Journal of Applied Psychology

The Relationship Between Sleep and Work: A Meta-Analysis

Brett Litwiller, Lori Anderson Snyder, William D. Taylor, and Logan M. Steele
Online First Publication, November 28, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000169

CITATION
Litwiller, B., Snyder, L. A., Taylor, W. D., & Steele, L. M. (2016, November 28). The Relationship
Between Sleep and Work: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology. Advance online
publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000169
 Journal of Applied Psychology © 2016 American Psychological Association
2016, Vol. 101, No. 10, 000 0021-9010/16/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000169

RESEARCH REPORT

The Relationship Between Sleep and Work: A Meta-Analysis

Brett Litwiller Lori Anderson Snyder, William D. Taylor,
State Farm Insurance, Bloomington, Illinois and Logan M. Steele
University of Oklahoma

Sleep has tremendous importance to organizations because of its relationship with employee performance, safety,
health, and attitudes. Moreover, sleep is a malleable behavior that may be improved by individual and organizational
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

changes. Despite the consequential and modifiable nature of sleep, little consensus exists regarding its conceptu-
alization, and how the choice of conceptualization may impact relationships with organizational antecedents and
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outcomes. To offer a stronger foundation for future theory and research about employee sleep, this study calculated
meta-analytic correlations of sleep quality and sleep quantity from 152 primary studies of sleep among workers in
organizations. Analyses revealed that both sleep quality and sleep quantity associated negatively with workload and
a number of health, attitudinal, and affective outcomes. Despite their conceptual similarity, notable differences
existed in sleep quality and sleep quantity in terms of their relationships to many different correlates. Generally, the
relationships between sleep quality and the examined correlates were stronger for variables that reflected percep-
tions. Moderator analyses showed that relationships between sleep quality and quantity may be affected by
measurement method and the number of self-report items used, while there is little evidence of the effect of
measurement time frame. Findings from this first meta-analytic investigation of the occupational sleep literature
have implications for the development of theory about relationships between sleep and work, the measurement of
sleep, the identification of organizational correlates of sleep, and the design of interventions intended to improve
employee sleep.

Keywords: sleep quality, sleep quantity, job strain, occupational health, fatigue

Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000169.supp

The quality and quantity of a person’s sleep have major impli-
cations for cognitive performance (Lim & Dinges, 2010), motor
functioning (Durmer & Dinges, 2005), mental health (Benca,
Obermeyer, Thisted, & Gillin, 1992), and long-term physical
health (Strine & Chapman, 2005). Nonetheless, findings from
national surveys consistently show that many U.S. employees
sleep little, sleep poorly, and often feel sleepy during the day (e.g.,
McKnight-Eily et al., 2011). In response, occupational health
researchers have examined sleep with increasing frequency
(Barnes, 2012; Kucharczyk, Morgan, & Hall, 2012). Though in-
dividual studies have produced many useful findings, a compre-
hensive understanding of the importance of sleep to workplace
behavior has yet to emerge. To support a better understanding of
the relationship between sleep and work, we provide clear distinc-
tions between the most widely studied sleep constructs, identify
Brett Litwiller, State Farm Insurance, Bloomington, Illinois; Lori An-
derson Snyder, William D. Taylor, and Logan M. Steele, Department of
Psychology, University of Oklahoma.
An earlier version of this article was presented at the annual meeting of
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology in Philadelphia,
2015. We thank Paul Spector for providing us with unpublished data.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lori
Anderson Snyder, Department of Psychology, University of Oklahoma,
455 West Lindsey Street, Norman, OK 73019. E-mail: lsnyder@ou.edu
1
antecedents and outcomes of those constructs, compare meta-
analytic correlations between the sleep constructs and their corre-
lates, and investigate moderators of these relationships, promoting
knowledge about effectively assessing sleep in organizational con-
texts as well as practical implications of organizational sleep
research (Kucharczyk et al., 2012).
Conceptualizing Sleep
Sleep is most frequently described as a state of immobility that
consists of greatly diminished physical responsiveness (Siegel, 2005)
that allows for reorganization of neural activity (Hobson, 2005). The
prevailing theory of sleep regulation states that two types of processes
regulate sleep (Borbély, 1982, 2009). Homeostatic sleep-regulating
processes consist of a need to sleep that accumulates during wake-
fulness and is met during sleep. Circadian sleep-regulating processes
consist of internal bodily processes that regulate when a person feels
sleepy. Organizational sleep research has generally conceptualized
sleep as one of two variables: sleep quality and sleep quantity (e.g.,
Barnes, 2012; Barnes, Schaubroeck, Huth, & Ghumman, 2011). As a
theoretically related outcome of sleep quality and sleep quantity,
sleepiness is also examined frequently in organizational sleep research
(e.g., DeArmond & Chen, 2004).
Previous research demonstrates that sleep quality and sleep quan-
tity are distinct constructs (Cappuccio, D’Elisa, Strazzullo, &, Miller,
2010; Harvey, Stinson, Whitaker, Moskovitz, & Virk, 2008; Pilcher,
Ginter, & Sadowsky, 1997) that are measured in ways that can be
 2 LITWILLER, SNYDER, TAYLOR, AND STEELE
reliably identified by independent raters (Dewald, Meijer, Oort, Kerk-
hof, & Bögels, 2010). Definitions and operationalization of sleep
quality across studies reflect a consistent understanding of the vari-
able, including difficulty of falling asleep, staying asleep, and number
of awakenings in night, as well as feeling rested upon waking (Barnes,
2012; Cappuccio et al., 2010; Dewald et al., 2010; Harvey et al., 2008;
Pilcher et al., 1997). Harvey et al. (2008) explicitly examined the
meaning of sleep quality to both normal sleepers and insomnia groups
and found that both focused on tiredness upon waking and throughout
the day, feeling rested and restored upon waking, and number of
awakenings in the night. Sleep quality is typically assessed with
self-report measures (e.g., Buysse, Reynolds, Monk, Berman, & Kup-
fer, 1989), but can also be measured via physiological measures.
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The definition of insomnia also reflects difficulty initiating or
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maintaining sleep or early morning awakenings with an inability to
return to sleep, although it specifies a duration of at least three times
a week for 3 months (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Insomnia has been measured in the same way as, or categorized as,
sleep quality in many previous studies, including previous meta-
analyses (Cappuccio et al., 2010; Dewald et al., 2010; Scott & Judge,
2006). The categorization of insomnia measures as sleep quality
measures is further supported by the close correspondence of clinician
ratings of insomnia with self-report sleep quality scores (Hartmann,
Carney, Lachowski, & Edinger, 2015).
In contrast to sleep quality, sleep quantity describes the amount
of time an individual spends in a sleeping state (Barnes, 2012).
While most adults function optimally on 7 to 9 hr of sleep a night
(National Sleep Foundation, 2009), 30% of Americans get less
than 6 hr of sleep each night (Luckhaupt, Tak, & Calvert, 2010),
and most adults sleep substantially less on work nights than on
nonwork nights (National Sleep Foundation, 2008).
Empirical investigations support the distinction between sleep qual-
ity and quantity. Correlations between the constructs tend to be small
or nonsignificant (ranging from ⫺.11 to .20; Barnes et al., 2011;
Doane, Gress-Smith, & Breitenstein, 2015). While some studies show
sleep quality and quantity to have parallel effects on outcomes such as
health, well-being, and cognition (Barnes, 2012; Cappuccio et al., 2010),
in others, quality tends to be more strongly associated with such outcomes
than quantity (Dewald et al., 2010; Pilcher et al., 1997).
Workplace sleepiness describes how sleepy employees feel dur-
ing their time at work (DeArmond & Chen, 2009b), and can be
seen as an outcome of low sleep quality and/or quantity. Although
physiological measures can be used, measures of sleepiness typi-
cally ask respondents to rate the probability that they would fall
asleep in different situations (Johns, 1991) or rate the severity of
various sleepiness symptoms (Hoddes, Dement, & Zarcone, 1972).
Sleep regulating processes differentiate sleepiness from fatigue
(Mullins, Cortina, Drake, & Dalal, 2014), which describes a “feel-
ing of exhaustion, associated with impaired physical and/or cog-
nitive functioning” (Shen, Barbera, & Shapiro, 2006, p. 70). Un-
like sleepiness, fatigue is regulated by time spent performing a task
and the cognitive demands imposed and not by an accumulated
need for sleep or by circadian body rhythms (Mullins et al., 2014).
Sleep and Work: Constructs Identified by Theory
To our knowledge, only two conceptual models of the antecedents,
correlates, and consequences of employee sleep have been proposed.
Krauss, Chen, DeArmond, and Moorcroft’s (2003) model identified
sleep as a variable that transmits the effects of individual and orga-
nizational antecedents to individual- and organization-level conse-
quences. Mullins and colleagues (2014) proposed a more detailed
model in which sleepiness serves as a key mediating variable that
connects job demands to important organizational outcomes. Mullins
et al. (2014) argue that the effects of sleepiness on these outcomes are
exerted through the physiological processes that are closely tied to
sleep quality and sleep quantity. Information processing, for example,
suffers considerably as sleep deprivation increases (e.g., Hsieh, Tsai,
& Tsai, 2009), which leads to reduced task performance (Dean et al.,
2010) and increased risk of workplace accidents (Kling, McLeod, &
Koehoorn, 2010). However, testing of mediating and physiological
processes is not currently possible because of a lack of primary
studies. While valuable, Krauss et al.’s (2003) model and Mullins et
al.’s (2014) do not incorporate some frequently studied antecedents
and outcomes of sleep.
To capture all of the most frequently studied correlates of
