposition was
579
Fig.2. Principal tectonic features of the Hal-
mahera region after Hamilton (1979) and Silver
(1981). Solid triangles represent active volcanoes
of the Halmahera and Sangihe arcs. Slip rates
along the Philippine Trench from Ranken er al.
(1984).
establishedin the EarlyMiocene(see below) but the NE
part of the NE arm must have been the site of carbonate
reefs by the Late Oligocene since high energy, inner shelf
limestones sampled in theOnat Rivercontainreworked
coralgal material of Late Oligoceneage(Tel-4)with no
evidence of stratigraphic admixing (HA72A: Lepidocyclina
(Nephrolepidina), Rotalia gr. trochidiformis, Borelis
pygmaeus, Halkyardia sp., with abundant debris of
rhodophyticcorallinealgae,rarer bryozoa and molluscs).
West of the Onat River the Onat Marl Formation has not
been recognized although in the Subaim Fault zone there
are slices of redeposited calcisiltites and calcilutites of
possible Palaeogene age.
Jawali Conglomerate Formation (?Oligocene-Early
Miocene)
West of the Onat River
the
oldest
Neogene rocks
recognizedbelong to the Jawali Conglomerate Formation.
The type area for the formation is the upper valley of the
Jawali River (Fig. 4) where there are well exposed, coarse
boulder
conglomerates containing clasts of ophiolitic
material. The clasts are poorly sorted and well rounded and
range in size up to 0.5 m across. The conglomerates are
580 R. H A L L E T A L .

of matrix decreases, as does the proportion of carbonate in

the matrix.Stratigraphically higher in the conglomerates,
where there is more carbonate detritus, there are raresmall,
conical gastropods in the sandy matrix. The thickness of the
Jawali ConglomerateFormation in the Jawalivalleyis
approximately 400 m.
The conglomerates thin laterally away from the present
valley bottoms and cannot be traced far from the rivers. The
regular change in clast size, matrix character and ophiolitic
debrisindicatesthatthey are alluvial or fluvial deposits
which accumulated on an irregular surface of the underlying
Basement Complex. In the Saolat and Jawali Rivers there is
atransitionfromtheseconglomeratesinto the overlying
limestones indicating marine
a transgression and
this
limestone onlap has probably covered the conglomerates in

i
MOLUCCA SEA PLATE other areas. For example, in some of the tributaries of the
DodagaRiver
hugegabbro
andcumulate
ultrabasic
boulders (>l0 m across)occur asfloat. The size and
abundance of thesebouldersincreases going upstream
indicating approach to the source region but there are no
exposures of these rocks in situ, and in the highest parts of
Fig. 3. Present configuration of the Molucca Sea Plate in the region these steep and narrow river valleys there are outcrops of
between Halmahera and the Sangihe Arc after Cardwell et al.
Miocenelimestones. The size of this float isconsistently
(1980). Halmahera is located on a sub-plate which is being
underthrust from the west by the Molucca Sea Plate and from the
largerthan the float derivedfrom the exposed basement
NE by the Philippine Sea Plate. The southern boundaryof this rocks, which are dominantly microgabbros withoccasional
sub-plate is the Sorong Fault system. The natureof the sub-plate serpentinites, limestones and Dodaga Formation (Hall et al.
boundary east of Halmahera is still uncertain (Hall 1987). 1988) breccias, suggesting that the huge boulders represent
re-eroded boulders from river valley conglomerates and that
some of thepresent valleys are excavating a pre-existing
clast-supported and have a matrix of poorly sorted pebbly topography. Similar relationships are observed in the Onat
sandstone with similar ophiolitic
detritus
and
some River near the junction with the Geledongan River (about
carbonate clasts. The contact with the Basement Complex is 25 km SE of Dodaga village) where small conglomerate
not visible but as the basement rocks are approached the deposits in the valley bottom fill elongate depressions in the
clasts in the conglomerate become larger and the proportion Basement Complex parallel to
the main valley. The

7 ..

URAI' '.

7
I.
. . -

Fig. 4. Location of traverses (dotted lines) made in central andNE Halmahera. Localities of sample numbers given in text (H andH A
numbers) are also shown. Type areas for new formations are indicated by cross-hatching.
 Thrs paper Shtonga etal. (19811

YOUNGER SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

YOUNGER MLCANIC ROCKS

OLDERSEOIMfNTARYWCKS

OLDER VOLCANICROCKS
I
BASEMENT COMPLEX I

Fig. 5. Stratigraphy of Halmahera based on this work and comparison to that of previous authors. The approximate positionof P and N
zone boundaries (Blow 1969, 1979) and East Indies Letter Stage boundaries are from Jenkins er al. (1985).

Fig. 6. Sketch geological mapof

Halmahera based on Apandi&
Sudana (1980), Silitongaet al.
(1981), Supriatna (1980) and
Yasin (1980) and modified after
our own observations. Halmahera
is divided into two provinces by
the nature of the underlying
basement rocks.
 0
f , 7 , :f

5
t;
z
I

E
z
X
U
m

El U
V

3
Z
E
1

Z l'
 C ELN
GAO
ETZ
O
HEO
L
AIO
LCM
GYIAN,HDEORNAE, S I A 583

R. 8. (a) Ophiolitic boulders in Jawali Conglomerate Formation. Onat River. Chisel for scale. (b) Echinoid and leaf imprint in
mark of Saolat Mar1 Formation. Saolat River. Pen for scale.