employee sleep, this study used the Job Demand-Control-Support
(JDCS; Johnson & Hall, 1988) model as a framework to identify
additional theoretical antecedents, correlates, and outcomes of
sleep that could be examined in sleep literature. Thus, the com-
prehensive scope of constructs examined as correlates of sleep in
the current study include individual antecedents organizational
antecedents, health correlates, attitudinal outcomes, affective out-
comes, and performance outcomes.
Individual Antecedents
Past theory about sleep and work has identified a number of
disparate, but important, individual antecedents of sleep. Age has
been commonly examined because the period of peak sleepiness
shifts earlier after young adulthood and the amount of time spent
in the non-REM (rapid eye movement) stage and overall sleep
quantity diminish (Moorcroft & Belcher, 2005). Family responsi-
bilities may increase the effects of job demands on a person’s
sleep. For example, family time and time spent working have
interactive effects on time spent sleeping (Barnes et al., 2012). In
the domain of personality, trait negative affect (NA) describes a
person’s disposition to experience negative mood states (Watson
& Clark, 1984) and positively predicts a large number of mental
and physical health problems (Watson & Pennebaker, 1989). An-
other such antecedent is use of drugs that affect the central nervous
system (CNS), such as caffeine and tobacco, which alter sleep
regulating processes (Roehrs, Greenwald, & Roth, 2004).
Organizational Antecedents
In our proposed framework, organizational antecedents refer to
characteristics of job environments that have been found to affect
sleep quality and sleep quantity. A meta-analysis of 27 studies iden-
tified occupational stressors, role ambiguity, role conflict, workload,
interpersonal conflict, situational constraints, and perceived control as
correlates of employee sleep (DeArmond & Chen, 2004). Our frame-
work expands upon these findings by using the JDCS model to
identify organizational antecedents. The JDCS model posits that job
demands, job control, and job support predict both positive (e.g.,
motivation) and negative work outcomes (e.g., distress). Meta-
analytic findings from 30 years of JDCS research (Luchman &
Gonzalez-Morales, 2013) provide two insights that support of the use
 SLEEP AND WORK
of the model for categorizing antecedents and outcomes of sleep. One,
the JDCS model appears to be the most widely used framework for
understanding the effects of job characteristics on employee health
and well-being. Two, each component of the model has significant
direct effects on employee outcomes, as well as nonsignificant inter-
active effects (Luchman & Gonzalez-Morales, 2013).
In the JDCS model, job demands may refer to psychological
stressors (Van der Doef & Maes, 1999) or physical demands
associated with a job (Snyder, Krauss, Chen, Finlinson, & Huang,
2008), such as hours worked per week (e.g., Blau, 2011). Job
control describes the perceived ability of employees to alter their
work environment, work activities, and outcomes of work activi-
ties (Karasek, 1979), which may reduce strain (Spector, 2002) and
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preserve valued resources (Hobfoll, 1989). Job support reflects
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social support provided by coworkers, supervisors, or the larger
organization (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007).
The homeostatic and circadian processes that regulate need for
sleep provide a rationale for observed effects of work character-
istics on employee sleep (Barnes, Jiang, & Lepak, 2016). In
regards to homeostatic processes, greater demands, less control,
and less support reduce the amount of time that people have to
sleep. This homeostatic explanation is supported by findings show-
ing sleep to be the activity that is mostly likely to be curtailed by
family and work demands (Barnes, Wagner, & Ghumman, 2012)
and findings showing job control (De Lange et al., 2009) and job
support (De Lange et al., 2009; Ota et al., 2005) as work charac-
teristics that allow people to create more time for sleep. In regard
to circadian processes, greater demands, less control, and less
support prevent people from managing tasks during the day in a
way that allows them to fall sleep and wake up at optimal times.
This circadian explanation is supported by findings showing
greater job demands, less job control, and less job support prevent
people from falling asleep at their preferred times and adversely
affect the sleep of older employees (Åkerstedt et al., 2002).
Health Correlates
Although not recognized in previous theoretical models of the
relationship between sleep and work, health correlates represent the
category of constructs that has received the most empirical attention in
organizational sleep research. While poor sleep greatly enhances the
risk of many physical health problems (Irwin, 2015), little consensus
exists about the directionality of the relationship between sleep and
mental health correlates (e.g., depression). The physiological conse-
quences of sleep loss provide an explanation for resulting health
problems (e.g., Pilcher et al., 1997). In regards to physical health,
sleep loss produces hyperalgesic changes that increase pain sensitiv-
ity, interfere with pain relieving treatments (Lautenbacher, Kunder-
mann, & Krieg, 2006), and cause low-grade cardiovascular inflam-
mation, which could explain the well-established relationship between
sleep and heart disease (Cappuccio, Cooper, D’Elia, Strazzullo, &
Miller, 2011). In terms of psychological health, sleep loss changes the
secretion of hormones, like cortisol, that increase the likelihood of
mood and anxiety disorders (Holsboer, 2001).
Affective and Cognitive Outcomes
Physiological consequences of poor sleep also suggest that em-
ployee affect and cognition is negatively affected by greater feelings
3
of sleepiness resulting from poor sleep quality and sleep quantity.
With regard to affective outcomes, poor sleep has been shown to
impair the overnight processing of recent emotional experiences
(Walker & Van Der Helm, 2009) and reduce the accuracy with which
people recognize emotions (Van Der Helm, Gujar, & Walker, 2010),
explaining the link between sleepiness and negative affective states
(Franzen, Siegle, & Buysse, 2008). For cognitive outcomes, short-
term sleep deprivation has been found to dramatically reduce speed
and accuracy scores on measures of simple attention, complex atten-
tion, working memory, processing speed, short-term memory (STM),
and reasoning (Lim & Dinges, 2010). Despite the theoretical impor-
tance of sleep to cognitive outcomes, few primary studies have
examined the relationship between sleep and the cognitive processing
outcomes experienced by employees, making meta-analytic investi-
gation unfeasible.
Attitudinal Outcomes
Poor sleep has been shown to increase turnover cognition (Rog-
ers & Kelloway, 1997) and work–family conflict (Lallukka, Rah-
konen, Lahelma, & Arber, 2010), and decrease the likelihood of
positive attitudinal outcomes, like job satisfaction (Barnes et al.,
2013), organizational commitment (Tucker & Rutherford, 2005),
and engagement (Garrick et al., 2014). In the context of job
satisfaction, negative emotional responses have already been iden-
tified as a mediator of the effects of sleep (Scott & Judge, 2006),
indicating the potential role of affect and emotion as a mediator of
the effect of sleep on a variety of attitudinal outcomes.
Performance Outcomes
Like attitudinal outcomes, affective and cognitive consequences
of sleep have implications for a number of performance outcomes,
such as task performance, contextual performance, and safety
behavior. In previous research, both affect (e.g., Shockley, Ispas,
Rossi, & Levine, 2012) and cognitive resources (e.g., Ree, Earles,
& Teachout, 1994) have been frequently identified as predictors of
task performance. For contextual performance (e.g., organizational
citizenship behaviors), impaired self-regulation (Barnes, 2012),
and losses in job satisfaction associated with sleepiness (Barnes et
al., 2013) have been identified as potential mechanisms to explain
the effects of sleep. With respect to safety, employees who lack
motivation and have depleted cognitive resources are substantially
more likely to experience accidents or injuries (Christian, Bradley,
Wallace, & Burke, 2009).
Method
Literature Search
A literature search was conducted to identify any empirical exam-
ination of consequences, correlates, or antecedents of employee sleep
represented in previous research. The first component of the literature
search consisted of searching electronic databases for any relevant
study published between 1970 and May of 2015 (no studies of sleep
published before 1970 had effect sizes that were amenable to inclu-
sion). Four article databases were included in this component of the
search: PsycInfo, MEDLINE, Dissertation Abstracts, and ERIC. The
following keywords for sleep and work were used: sleep, fatigue,
 4 LITWILLER, SNYDER, TAYLOR, AND STEELE
insomnia, job, work, and occupational. A truncation character (ⴱ) was
used when possible to obtain alternate tenses and word forms.
The second step was a manual search of major industrial-
organizational, health, sleep, and safety journals, including Jour-
nal of Applied Psychology, Personnel Psychology, Journal of
Organizational Behavior, Journal of Occupational Health Psy-
chology, Health Psychology, Safety Science, Journal of Safety
Research, Accident Analysis and Prevention, Work & Stress,
Sleep, and Journal of Sleep Research. A manual search was also
conducted of reference sections of recently published literature
reviews (e.g., DeArmond & Chen, 2009b; Kucharczyk et al., 2012)
and articles that cited frequently used sleepiness measures (e.g.,
Buysse et al., 1989). To obtain unpublished organizational sleep
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research, requests for were posted on a listserv for occupational
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
health research as well as a listserv for organizational behavior.
Authors that published studies without relevant effect sizes were
also contacted to collect additional data that could be coded. The
initial search resulted in 546 English language citations.
Criteria for Inclusion
To merit inclusion in the meta-analysis, studies needed to meet
three criteria. First, a study had to quantitatively measure sleep
quality or sleep quantity and at least one identified correlate of
these sleep variables. Insomnia was categorized as a measure of
sleep quality as explained above.1 Sleepiness and fatigue were
treated as distinct from sleep. Second, a study needed to contain a
sample of employees at one or more organizations. Third, a study
needed to report sample sizes and correlations or statistics that
could be transformed into correlations (e.g., odds ratios) between
a sleep variable and a correlate.2 After independent evaluation by
two coders, the researchers resolved any discrepancies about study
inclusion through discussion. Agreement about which studies to
include in the meta-analysis and the category into which the sleep
measure in each study should be placed was near 99%. Based on
these inclusion criteria, 152 studies with unique samples were
retained (a table with details of all included studies is available
from the corresponding author upon request).
Coding of Studies
Three graduate students in industrial— organizational psychol-
ogy coded the included studies for sample information, aspects of
the study design, and effect sizes of the relationships among
constructs in each study. Before coding, each coder completed a
training program for this meta-analysis that provided specific
definitions for each construct and details on coding procedures.
Categorization of the sleep variables was conducted through ex-
amining the construct title in the primary study as well as the
content of items on each measure. Measures of sleep quantity
included items such as “How much sleep do you get on a typical
night?” (Barnes et al., 2011) and “How many hours of actual sleep
did you get last night (this may be different than the number of
hours you spent in bed)?” (Lanaj, Johnson, & Barnes, 2014).
Measures of sleep quality included items such as “Rate the fre-
quency with which you have experienced the following conditions
in the past month: difficulties falling asleep, waking up during the
night, waking up and having difficulties falling asleep again, and
waking up tired” (Jenkins et al., 1988) and “How do you evaluate
this night’s sleep?” (Buysse et al., 1989). At the end of the training,
all three coders coded the same five articles independently, achiev-
ing 100% agreement. After the training, two coders independently
coded each article. For instances of disagreement, a third coder
also coded the study and resolved the discrepancy at a consensus
meeting. Some relationship effect sizes were transposed to ensure
that all effect sizes shared the same directionality.
Meta-Analytic Correlations
Meta-analytic correlations were calculated between each sleep con-
struct and any correlate with a sufficient number of primary studies.
Thus, constructs for which we do not report correlations either failed
to be represented in a sufficient number of primary studies or were
collapsed into more general categories (e.g., somatic complaints into
general strain). Details about how variables were collapsed are avail-
able from the corresponding author upon request. To calculate effect
sizes, meta-analytic procedures outlined by Hunter and Schmidt
(2004) were followed. The correlation calculation procedures applied
corrections for sampling error and measurement reliability (Hunter &
Schmidt, 2004). If a study failed to provide usable reliability coeffi-
cients, a reliability of 1 was imputed; thus, providing a conservative
estimate of the corrected meta-analytic correlation. If a study included
multiple measures of a construct of interest, we incorporated the
variable that best represented the construct of interest, or collapsed the
separate constructs by averaging the correlations and reliabilities.
Consistent with recommendations for determining significant corre-
lations (Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins, & Rothstein, 2011), 95% con-
fidence intervals (CIs)were computed for each corrected meta-
analytic effect size and intervals not including zero were deemed
significant. To determine if the corrected correlations for sleep quality
and quantity as well as the moderator analyses were significantly
different from each other, the equation from Neter, Wasserman, and
Whitmore (1988) was used, as presented in Aguinis, Sturman, and
Pierce (2008). Only pairs of correlations for which both SD␳ were
positive, and at least one 95% CI did not include zero were tested.
Significance values were calculated by using a two-tailed t test in Excel.
Results
Sleep Quality and Sleep Quantity
A small, but positive significant relationship existed between
sleep quality and sleep quantity (␳ ⫽ .16). As a result, individual
correlations were calculated between the most frequently studied
correlates and both sleep quality and sleep quantity (see Table 1).
Two noteworthy patterns appear in these correlations. First, sleep
1
We tested the appropriateness of including insomnia as a measure of sleep
quality by examining differences in the meta-analytic correlations of sleep
quality with other variables when including and excluding measures of insom-
nia. Examining the correlates for which at least three measures of insomnia
were available, pairs of ␳s were extremely similar, supporting the inclusion of
insomnia in sleep quality (for example, gender ␳ ⫺.03 and ␳ ⫽ ⫺.04, alcohol
use ␳ ⫽ ⫺.07 and ␳ ⫽ ⫺.08, workload ␳ ⫽ ⫺.16 and ␳ ⫽ ⫺.21, anxiety
␳ ⫽ ⫺.45 and ␳ ⫽ ⫺.37, and depression ␳ ⫽ ⫺.40 and ␳ ⫽ ⫺.44 for sleep
quality with and without insomnia, respectively).
2
A list of references of studies that were considered but excluded from
this meta-analysis is available as supplemental materials and from the
corresponding author.
 SLEEP AND WORK 5