conglomerates(Fig.8a) are composed mainly of boulders River. The base of the limestone was not observed in any
and pebbles of the Basement Complex, cemented by calcite other areas although float samples indicate that, as in the
and locally containing limestone pebbles. The clasts are well mountainsaround the Jawali River,there is a pebbly
roundedandtheconglomeratesappearto be fluviallag limestone with ophiolitic clasts at the base. It is probable
deposits. One clast of reef limestone has been dated as that this limestone rests directly on the Basement Complex,
Eocene (HA86: Discocyclina spp., Asterocyclina, Gypsina) andprobably on otherpre-Neogenerocks,withouta
and another as probable Early Miocene (HA83: significant thickness of conglomerateover most of the
Lepidocyclina,Globorotalia cf. zealandica). This suggests northern part of the NE arm.
that the conglomerate was deposited by an early Neogene The character of thelimestonesvaries across the area
river system erodingalandscape exposing theBasement from fore-reef andreef clastic limestonesto back-reef clastic
Complex, Eocene reef limestones of the Geledongan limestonesandlagoonallimestones. The distribution of
Formation (Hall et al. 1988) and Early Miocene limestones. thesefaciesdeducedfrom thetraverses suggests thatthe
This older valley has been re-excavated by the Onat River. reef edge was roughly parallel to the northern coast of the
The conglomerates locally pass upwardsintoa finer NE arm but about 5 km inland from the present coastline.
grainedbreccio-conglomerate with roundedandangular The limestones vary in thickness, although the exact
clasts of basic and ultrabasic rocks in a calcareous pebbly thickness is difficult to determine because of faultingand
sand matrix. On the mountain sides above the Jawali River folding. In the Saolat and Talawi Rivers the limestones are
and in the Saolat River this breccio-conglomerate horizon about 200 m thick but further north, near Subaim, are about
rests directly on brecciated and blocky basic and ultrabasic 500 m thick. The oldest limestones above the unconformity
rocks of the Basement Complex with no intervening are EarlyMiocene,andnoneareyoungerthanLate
conglomerate. The proportion of ophiolitic debris in these Miocene-Early Pliocene. The reef and fore-reef limestones
calcareous rocks varies;somebedsare strictly calcareous vary from massive to thickly bedded and contain abundant
micro-conglomerates or micro-breccias, while othersare large corals, algal, bryozoan, echinoid and mollusc debris.
merely pebbly limestones with ophiolitic pebbles. Because (HA49A: Spiroclypeus, Eulepidina spp., Miogypsinella,
of incompleteexposureit isdifficult todeterminethe very primitive Miogypsina. Earliest Miocene.HA5:
thickness of this transition into limestones but it is nowhere Miogysinoides dehaarti, Miogypsina, Operculinella,
more than 50 m thick and may be as thin as a few metres in Lepidocyclina,Spiroclypeus,Sphaeroidinellopsis,Globigeri-
places. noides. LateEarly Miocene. HA125: Lepidosemicyclina,
Sontes. Late Early Miocene. HA133: Sorites, Heterostegina,
Eulepidina? Late Early
Miocene. H188: Triloculina,
Subaim Limestone Formation (Early Miocene-Early Planorbulinella, Globigerinoides obliquus. Early Miocene or
Pliocene) younger. H189: Parrelinna, Planorbulinella, Operculinoides,
This formation rests
unconformably on theBasement Globigerinoides. Early Miocene or younger. HA123:
Complex over a very wide area of the northern part of the Miogypsina, Lepidocyclina. Late Early or Middle Miocene.
NE arm of Halmahera. The formation is named from the H47: Parrellina, Operculinella,
Pararotalia, Miogypsina,
upper Subaim River (Fig. 4) where the limestones are well Lepidocylina (Nephrolepidina), Sphaeroidinellopsis semi-
exposed. Reef limestonesandfore-reefclasticlimestones nulina. Tf, probablyMiddle Miocene. H48: Cycloclypeus,
cap the range of mountains running SW from Subaim where Lepidocyclina clasts, Globigerinoides, Sphaeroidnellopsis
they are exposed at heights up to 1084 m. North of Subaim, multiloba, S. seminulina, Globorotalia fohsi. N12 Middle
in the Titilegan River near to Lolobata, and south of Ekor, Miocene (Tf2) (Serravallian). H50: Cycloclypeus,
the reefal facies is exposed at topographically lower levels Lepidocyclina, Heterostegina, Globigerinoides,
due to major NW-SE faults. The transition from the Jawali Sphaeroidinellopsis, Globorotalia fohsi
robusta, G. cf.
ConglomerateFormation was observed only in the Jawali menardii. Tf2, late N12 Middle Miocene (Serravallian).
584 R. HALL E T A L .

HA6:Rhodophyte algae,
rare
codiacea, Miogypsina, imprints and at one locality in the Saolat River, a perfectly
Heterostegina, Lepidocylina, Cycloclypeus, Operculinella preservedechinoidabout lOcm across (Fig. 8b). Plant
and many redeposited clasts derived from Early and Middle remains, particularly leaves, areabundant andsomethin
Miocene together with Orbulina, Sphaeroidinellopsis, layers containabundantsmall, thin-shelledbivalves.Few
Globigerinoides, Dentoglobigerina altispira, Globorotalia cf. sedimentary structures were found, and the preservation of
plesiotumida, G . menardii, Sphaeroidinella, Pulleniatina. the leaves and echinoids indicates either very rapid burial or
Late Miocene or Early Pliocene. HA120: Orbulina suturalis, little biological activity; a few sand-filled tubes occur locally.
Globigerinoides, Sphaeoidinellopsis, Globigerina spp., Because of the very low dip on the mark and the slight open
?Pulleniatina. Probably Late Miocene). folding of these rocks the total thickness of marlsis
Most of the fore-reef limestones in the Subaim region uncertain; it is at least 100 m.
contain small amounts of siliciclastic debris, evidently The sequence above the marls is very poorly exposed in
derived from basic andultrabasic rocks. Interbedded with the Saolat and Jawali Rivers. Intermittentexposures
thesecarbonate clastics in places aredark calcareous indicate thatthere is a gradualtransition to coarser-
sandstonescontaining very angular
but well sorted grained siliciclastic sediments.These are thin- to medium-
siliciclastic material. The grains include single mineral bedded sandstonesand siltstones with occasionalthin
fragments of plagioclase, pyroxene, hornblende
and conglomeratebeds. The sandstones are locally channelled
serpentine, all very fresh. The angularity and freshness of and in the Saolat
River
the
channels have a N-S
such unstable mineral grains, together with the admixture of orientation. All of the debrisappearstobe well-rounded
carbonate and
non-carbonatedebris, all well sorted, and well-sorted. Some broken shelly material is present in
suggests thatthismaterial was redeposited,probablyin the sandstones,andabundantorganicmaterial,some of
front of the reef ina similar environmentto off-shore, which is coalified. In interbedded mark and shales the plant
present-day Halmahera with a similar ophioliticsource material, which in hand specimen resembles leaf and twig
region surrounded by carbonate reefs. Notably absent from debris, is less mature. There is no sign of pressure solution
the debris is calc-alkaline volcanic material. or recrystallization such as might be expected by the degree
Furtherinland,totheeast of the coastalmountains, of coalification observed in the plant material. The coalified
limestones form a karstic capping to the mountains drained material may bederived by erosion of stratigraphically
by theDodagaRiver.Inthis region they are athinner lower levels in the sequence onHalmahera (fieldwork in
bedded back-reef facies equivalent to the reefal limestones 1987 discovered thin coal seams of probable Eocene age at
of the coastmountains. The ages are apparently slightly the east end of the SE arm) or may be debris from forest
younger but this probably reflects a bias towards sampling of fires. In the Talawi River the structural position of a similar
stratigraphically higher parts of the Subaim Limestone inthe sequenceindicates stratigraphically higher levels in the
Dodaga region compared to its lower parts in the Subaim SaolatMarlFormation. The Talawi rocks are bluish
and Saolat-Talawi regions. (H165: Nephrolepidina, turbiditesandstonesandsiltstones, in places arkosic, with
Operculinella, abundant Operculina. Late Early Miocene to well-developed normal grading, load structures and with a
Middle Miocene. H70: Alveolinella quoyi, Sorites martini, low sand/shale ratio (Fig. sa). Some of the mudstone units
Operculina with coral and codiacean algal debris and rare are markedlybioturbatedand organic material is moder-
cheilostone bryozoa. Middle Miocene TM or Late Miocene atelycommon. A calcareoussandstone with reworked
Tg-probably late Serravallian/Tortonian. H164: Codiacea, pelagicmicrite clasts, allochthonouscalcareous algae and
corals, rare rhodophytesand
bryozoa, ?Marginopora. debris from basic volcanic and plutonic rocks is of probable
Probably Middle Miocene or younger). Pliocene age ( H a : Globigerinoides, Pararotalia, Globoro-
talia cf. tumida, Sphaeroidinellopsis).

Saolat Marl Formation (EarlyPliocene)

In the coastal mountains there is a relatively sudden change
fromlimestones to darkgrey-greencolouredmarls of the
Saolat Marl Formation which are well exposed in the type
section in the Saolat River (Fig. 4). At the base of the mark
in the Subaim Mountains there are horizons of thin, well
laminated calcisiltities which are locally channelled into the
marls. One of these close to the limestone-mar1 boundary is
of Late Miocene-Early Pliocene age (H53: Uvigerina spp.,
Lenticulina, Globigerinoides quadrilobatus group, Orbulina,
Globorotalia menardii group, G . cf. ungulata,
Dentoglobigerina, ?Globoquadrina ; allochthonous clasts
with Amphistegina and Operculinella). The interbedding
of redepositedlimestones (with reefaldebris)and mark
suggests that the boundary is likely to be diachronous. This
is supported by the thinning of theSubaimLimestone
Formation from NE to SW between Subaim and Ekor and
by the 1:250 000 geological map(Yasin 1980)which
suggests that Miocene limestones are not present in the SW
arm.Themark clearly represent verycalm depositional
conditions since many beds contain perfectly preserved leaf
Wasile Sandrtone Formation (Early? Pliocene)
Intheupper valley of the Wasile River the Basement
Complex is in contact with the Neogene rocks to the south;
the contact is a major steep fault marked by a wide zone of
sheared serpentinite. To the south of the serpentinites is a
zone of steeply-dipping turbidite sandstones and mudstones
whose exact stratigraphic position is uncertain. They are of
probablePlioceneage (H38: Intraclasts include Neogene
pelagic
micrite containing Globigerinoides, Sphaeroidi-
nellopsis. H39: Globorotalia cf. menardii, Sphaeroidinello-
psis, ?Pulleniatina, Globigerinoides cf. obliquus, Globorota-
lia cf. ungulata. Pliocene. H41: Globorotalia menardii,
Globoquadrina, Sphaeroidinellopsis, Orbulina,Globorotalia
scitula) and
are assigned the
to Wasile Sandstone
Formation, named from a section in the Wasile River (Fig.
4), above the Saolat Marl Formation. The most complete,
and type, section is exposed over a few hundred metres in
the headwaters of the Wasile River, north of the mountain
crest. The oldest rocks are grey-blue,
medium-bedded
sandstonesalternating with silts and silty mudstones. The
sandstones have flat bases, although on loose blocks in the
 C ELN
GAO
ETZ
O
HEO
L
AIO
LCM
GYIAN,HDEORNAE, S I A 585