Table 1
Meta-Analytic Correlations for Sleep Quality and Sleep Quantity

80% CV 95% CI
Constructs k N r៮ ␳ SD␳ %Var. L U L U

Sleepiness
Quality 5 2,211 ⫺.18 ⫺.19 .13 13.3 ⫺.36 ⫺.03 ⫺.36 ⫺.02
Quantity 5 1,273 ⫺.11 ⫺.13 .00 100 ⫺.13 ⫺.13 ⫺.25 ⫺.00
Individual antecedents
Age
Quality 33 34,936 ⫺.07 ⫺.07 .06 24.0 ⫺.15 .00 ⫺.12 ⫺.02
Quantity 18 23,927 ⫺.08 ⫺.08 .07 14.6 ⫺.17 .00 ⫺.13 ⫺.04
Genderbⴱⴱⴱ
Quality 23 25,949 ⫺.03 ⫺.03 .06 21.2 ⫺.11 .05 ⫺.09 .02
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Quantity 15 21,142 .06 .07 .06 18.1 ⫺.01 .14 .02 .11
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

Marital statusc
Quality 2 5,564 ⫺.06 ⫺.06 .00 100 ⫺.06 ⫺.06 ⫺.09 ⫺.03
Quantity — — — — — — — — — —
Family timea
Quality 2 2,244 .13 .15 .08 15.7 .05 .26 ⫺.22 .53
Quantity 3 11,567 ⫺.05 ⫺.05 .00 100 ⫺.05 ⫺.05 ⫺.06 ⫺.04
Trait negative affectⴱ
Quality 6 5,654 ⫺.29 ⫺.30 .15 5.4 ⫺.50 ⫺.11 ⫺.44 ⫺.16
Quantity 3 1,063 ⫺.16 ⫺.17 .07 36.9 ⫺.27 ⫺.07 ⫺.33 ⫺.01
CNS acting drugs
Tobacco use
Quality 8 13,051 ⫺.04 ⫺.04 .03 40.7 ⫺.08 ⫺.00 ⫺.08 ⫺.00
Quantity 3 6,978 ⫺.04 ⫺.04 .05 14.6 ⫺.11 .02 ⫺.16 .07
Alcohol use
Quality 10 16,747 ⫺.07 ⫺.07 .08 11.1 ⫺.17 .03 ⫺.18 .04
Quantity 4 6,317 ⫺.02 ⫺.02 .05 19.3 ⫺.09 .05 ⫺.11 .07
Caffeine use
Quality — — — — — — — — — —
Quantity 3 879 ⫺.01 ⫺.01 .03 83.0 ⫺.04 .03 ⫺.18 .16
Organizational antecedents
Work loadⴱⴱ
Quality 54 30,836 ⫺.15 ⫺.16 .10 20.1 ⫺.29 ⫺.04 ⫺.20 ⫺.13
Quantity 16 8,657 ⫺.10 ⫺.11 .09 21.4 ⫺.22 .00 ⫺.20 ⫺.01
Hours worked per weekⴱⴱⴱ
Quality 18 14,444 ⫺.05 ⫺.05 .15 6.2 ⫺.24 .13 ⫺.13 .02
Quantity 12 28,235 ⫺.31 ⫺.31 .09 4.3 ⫺.42 ⫺.20 ⫺.40 ⫺.22
Perceived controlⴱⴱⴱ
Quality 20 24,511 .15 .19 .04 44.0 .13 .24 .13 .24
Quantity 5 2,511 .06 .06 .04 53.4 .01 .12 ⫺.05 .18
Support
Quality 19 8,217 .06 .07 .19 7.97 ⫺.17 .30 ⫺.02 .16
Quantity 9 3,452 .06 .06 .08 29.3 ⫺.04 .17 ⫺0.0 .13
Health correlates
Anxietya
Quality 45 29,415 ⫺.39 ⫺.45 .14 14.9 ⫺.63 ⫺.27 ⫺.49 ⫺.41
Quantity 4 2,554 ⫺.11 ⫺.14 0 100 ⫺.14 ⫺.14 ⫺.28 ⫺.01
Depressionⴱⴱⴱ
Quality 50 32,553 ⫺.35 ⫺.40 .12 14.0 ⫺.55 ⫺.24 ⫺.44 ⫺.35
Quantity 5 3,036 ⫺.23 ⫺.24 .10 13.6 ⫺.38 ⫺.11 ⫺.38 ⫺.10
Fatigueⴱⴱⴱ
Quality 35 27,394 ⫺.48 ⫺.54 .18 8.3 ⫺.77 ⫺.31 ⫺.60 ⫺.48
Quantity 14 4,561 ⫺.20 ⫺.21 .12 16.6 ⫺.37 ⫺.06 ⫺.30 ⫺.13
General strainⴱⴱⴱ
Quality 65 47,910 ⫺.29 ⫺.31 .18 5.09 ⫺.53 ⫺.08 ⫺.34 ⫺.27
Quantity 11 12,719 ⫺.13 ⫺.14 .12 8.75 ⫺.29 .02 ⫺.28 .01
Affective outcomes
State negative affecta
Quality 10 1,172 ⫺.32 ⫺.37 ⫺.15 30.8 ⫺.55 ⫺.18 ⫺.48 ⫺.24
Quantity 4 381 ⫺.08 ⫺.09 .00 100 ⫺.09 ⫺.09 ⫺.14 ⫺.03
(table continues)
 6 LITWILLER, SNYDER, TAYLOR, AND STEELE

Table 1 (continued)

80% CV 95% CI
k N r៮ ␳ SD␳ %Var. L U L U

Attitudinal outcomes
Engagementa
Quality 11 5,544 .19 .22 .10 21.2 .09 .35 .12 .33
Quantity 4 2,607 .03 .03 .00 100 .03 .03 .01 .05
Job satisfaction
Quality 36 11,478 .18 .20 .12 21.6 .04 .36 .16 .24
Quantity 5 2,161 .14 .16 .10 28.6 .03 .29 ⫺.04 .37
Turnover cognition
Quality 31 10,610 ⫺.18 ⫺.18 .06 44.2 ⫺.26 ⫺.10 ⫺.22 ⫺.15
Quantity — — — — — — — — — —
Work—family conflictⴱⴱⴱ
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Quality 43 26,405 ⫺.25 ⫺.28 .08 25.3 ⫺.38 ⫺.18 ⫺.31 ⫺.25
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

Quantity 4 2,129 ⫺.13 ⫺.15 .10 19.7 ⫺.28 ⫺.02 ⫺.35 .05
Performance outcomes
Task performance
Quality 3 2,581 .16 .17 .04 43.3 .12 .23 .07 .27
Quantity — — — — — — — — — —
Contextual performance
Quality — — — — — — — — — —
Quantity 2 172 .05 .05 0 100 .05 .05 ⫺.01 .11
Safety performancea
Quality 2 2,958 .04 .05 .03 41.4 .00 .09 ⫺.11 .20
Quantity 3 654 ⫺.01 ⫺.01 .00 100 ⫺.01 ⫺.01 ⫺.05 .03
Note. k ⫽ number of studies. N ⫽ number of participants. r៮ ⫽ sample-weighted mean correlation. ␳ ⫽ estimate of population correlation corrected for
unreliability in the predictor and criterion. SD␳ ⫽ standard deviation of corrected correlation. %Var. ⫽ percentage of variance explained by artifacts. 80%
CV ⫽ 80% credibility value (L ⫽ Lower, U ⫽ Upper). 95% CI ⫽ 95% confidence interval (L ⫽ lower, U ⫽ upper). There were insufficient studies to
calculate moderated correlations for all variables included in previous tables. SD␳ is reported as 0 for all instances where Var␳ was negative.
a
Corrected correlations could not be compared because of nonpositive SD or 95% CI that include zero for both correlations. b Men ⫽ 0, women ⫽
1. c Not married ⫽ 0. Married or living with partner ⫽ 1.
ⴱ
p ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01. ⴱⴱⴱ p ⬍ .001 when comparing corrected correlations across moderators.