Fig. 9. (a) Graded bedding in upper part of Saolat Mar1 Formation. Talawi River. (b) Tuff in lower part of Tapaya Volcanic
Formation. Tapaya River.

stream grooves and small flutes arepresent.Thesand/shale Wasile SandstoneFormation is thedeeperwaterlateral

ratio is low, approximately l :4. Thispart of thesequenceequivalent of theSaolat Marl Formation.
dips northwardsata very high angleand is overturned.
Stratigraphically higher in the section the beds dip steeply
SE and are right-way up.Thesequence is similar to that Tapaya Volcanic Formation (Early -Late Pliocene)
below except that fine sandstones are normally graded and In the region south of Ekor drained by the rivers Parama,
mudstone units up to 30 cm thick contain mudstoneclasts up Tapaya, Kiloting, Pettigoagoa and their tributaries there is a
to lOcm long suggesting slumping. Some of the mudstones transitionfromEarlyMiocene reef carbonates of the
and siltstones contain abundant plant material. The highest Subaim LimestoneFormationthroughtheSaolat Marl
part of the sequence is significantly coarser than that below, FormationintoPliocene siliciclastic turbidites inwhich
with an increase in the sand/shale ratio. Sandstone beds up volcanic detritus makes an increasing contributionLower from
to 1m thick alternate with mudstones of about the same to
Upper Pliocene. Mark and marly limestones are
thickness. Some sandy beds contain abundant large elongate interbedded with a volcaniclastic turbidite and tuff sequence
rip-up clasts of mudstone, while others have erosional bases whichgivesway to tuffs and lavas. The volcaniclastic and
andarechannelledintotheunderlyingmudstones. The associatedsediments are assigned to the Tapaya Volcanic
lower parts of thechannelledsandstoneshave large-scale Formationfor which the typearea is theheadwaters and
cross-laminationandgradeupwardsintolaminated silt- upper reaches of the Tapaya River (Fig. 4). In this region
stones. At the top of this part of the sequence are coarse the
Subaim
Limestone Formation
and
Saolat Marl
pebbly and boulder-bearing sandstones with abundant coaly Formationaresucceeded by aturbiditesequenceabout
material. The boulders and pebbles are reworked siliciclastic 300m thickcomposed of shales,siltstones and greenish
rocks. Most of the plant material is elongate and parallel to sandstones. In the Magdalena River about 7 km south of
beddingbutthere are somerounded coal clasts; atleast Ekor a seriesof dark greenish sandstones, with calcarenites,
some of this material thus appears to have been coalified shales, mark andsiltstones with very steep dips is folded
before
deposition
into
these
sandstones. All of the into a tight syncline. These apparently deep-water deposits
sandstones in this section are calcareous and the proportion are assigned tothe Wasile SandstoneFormationanda
of carbonate decreases up-section. The siliciclastic material sample of pelagic micrite is of probable Late Miocene age
present is angularandincludesfreshgrains of green (HA114: Orbulina suturalis, Sphaeroidinellopsis, Globigeri-
clinopyroxene and plagioclase, and clasts of volcanic rocks, noides spp.) They are succeeded by rocks in which volcanic
microgabbrosandserpentinites.Thissection suggests a debris becomes gradually more important (Fig. 9b). Beds of
prograding submarine fan, with the higher beds representing conglomerate up to 10 m thick with a tuff matrix alternate
upper-fan channel-fill deposits. Thesequence has amore withthinly bedded siliciclastic sandstone-shaleturbidites
proximal character than the turbidites assigned above to the making a sequence at least 100 m thick that is succeeded by
upperpart of theSaolatMarlFormationandthis is a shale-tuff sequence. The turbidites have erosional bases
consistent with the coarser turbidites of the Wasile River and parallel laminated tops and individual turbidite units are
being younger than the Saolat Marl Formation. .In viewof 10-25 cm thick. They dip steeplyandare locally overturned.
the considerable field evidence for redepositionof sediments Pelagic limestones and
probable
slumped
limestone
in this sequence the youngest age (i.e. Pliocene) has been conglomerates with pelagicandderived reef material of
accepted as the age of deposition and the older dates are Early
Pliocene
age
occur in the
sequence (HA135:
assumed to be duetoreworking of oldermaterial.It is rhodophytealgae with Orbulina, Globigerinoides cf.
however possible thatthissection is nota single intact obliquus,Globoquadrina, Dentoglobigerina altispira s.l.,
sequence,but is tectonicallycondensed;this is consistent Globorotalia margaritae, GI. tumida., menardii, Sphaeroidin-
with the steep dips in this narrow zone close to the major ellopsis). Locally pelagic micrites are interbedded with tuffs
faulttothe N W . This interpretation could mean that the andcontaina middle tolatePliocene(N20/21)fauna
586 R. HALL ET A L .

Fig.10. (a) Flow-banded basalts and basaltic andesites of the Tafongo Volcanic Formation. (b) Hydrothermally-alteredvolcanic
rocks forming the basement of the western arm of Halmahera.

(HA140: Orbulina, Pulleniatina, Globorotalia cf. menardii Quaternary volcanic rocks

cultrata, Sphaeroidinellopsis, G1. menardii).
Tafongo Volcanic Formation (Late Pliocene-
?mid-Pleistocene)
The increasing volcanic contribution with diminishing age is
expressed by the westward increase in volcanic rocks in the
region west of Ekor. Thus the western part of Halmahera
(west of theTapayaRiver) is composed mainly of the
products of theLate Pliocene-Pleistocene volcanic arc.
Sediments of the Tapaya Volcanic Formation are overlain
stratigraphically by volcanic conglomerates, porphyritic
basalts/andesites and consolidated tuffs of Late Pliocene to
presumedEarlyPleistoceneage assigned tothe Tafongo
Volcanic Formation. West of the Tapaya River calc-alkaline
lavas become much moreimportantaroundthewestern
shore of Kau Bay between the mouth of the Tapaya River
and Bobaneigo village. The formation takes its name from
the cape (Tanjong) and coastal exposures near the village of
Tafongo on Kau Bay where the lavas are particularly well
exposed (Fig. 4). These lavas and tuffs,which make up a
large part of the western arms of central Halmahera, are
probably Late Pliocene to Pleistocene in age. A tuff
intercalation is reportedtocontainaPleistocenefauna
(Apandi & Sudana 1980). The Tafongo Volcanic Formation
also contains much coarse volcaniclastic material in the form
of volcanic breccias of vesicular lavas. Many exposures of
the lavas display sheeting and flow banding (Fig. 10). On the
west coast of the western arm in the rivers around Guraping
village porphyritic lavas and vesicularlavas are associated
with volcanic conglomerates, volcanic breccias and tuff
conglomerates. Weathering is a least 1.5 m deep inmany
places.
Quaternary coral reef
In the valley of the Kiloting River about 11km south of
EkorQuaternary reef limestonesresting uncomformably
uponolderrockscontainabundantfragments of fresh
plagioclase andrarepyroxene with lithic fragments of
fine-grained
andesite (HA126: bryozoa, coralline algal
debris, ostracods, Planorbulinella, Amphistegina, Globigeri-
noides cf. ruber, Globorotalia tumida, G / . inflata).
The Quaternary volcanic arc is active north of Makian and
recently inactive on the islands to the south (Fig. 6 ) . The
volcanoes arestratiform cones typical of calc-alkaline
volcanoes andtheirproductsarebasaltictoandesitic
pyroclastics and lavas. The chemistry of the volcanic rocks is
typical of a calc-alkaline intra-oceanic arc except on Bacan
wherethere is evidence of eruptionthroughcontinental
crust (Morris et al. 1983). In central Halmahera the present
active volcanic arc passing through the islands of Ternate
andTidore isnowwest of the west arms of Halmahera
indicatinga westward shift of volcanic activity by about
30
km that must have occurred in the mid orLate
Pleistocene. Northwards the arc follows the NW arm and
the currently active volcanoes retain a perfect conical form
indicating their youth and are built upon tilted fault blocks
(Verstappen 1964) of pre-Quaternaryrocks.Thepresent
active volcanic arc is no older than mid-Pleistocene (1 Ma).
Structure
Geologically Halmahera can be divided into two provinces
(Fig. 6 ) : aneasternprovince with anophioliticBasement
Complex forms the NE and SE arms whereas the western
province is composed largely of Pliocene-Recent volcanic
rocks which formthe NW and SW arms.EarlyNeogene
sediments which unconformably overlie
the
eastern
HalmaheraBasement Complex can be tracedintothe
westernprovinceandunderthePliocene volcanic rocks
through a junction zone between the two provinces which
forms a topographic depression southof Ekor.
The easternprovince
Thestructure of theeasternprovince is dominated by
vertical faults. A major angular discordance, often marked
by a coarse conglomerate, is present at the baseof the Late
PalaeogeneandNeogenerocks overlying theimbricated
Basement Complex. In the Subaim region of the NE arm
the rocks above the unconformityare deformed into upright
open folds with a wavelength of several kilometres (Fig. 7,
section 2). Significant post-Miocene uplift is indicated by the
 LATE CENOZOIC G E O
HLAO
LGMYA,H E R A , INDONESIA 587

fact that the unconformity at the base of the limestones is importantandintensedeformationwheretheNeogene