quality has been examined much more frequently than sleep quan-
tity. Second, sleep quality was significantly related to more cor-
relates than quantity and the average size of these relationships is
substantially larger.
Both sleep quality and sleep quantity were unrelated to CNS
acting drugs and support, and significantly related to age, anxiety,
state NA, and engagement. The differences between sleep quality
and sleep quantity were most pronounced for variables that are
reflective of employee perceptions or emotions. Tests of the sig-
nificance of differences between corrected correlations revealed
that the relationships between sleep quality and trait negative
affect (␳ ⫽ ⫺.30), workload (␳ ⫽ ⫺.16), perceived control (␳ ⫽
.19), depression (␳ ⫽ ⫺.40), fatigue (␳ ⫽ ⫺.54), general strain
(␳ ⫽ ⫺.31), and work-family conflict (␳ ⫽ ⫺.28) were signifi-
cantly larger than the relationships between sleep quantity and trait
NA (␳ ⫽ ⫺.17), workload (␳ ⫽ ⫺.11), perceived control (␳ ⫽
.06), depression (␳ ⫽ ⫺.24), fatigue (␳ ⫽ ⫺.21), general strain
(␳ ⫽ ⫺.14), and work–family conflict (␳ ⫽ ⫺.15). While tests of
difference between corrected correlations were nonsignificant for
sleepiness and job satisfaction, 95% confidence intervals indicated
that sleep quality was significantly related to sleepiness
(␳ ⫽ ⫺.19) and job satisfaction (␳ ⫽ .20) while sleep quantity was
unrelated to these variables. Sleep quality was related to marital
status (␳ ⫽ ⫺.06), turnover cognition (␳ ⫽ ⫺.18), and task
performance (␳ ⫽ .17), while there was not adequate data to test
these relationships with sleep quantity.
Tests of the difference of corrected correlations indicated that
sleep quantity had significantly stronger relationships than sleep
quality to gender (␳ ⫽ .07 and ␳ ⫽ ⫺.03, respectively, coded as
males ⫽ 0 and females ⫽ 1) and hours worked per week
(␳ ⫽ ⫺.31 and ␳ ⫽ ⫺.05, respectively). Although nonsignificant
when examining tests of the difference of corrected correlations,
95% CIs revealed that sleep quantity was significantly related to
family time (␳ ⫽ ⫺.05), while sleep quality was not.
Moderator Analyses
To account for unexplained variance in the meta-analytic
correlations, we conducted a series of moderator analyses com-
paring studies using different sleep measurement methods, time
period of sleep measured, and number of items used. When used
to describe a measure, the term “objective” refers to a measure-
ment method, such as actigraphy (Kompier, 2005; Krystal &
Edinger, 2008), that assesses behaviors or results of behaviors
without using “subjective” reports from individuals. Only a few
studies measured sleep quality or sleep quantity objectively
(k ⫽ 7 and k ⫽ 8, respectively), so these moderator analyses
should be interpreted cautiously. The most notable finding
regarding sleep quality is the small, nonsignificant correlation
between the two types of measures (␳ ⫽ .11; see Table 2). Tests
of differences between correlations indicated that subjective
sleep quality is more strongly related to subjective sleep quan-
tity and fatigue than objective sleep quality. Examination of
95% CIs reveals that subjective sleep quality consistently re-
lates more strongly than objective sleep quality to other vari-
ables. In contrast, objective and subjective measures of sleep
 SLEEP AND WORK 7

Table 2
Meta-Analytic Correlations for Sleep Quality Moderated by Objective or Subjective Measures

80% CV 95% CI
Constructs k N r៮ ␳ SD␳ %Var. L U L U

Sleep variables
Sleep Quality
Objective with subjective 3 725 .11 .11 .00 100 .11 .11 ⫺.06 .29
Sleep Quantity (objective)
Subjective 3 725 ⫺.06 ⫺.06 .14 18.0 ⫺.24 .11 ⫺.37 .24
Objective 7 1,095 ⫺.01 ⫺.01 .13 27.0 ⫺.18 .16 ⫺.17 .15
Sleep quantity (subjective)ⴱⴱⴱ
Subjective 20 12,773 .20 .21 .21 3.62 ⫺.06 .47 .12 .29
Objective 2 670 ⫺.08 ⫺.08 .03 77.3 ⫺.12 ⫺.05 ⫺.32 .15
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Individual antecedents
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Age
Subjective 29 30,123 ⫺.07 ⫺.08 .06 24.3 ⫺.15 ⫺.00 ⫺.13 ⫺.02
Objective 4 2,131 ⫺.06 ⫺.06 .05 47.7 ⫺.12 ⫺.00 ⫺.18 .06
Genderab
Subjective 20 23,873 ⫺.04 ⫺.04 .04 39.0 ⫺.09 .00 ⫺.09 ⫺.00
Objective 5 2,754 .09 .09 .07 28.3 .00 .18 ⫺.09 .27
Organizational antecedents
Work load
Subjective 53 28,893 ⫺.15 ⫺.16 .10 19.6 ⫺.29 ⫺.04 ⫺.20 ⫺.13
Objective 2 1,998 ⫺.15 ⫺.16 0 100 ⫺.16 ⫺.16 ⫺.30 ⫺.01
Support
Subjective 17 8,084 .06 .07 .19 7.16 ⫺.17 .31 ⫺.03 .17
Objective 4 811 ⫺.02 ⫺.02 0 100 ⫺.02 ⫺.02 ⫺.06 .02
Health correlates
Fatigueⴱⴱⴱ
Subjective 33 27,121 ⫺.48 ⫺.54 .18 8.36 ⫺.77 ⫺.32 ⫺.60 ⫺.48
Objective 3 320 ⫺.33 ⫺.34 .25 11.5 ⫺.66 ⫺.02 ⫺.69 .01
Affective outcomes
State negative affecta
Subjective 8 1,018 ⫺.37 ⫺.42 .11 44.6 ⫺.56 ⫺.29 ⫺.55 ⫺.30
Objective 2 154 ⫺.02 ⫺.02 0 100 ⫺.02 ⫺.02 ⫺.06 .02
Attitudinal outcomes
Work–family conflicta
Subjective 42 26,246 ⫺.25 ⫺.28 .08 26.0 ⫺.38 ⫺.18 ⫺.31 ⫺.25
Objective 2 782 ⫺.04 ⫺.05 0 100 ⫺.05 ⫺.05 ⫺.10 .01
Note. k ⫽ number of studies. N ⫽ number of participants. r៮ ⫽ sample-weighted mean correlation. ␳ ⫽ estimate of population correlation corrected for
unreliability in the predictor and criterion. SD␳ ⫽ standard deviation of corrected correlation. %Var. ⫽ percentage of variance explained by artifacts. 80%
CV ⫽ 80% credibility value (L ⫽ Lower, U ⫽ Upper). 95% CI ⫽ 95% confidence interval (L ⫽ lower, U ⫽ upper). There were insufficient studies to
calculate moderated correlations for all variables included in previous tables. SD␳ is reported as 0 for all instances where Var␳ was negative.
a
Corrected correlations could not be compared because of nonpositive SD or 95% CI that include zero for both correlations. b Men ⫽ 0, women ⫽ 1.
ⴱ
p ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01. ⴱⴱⴱ p ⬍ .001 when comparing corrected correlations across moderators.

quantity are much more strongly correlated (␳ ⫽ .42; see Table
3). Subjective sleep quantity is significantly more strongly
related to age and workload than objective sleep quantity, while
objective sleep quantity is significantly more strongly related to
gender with women reporting greater objective sleep quantity.
While 95% CIs indicate that subjective sleep quantity signifi-
cantly relates to five correlates (age, gender, work load, fatigue,
and state NA), objective sleep quantity relates to three (gender,
fatigue, and work–family conflict).
For sleep quality measures, two additional moderators were
examined, because of the variability in the content of these
measures. First, single-item measures of sleep (e.g., “How do
you evaluate this week’s sleep?”) were compared to multi-item
measures. Tests of difference of corrected correlations show
that multi-item measures have stronger relationships with the
health correlates anxiety, depression, and fatigue, and the atti-
tudinal outcomes job satisfaction and turnover intentions, and
are also more strongly related to age (see Table 4). The second
measurement moderator examined was the length of time ref-
erenced in a measure. For example, some studies assess sleep
quality from the previous night (e.g., Eek, Karlson, Garde,
Hansen, & Ørbæk, 2012), while others ask individuals to con-
sider longer time periods such as the previous month (e.g.,
Hietapakka et al., 2013). We separated effect sizes based on
whether the measures referenced a time period that was less
than or equal to 1 week or greater than 1 week (studies that
failed to make a distinction were excluded from moderator
analyses). Meta-analytic correlations showed that few signifi-
cant differences existed between these two categories of sleep
quality measures (see Table 5). Tests of difference between
corrected correlations indicated that for general strain, studies
assessing a time period of greater than 1 week showed stronger
effect sizes with sleep quality than measures referencing a
shorter timeframe. For sleep quantity, results showed no
 8 LITWILLER, SNYDER, TAYLOR, AND STEELE