now exposed at up to 1km above sea-level. Locally the dip rocks have been locally strongly deformed,perhaps in
on the Neogene rocks in this part of the NE arm becomes discretezones.In the valley of the Kiloting River are a
very steep and the Neogene rocks are cut by major faults series of low ridges composed of Subaim Limestone
withtwoprincipal trends: NE-SW and NW-SE. Some of Formation which has been locally overturned
and
the faults are marked by sheared serpentine and overturned overthrust as flat sheets. In the region south of Ekor the soft
Neogene sediments in zones at least several hundred metres sediments, volcaniclastic and volcanic rocks have been
wide. Although we cannotruleout strike-slip motion on strongly folded into tight folds with steeply dipping (70-90")
these faults they evidently have an important component of limbs and axes trending broadly northwards. Turbidites at
vertical movement and NW-SE faults account for changes the base of theTapaya Volcanic Formationdipsteeply,
in height of the Subaim Limestone Formation betweenEkor generally between 80" and 90", and are locally overturned.
and Lolobata indicating post-Miocene vertical displacements South of the Kiloting River across a major ridge into the
of at least several hundred metres. valley of the Pettigoagoa thesameformationhasbeen
The NE-SW set of fractures appears to be even more tightly foldedand locally shearedinto the Subaim
important. The Kau basin, separating the NW and NE arms, Limestone Formation and in the Magdalena River turbidites
is shown by Hamilton (1979) as containing 3km of sediment are foldedintoa tight syncline. TheQuaternary reef
at its eastern end and we have identified a major fault zone, limestones are locally unconformable upon older rocks and
the Subaim Fault, running NE-SW on the southern side of since
Pleistocene
rocks are
present in the deformed
the basin (Figs 6 & 7). The age of the fault is uncertain but basement tothe Quaternary volcanoes the deformation
it must have been active since the Early Pliocene as it brings must be Pleistocene in age and is probably no older than
the Basement Complex to almost 2 km above sea-level and mid-Pleistocene.
juxtaposestheBasement Complex and steeplydipping
Pliocenerocks of the W a d e SandstoneFormationinthe
Wasile River. Our fieldwork andexamination of aerial Late Palaeogene-Recent history of Halmahera
photographs indicates
that the
eastern
part of the The pre-Neogene basement of the eastern province is well
Halmahera K-shapeis determined by these two sets of exposedand consists of ophiolitic rocksimbricated with
majorsteepfractures.Thisinterpretation is supported by Mesozoic andEarlyTertiarysediments(Hall et al. 1988).
the map of sediment isopachs (Hamilton 1979) in the three The basement of the western province is largely covered by
marine basins around eastern Halmahera which shows more Neogene-Recent sedimentaryand volcanicrocks and
than 1km of sediment in two of them (Kau basin and Buli remains poorly known. The oldest rocks on the 1:250 000
basin) and more than 5 km of sediment in the Weda basin. geological maps(Apandi & Sudana 1980; Supriatna 1980;
The beginning of activity on these faults cannot yet be Yasin
1980) are shown as the Bacan Formation and
dated. Since theydeformPliocene rocks they musthave tentatively datedLate
as Oligocene-Early Miocene.
been active in Plio-Pleistocene time but they may be older However,theformation includes anumber of unrelated
structures. The position of the Miocene reef edge parallel to units such as Late Cretaceous breccias of theDodaga
the present fault-controlled SW edge of the Kau basin may Breccia Formation (Hall et al. 1988) which are imbricated in
indicate that subsidence in this basin began in the Miocene. theBasement Complex in easternHalmahera as well as
Hydrocarbons in the form of oil seepages have been undeformed,probablyPalaeogene, volcanicbreccias on
reported from Halmaheraand we observed oil and gas Bacan (Yasin 1980; Silitonga er al. 1981). The volcaniclastic
seeping vigorously into a village water well in Lolobata. The rocks forming the basement of thewestern province are
oil is anatural light condensate which we suspect tobe typically unfossiliferous and includepyroclastic rocks, lava
escaping into Quaternary sediments of the Kau basin along breccias andsubaerialconglomerates, locally hydrother-
the Subaim Fault zone. mally-altered and deeply
weathered (Fig. lob) and
consequentlyextremely difficult date.
to In central
Halmahera the basement of the western province includes
The western province and the junction zone volcanicrocks of thelate Mesozoic-Early Tertiaryarc.
The nature of deformation in the western provinceisless South of Guraping on
the westerncoast of central
clear. We examined only limited areas of the western arms Halmahera (Fig. 4) clasts in a volcanic conglomerate include
in the field and poor exposure, plus the fact that many of the possible rudist fragments suggesting a Late Cretaceous age.
volcanic rocks lack good stratification, are major handicaps. Close tothe TapayaRiver volcaniclasticrocks,tuffs and
Much of the NW arm isalso covered by the products of volcanic conglomerates areinterbedded with calcareous
Recent volcanism. However, the(probable)Early Pleis- mudstones and mark containing planktonic forams of
tocene volcanicrocks onthe western coast of central Middle Eocene age (HA138: Acarinina cf. pseudotopilensis,
HalmaheranearGurapinghavebeenfoldedand dips of Morozouella cf. spinulosa, Morozouella sp.) This suggests
40-60" are common. In contrast, the volcanic rocks of the that the younger volcanic arcs which built the western arms
active and recently active arc in the islands of Ternate and of Halmahera cover theerodedLate Cretaceous-Early
Tidore have not been significantly deformed. Verstappen's Tertiary volcanic arc.
(1964) aerial photographic
studyshowedthat volcanic At the end of the Eocene the arc and fore-arc terrain
activity in the NW arm is concentratedinagrabenzone forming theHalmaherabasement wasstrongly deformed
situatedbetweentilted fault-blocks andtheQuaternary causing imbrication and uplift (Hall et al. 1988). The cause
volcanoes are built onthese blocks. The youngestrocks of this deformationremainsobscurebut the event is
dated in this tilted basement are Pleistocene. recognizable over a widespread region between New Guinea
The junction between the eastern and western provinces (Kroenke 1983) andthewestern Pacific (Hayes & Lewis
in the narrow neck of theHalmahera K is azone of 1984) and may be related to a major change in direction of
588 R. HALL E T A L .

E 127' 129O
motion of the Pacific plate atabout40Ma(Uyeda &
Ben-Avraham 1972). The Oligocene was a period of uplift
and deep erosion of the Basement Complex, as indicated by
the deepvalleys containing fluviatile ophiolitic conglomerates
now beingre-excavated by thepresent-day rivers. Slow
subsidence beganin theLate Oligocene, first in NE
Halmahera, leading to deposition of mark, whereas further
SW carbonatedepositionbeganin the EarlyMiocene.
Hamilton (1979) suggested,apparently onthe basis of
earlierreconnaissancestudiesin theHalmahera region
summarized by VanBemmelen (1970), thatbetween the
Oligocene and Early Miocene Halmahera was an east-facing
island arc and that a flip in subduction polarity led to the
present tectonic configuration. However, in our fieldwork in
theNEarmandcentralHalmahera we havefoundno
evidence for an Oligo-Miocene volcanic arc. Biostratigraph-
ical evidence indicates no major breaks in the sequence and
between the Late Oligocene and Early Pliocene there are no
volcanic rocks,and calc-alkaline debris is notablyabsent
fromthe small butconstant'background' of siliciclastic
debris found in Oligo-Miocene carbonates. The composition
of this debris indicates erosion of the underlying Halmahera
ophioliticBasementComplex. Oligocene-Early Miocene
volcanism is reported from reconnaissance work on Waigeo
(Van der Wegen 1963) and on Bacan (Yasin 1980; Silitonga
et al. 1981). Both of these islands are close to the Sorong
Fault system which is a transform fault zone with a history
of volcanic activity (Morris et al. 1983; Dow & Sukamto
1984) and Bacan is situated on a splay of the Sorong Fault
marked by recent volcanic activity (Hall et al. 1988) which is
probably the extension of the Molucca-Sorong Fault Fig. 11. Map of active and inactive Quaternary volcanoesof
(Letouzey et al. 1983). It is one of several splays of the Halmahera region showing Benioff zone contoursfrom Cardwell et
SorongFaultzoneidentified byseismicreflectionwork al. (1980)and Morris et al. (1983).
(Letouzey et al. 1983) between Halmahera and Seram. We
consider it moreprobablethat Oligo-Miocenevolcanic
activity was related to fault motion south of Halmahera at formed was filled by a overall coarsening-upwards sequence
the Pacific-Australian plateboundaryratherthan to a with an increasing volcaniclastic component, marking
volcanic arc on Halmahera. shallowing of the basin and increasing arc activity, with lavas
In the early Pliocene there was a change from the stable andsubaerial volcanicbreccias andconglomerates atthe
conditions of carbonate deposition across east and central highest levels. Our, admittedly slight, evidence suggests that
Halmahera with atransitionfromlimestones tomark, the Pliocene arc was built on the eroded basement of the
followed rapidly by an increase in the amount of siliciclastic EarlyTertiaryarc. If this is correct,andmore work is
debris whichwas depositedassubmarinefanturbidites. required to establish the nature and history of the basement
Calc-alkaline volcanic debris appeared in the mid-Pliocene of the western province, the position in which the
and after this there was a gradual increase in the amount of lithosphere fractured leading to subduction of the Molucca
volcanic material, initially as tuffs and volcaniclastic Sea plate may have been determined by the thickened crust
turbiditesandlater
as lavas. We interpret this rapid beneath the older arc.
transition as the result of the initiation of subduction of the We suggest that the NW-SE and NE-SW sets of major
Molucca Sea lithosphere to the west of Halmahera, causing vertical faultswereinitiated in the immediate back-arc
subsidence in eastern Halmahera, followed
by the region at this time. Although we have no direct evidence for
formation of a Pliocene volcanic arc in the westernprovince. theearliestmovementsonthesefaults, vertical displace-
This interpretation is in good agreement with the amount of ments of greaterthan 1kmcan beproved which are
subducted lithosphere
beneath the
Halmahera arc. If definitely post-Early Pliocene and the sediment thickness in
subduction was initiated atabout 5 Ma (Late Miocene- the basins surrounding the eastern arms suggest subsidence
Early Pliocene) volcanism would have begun at about 3 Ma onthesefaultsbeganinthePliocene, if notearlier.
(mid-Pliocene)when the slabreached 100 km (the active Hamilton (1979)shows over 5 km,and publishedseismic
volcanoes of the present arc (Fig. 11) are all situated more reflection profiles (Letouzey et al. 1983) indicate up to 8 km,
than 100km above the Benioff zone) and with subduction of sediment in the Weda basin. The presence of
continuing atthesameratethe slab would amveat its hydrocarbonseepsalongtheSubaimFaultzoneonthe
present depth of 250 km. It appears that theforces which led southern edge of the Kau basin suggests maturation of the
torupture of the lithosphere first producedsudden a organic-rich Miocene or Early Pliocene sediments and the
downwarping of the crust beneatheast
Halmahera, distribution of carbonate facies in the SubaimLimestone
immediately behind the arc, resulting in rapid subsidence of Formation suggests afault-controlled margin to the Kau
the Miocene reef limestones. The sedimentary basin which basin as early asthe Miocene. At present we have no certain
 C EL
N
GAO
ETH
Z
OEO
A
L IO
LCM
G IY
AN,HDEORNAE, S I A 589