Table 3
Meta-Analytic Correlations for Sleep Quantity Moderated by Objective or Subjective Measures

80% CV 95% CI
Constructs k N r៮ ␳ SD␳ %Var. L U L U

Sleep variables
Sleep quantity
Objective with subjective 2 670 .42 .42 0 100 .42 .42 .26 .58
Individual antecedents
Ageⴱⴱⴱ
Subjective 12 21,662 ⫺.10 ⫺.10 .04 25.3 ⫺.15 ⫺.05 ⫺.15 ⫺.05
Objective 6 2,265 .08 .08 .04 60.4 .03 .13 ⫺.01 .16
Genderbⴱⴱⴱ
Subjective 11 19,011 .04 .04 .01 94.5 .04 .05 .01 .08
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Objective 5 2,754 .21 .21 .03 64.1 .17 .25 .10 .31
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Organizational antecedents
Work loadⴱⴱⴱ
Subjective 13 6,612 ⫺.14 ⫺.14 .06 40.0 ⫺.22 ⫺.07 ⫺.26 ⫺.03
Objective 3 2,045 .02 .02 .04 51.2 ⫺.03 .07 ⫺.21 .24
Supporta
Subjective 6 3,264 .07 .08 .08 25.3 ⫺.02 .18 ⫺.01 .16
Objective 4 811 ⫺.04 ⫺.05 .02 99.6 ⫺.07 ⫺.02 ⫺.20 .11
Health correlates
Fatigue
Subjective 10 5,775 ⫺.20 ⫺.21 .11 16.2 ⫺.35 ⫺.06 ⫺.29 ⫺.12
Objective 3 320 ⫺.31 ⫺.32 .17 22.4 ⫺.54 ⫺.11 ⫺.60 ⫺.05
Affective outcomes
State negative affecta
Subjective 2 227 ⫺.09 ⫺.10 0 100 ⫺.10 ⫺.10 ⫺.19 ⫺.01
Objective 2 154 ⫺.07 ⫺.07 0 100 ⫺.07 ⫺.07 ⫺.17 .03
Attitudinal outcomes
Work–family conflict
Subjective 3 1,970 ⫺.15 ⫺.17 .09 18.3 ⫺.28 ⫺.05 ⫺.40 .06
Objective 2 782 ⫺.07 ⫺.08 0 100 ⫺.08 ⫺.08 ⫺.11 ⫺.04
Note. k ⫽ number of studies. N ⫽ number of participants. r៮ ⫽ sample-weighted mean correlation. ␳ ⫽ estimate of population correlation corrected for
unreliability in the predictor and criterion. SD␳ ⫽ standard deviation of corrected correlation. %Var. ⫽ percentage of variance explained by artifacts. 80%
CV ⫽ 80% credibility value (L ⫽ Lower, U ⫽ Upper). 95% CI ⫽ 95% confidence interval (L ⫽ lower, U ⫽ upper). There were insufficient studies to
calculate moderated correlations for all variables included in previous tables. SD␳ is reported as 0 for all instances where Var␳ was negative.
a
Corrected correlations could not be compared because of nonpositive SD or 95% CI that include zero for both correlations. b Men ⫽ 0, women ⫽ 1.
ⴱⴱⴱ
p ⬍ .001 when comparing corrected correlations across moderators.

evidence of significant differences across time periods (see
Table 6).3
Discussion
The present study provides the first meta-analytic examination
of research regarding employee sleep since 2004 (DeArmond &
Chen, 2004). This meta-analysis of 152 studies provides compre-
hensive findings about the relationship between sleep and topics of
potential interest to organizations, including the measurement of
sleep, the gaps in current knowledge about sleep and work, and
avenues for intervening to improve employee sleep. The results
show that sleep relates to a substantial number of important orga-
nizational antecedents (e.g., perceived control), health correlates
(e.g., anxiety), and attitudinal outcomes (e.g., engagement), which
have important theoretical and practical implications. The salience
of sleep to health, affective, and attitudinal correlates provides
support for using sleep as a mechanism to explain the effects of
individual and contextual characteristics on work outcomes (e.g.,
Allen & Kiburz, 2012). More broadly, the demonstrated impor-
tance of sleep indicates that it should be a critical part of theory
being developed about the biggest organizational challenges of our
time, such as technological adaption (Cascio & Montealegre,
2016), job design (Parker, 2014), work–life integration (Cleveland,
Byrne, & Cavanagh, 2015; Williams, Berdahl, & Vandello, 2016),
and stress and well-being (Ganster & Rosen, 2013).
This study further supports the distinction between sleep quality
and sleep quantity. Sleep research in other domains of psychology
may explain why sleep quality is associated more strongly with
constructs that reflect perceptions than sleep quantity. One possi-
bility is that rating of sleep quality may be influenced by NA via
the majority of studies that measure sleep quality with a subjective
measure. Given the moderate correlation between sleep quality and
both state (␳ ⫽ ⫺.37) and trait NA (␳ ⫽ ⫺.30), there exists the
possibility that correlations of poor sleep quality and other nega-
tive antecedents and outcomes are inflated by NA (e.g., Brief,
Burke, George, Robinson, & Webster, 1988). However, more
studies measuring sleep quality both subjectively and objectively
are needed to further explore this possibility.
3
A moderator analysis for number of items could not be conducted,
given that a single item measure is used in the vast majority of articles.
 SLEEP AND WORK 9

Table 4
Meta-Analytic Correlations for Sleep Quality Moderated by Length of Measures