explanationfor thepattern of faultingand differential PHILIPPINE -

subsidence in the region immediately behind the active arc.
The faultingis oblique tothe ‘grain’ of the Basement
Complexwhichis formed of N-S oriented slices and
therefore a basement control seemsunlikely. If fault activity
began intheLateMiocene or Early Pliocene thefault
pattern may be related to stresses produced in the bending
lithosphere associated with rupturing of the plateand
initiation of subduction of the Molucca Sea Plate. We note
that the fault pattern has been exaggerated in the present
active arc with horst blocks forming the NE and SE arms at
upto 2 kmelevationseparated by deep sediment-filled
basins. We do not yet know if this marked differential relief
is typical of island arcs or is due to Halmahera’s especially
complex position at a knot of plate boundaries,
A majordeformationevent affected thearc in the
Pleistocene.Thiscaused tilting of majorfault-bounded
blocks in the eastern and western provinces, intense folding
with overthrusting in the junction zone of the western and
eastern provinces, andprobablycaused local folding and
faulting in discrete zones in botheasternandwestern
provinces. We suggest thatthe unconformitywithin the
sedimentary sequences shown on the seismic profiles
(Letouzey et al. 1983) across the Weda basin is Pleistocene
in age. The ages of the Weda basin sequences are unknown
but the sedimentsrest unconformably onthe ophiolitic
b
basement and the intra-sequence unconformity is known to c
post-date a phase of compressional tectonics (Letouzey et al.
1983). In central and NE Halmahera the Pleistocene event is
the only such compressional phase. Arc volcanism appears
to have ceased, albeit briefly, and the present active arc was
built unconformably on the deformedolder rocks aftera
shift of position of the active volcanoes westwards by about
‘\ ‘. C
W
30km in centralHalmahera.Oneexplanation of this
deformation event could be a cessation of subduction in the Fig. 12. Cartoon to illustrate interference of Philippine Sea plate
Late Pliocene-EarlyPleistocenefollowedby renewal of with Molucca Sea plate beneath northern Halmahera causing shift
subductionin the mid-latePleistocene butthere is no in volcanic axis. The present configuration of plates is shown in (a)
indication of agap in the seismicity beneathHalmahera modified from Cardwell et al. (1980); (b) shows a profile before
(Cardwell et al. 1980) to suggest a break in the subducted approximately 1 Ma and (c) shows present situation.
slab. An alternativeexplanation is thatthedeformation
marks a tectonic event at one of the existing or developing the splay passing through Bacan (Fig. 6, Hall et al. 1988) the
plate margins in this unusuallycomplex region. There are Quaternary arc is parallel to the Benioff zone contours (Fig.
several possible locationsfor such anevent (Fig. 2). One 11) whereas on Bacan the line of Quaternary volcanoes is
possible location is tothenorth of Halmaheranearthe almost at right angles to the contours projected by Cardwell
Philippine Trench.The Philippine Trench isveryyoung et al. (1980). The shift in position of active volcanicity could
(Cardwell et al. 1980) and seismicity ceases east of the NE thereforemark westwards motion of the continental
arm of Halmahera at about 2%; the Philippine Trench is fragment south of this splay dragging the east-dipping slab
evidently propagating southwards (Hall 1987) but the of the Molucca Sealithosphere westwards.Suchmotion
history of its development is uncertain.However, the would steepentheeast-dipping limb of the MoluccaSea
amount of lithospheresubducted is less than 150 km and plateand shift the active arc westwards abouta pivot in
beneath northern Halmahera the east-dipping Molucca Sea northHalmahera.Thisexplanation would betested by
plate and the west-dipping Philippine Sea plate appear to be dating the metamorphosed rocksassociatedwith the fault
in collision at a depth of 100-150 km (Fig. 3, Cardwell et al. zone passing throughBacanand workis currently in
1980). The lengths of the subducted slabs suggest that the progress to do this.
Philippine platehas collidedwith the Molucca Seaplate More complex schemes can be envisaged including
beneath northern Halmahera at some time in the last 1Ma neither,eitherorboth of the two possibilities described
and the likely effect of such a collision would be to steepen above and including deformation at other plate boundaries
the Molucca Sea plate whichwould be forced westwards, in the region,forexample thesouthernextension of the
thus shifting the axis of volcanicity in the same direction Philippine Fault system. Nakamura et al. (1984)suggest a
(Fig. 12). change in the convergence direction between the Eurasian
A second possible location for the tectonic event is along and Philippine Sea plates at about 1Ma and this also may
the Sorong Fault system separating the Philippine Sea and have caused the deformationevent. The number of
AustralianPlates. The SorongFault system forms the possiblilities reflects the unusually complex pattern of plate
southern boundary to the Molucca Sea region and north of boundaries in the Halmahera region, the changing position
590 R . HALL E T A L .

and nature of these boundaries and the development of new evolution. Journal of Geophysical Research, 89,9171-95.
plateboundariesduringthe last fewmillionyears (Hall JENKINS,D. G., BOWEN,D. Q., ADAMS,C. G., SHACKELTON,N.J. &
1987) and, not least, our relatively slight knowledge of this BRASSELL,S. C. 1985. The Neogene.Part 1. In: SNELLING, N. J. (ed.)
The Chronology of the Geological Record. Geological Society, London,
complex region. TheHalmahera region is remarkable in Memoir, 10, 199-210.
preservingbothastratigraphicrecord of the progress of KROENKE,L.W.1983.Cenozoicdevelopment of thesouthwestPacific.
subduction and alithosphericrecord whichcan still be UnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommicsion for Asia andthe
interpretedfrom seismic andother geophysical studies. Pacific, Committee for Co-ordinationof Mineral Prospecting for Mineral
ResourcesinSouthPacificoffshoreareas (CCCOPISOPAC) Technical
Evidence of present-day volcanicity and seismicity, and Bulletin, 6.
marine geophysical studies have provided an insight into the LETOUZEY, J., DE CLARENS,J., GUICNARD, J. & BERTHON,J.-L. 1983.
most recent development of the region but more land-based Structure of the North Banda-Molucca area from multichannel seismic
geological studies are desperatelyneeded to providea reflection data. ProceedingsIndonesianPetroleum Association, lzth
Annual Convention 1983, 143-56.
longer time-scale. The apparently simple picture revealed by MAMMERICKX, J. FISHER,R. L., EMMEL, F. J. & SMITH,S. M. 1976.
the geophysical studies clearly developedina complex Bathymetry of the east and southeast Asian seas. Geological Society of
manner. America, Map and Chart Series, MC-17.
MORRIS,J . D., JEZEK,P.A., HART,S. R. & GILL, J. B.1983. The
Halmahera island arc, Molucca Sea
collision
zone,
Indonesia: a
Financial support for our work in Indonesia was provided by the geochemical survey. In: H A ~ E SD., E. (ed.) The Tectonic and Geologic
RoyalSociety,AmocoInternational,BritishPetroleumandthe Evolution ofSouth-east Asian Seas andIslands.Part 2. American
University of London Consortium for Geological Research in SE Geophysical Union Monograph, 23, 373-87.
Asia. GRDC Bandung provided aerial photographs and invaluable NAKAMURA, K., SHIMAZAKI, K. & YONEKURA, N. 1984. Subduction, bending
practicalassistance in Indonesia.Wethank P. Ballantyne for his and education. Present and Quaternary tectonics of the northern border
work on this project. of the Philippine Sea plate. Bullefin de la Socittk Giologique deFrance
(7), 26, 221-43.
RANKEN,B., CARDWELL, R. K. & KARIG,D. E. 1984.Kinematics of the
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Received 27 March 1987; revised typescript accepted 27 January 1988