80% CV 95% CI
Constructs k N r៮ ␳ SD␳ %Var. L U L U

Individual antecedents
Ageⴱⴱⴱ
Single item 5 2,829 ⫺.03 ⫺.03 .03 59.3 ⫺.07 .01 ⫺.10 .04
Multiple items 23 29,070 ⫺.07 ⫺.08 .06 22.0 ⫺.15 ⫺.00 ⫺.14 ⫺.02
Genderb
Single item 3 1,725 ⫺.04 ⫺.04 .05 43.0 ⫺.10 .02 ⫺.15 .07
Multiple items 16 21,973 ⫺.04 ⫺.05 .03 45.0 ⫺.09 ⫺.01 ⫺.09 ⫺.01
CNS acting drugs
Alcohol usea
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Single item 2 925 ⫺.15 ⫺.15 .08 23.8 ⫺.26 ⫺.05 ⫺.45 .15
⫺.06 ⫺.07 ⫺.16 ⫺.18
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

Multiple items 7 15,746 .07 9.83 .02 .04

Organizational antecedents
Work load
Single item 32 9,499 ⫺.16 ⫺.17 .07 40.4 ⫺.26 ⫺.07 ⫺.20 ⫺.13
Multiple items 21 19,394 ⫺.14 ⫺.17 .12 12.4 ⫺.32 ⫺.02 ⫺.23 ⫺.11
Hours worked per week
Single item 4 1,418 ⫺.02 ⫺.02 .09 25.5 ⫺.13 .10 ⫺.23 .19
Multiple items 14 13,026 ⫺.05 ⫺.06 .15 5.11 ⫺.25 .14 ⫺.14 .02
Health correlates
Anxietyⴱⴱⴱ
Single item 28 7,531 ⫺.31 ⫺.37 .09 36.3 ⫺.48 ⫺.25 ⫺.41 ⫺.32
Multiple items 16 21,709 ⫺.41 ⫺.47 .14 9.37 ⫺.64 ⫺.29 ⫺.55 ⫺.39
Depressionⴱⴱⴱ
Single item 29 14,877 ⫺.28 ⫺.31 .07 31.1 ⫺.40 ⫺.22 ⫺.35 ⫺.27
Multiple items 20 17,619 ⫺.41 ⫺.48 .12 13.1 ⫺.63 ⫺.33 ⫺.54 ⫺.41
Fatigueⴱⴱⴱ
Single item 6 2,444 ⫺.29 ⫺.30 .19 6.46 ⫺.55 ⫺.06 ⫺.54 ⫺.06
Multiple items 28 24,755 ⫺.50 ⫺.57 .16 9.78 ⫺.78 ⫺.36 ⫺.63 ⫺.51
General strain
Single item 27 8,695 ⫺.34 ⫺.34 .06 39.8 ⫺.42 ⫺.27 ⫺.38 ⫺.31
Multiple items 37 39,056 ⫺.28 ⫺.31 .20 3.70 ⫺.56 ⫺.05 ⫺.37 ⫺.25
Affective outcomes
State negative affecta
Single item 5 496 ⫺.24 ⫺.26 .14 35.3 ⫺.44 ⫺.08 ⫺.44 ⫺.09
Multiple items 4 600 ⫺.43 ⫺.52 0 100 ⫺.52 ⫺.52 ⫺.54 ⫺.49
Attitudinal outcomes
Job satisfactionⴱⴱⴱ
Single item 27 7,049 .12 .13 .07 50.6 .05 .22 .09 .17
Multiple items 9 4,429 .27 .31 .13 16.6 .15 .48 .23 .40
Turnover cognitionⴱⴱⴱ
Single item 26 6,767 ⫺.17 ⫺.17 .07 40.7 ⫺.27 ⫺.08 ⫺.21 ⫺.13
Multiple items 5 3,843 ⫺.18 ⫺.22 .03 76.2 ⫺.26 ⫺.19 ⫺.29 ⫺.15
Work–family conflicta
Single item 28 9,527 ⫺.18 ⫺.19 0 100 ⫺.19 ⫺.19 ⫺.21 ⫺.17
Multiple items 14 16,719 ⫺.29 ⫺.35 .07 32.5 ⫺.43 ⫺.26 ⫺.41 ⫺.28
Note. k ⫽ number of studies. N ⫽ number of participants. r៮ ⫽ sample-weighted mean correlation. ␳ ⫽ estimate of population correlation corrected for
unreliability in the predictor and criterion. SD␳ ⫽ standard deviation of corrected correlation. %Var. ⫽ percentage of variance explained by artifacts. 80%
CV ⫽ 80% credibility value (L ⫽ Lower, U ⫽ Upper). 95% CI ⫽ 95% confidence interval (L ⫽ lower, U ⫽ upper). There were insufficient studies to
calculate moderated correlations for all variables included in previous tables. SD␳ is reported as 0 for all instances where Var␳ was negative.
a
Corrected correlations could not be compared because of nonpositive SD or 95% CI that include zero for both correlations. b Men ⫽ 0, women ⫽ 1.
ⴱⴱⴱ
p ⬍ .001 when comparing corrected correlations across moderators.

Despite this, sleep quality may be a substantively better indica-
tor than sleep quantity of the sleep regulation processes that
influence perceptions of sleepiness, because some people may
require higher amounts of sleep quantity to attenuate feelings of
sleepiness (Ferrara & De Gennaro, 2001). As with research in
other areas of employee well-being, the potential for NA to influ-
ence measures of sleep quality does not necessarily negate their
importance, as employees’ subjective perceptions act as drivers of
attitudes and behaviors (Spector, Zapf, Chen, & Frese, 2000).
Although sleep quality may have more explanatory value than
sleep quantity, our findings suggest that sleep quantity has value as
a measure of sleep because it is more strongly associated with
aspects of work that are dependent on time (i.e., family time and
hours worked per week). In addition, the higher correlation be-
tween the subjective and objective measures of sleep quantity may
imply that individuals are more accurately able to report their sleep
experiences via a measure of quantity. Advances in objective
measurement of both sleep quality and quantity make it possible
 10 LITWILLER, SNYDER, TAYLOR, AND STEELE

Table 5
Meta-Analytic Correlations for Sleep Quality Moderated by Time Duration Referenced in Measures

80% CV 95% CI
Constructs k N r៮ ␳ SD␳ %Var. L U L U

Individual antecedents
Age
ⱕ1 Week 7 2,474 ⫺.07 ⫺.08 .06 50.1 ⫺.15 ⫺.01 ⫺.22 .06
⬎1 Week 19 26,469 ⫺.06 ⫺.07 .06 17.2 ⫺.15 .01 ⫺.14 ⫺.00
Genderab
ⱕ1 Week 8 2,645 .07 .07 .11 21.1 ⫺.07 .21 ⫺.07 .21
⬎1 Week 13 20,400 ⫺.04 ⫺.05 .04 35.4 ⫺.09 .00 ⫺.09 ⫺.00
Organizational antecedents
Work load
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ⱕ1 Week 5 2,822 ⫺.14 ⫺.15 .02 83.9 ⫺.18 ⫺.13 ⫺.25 ⫺.05
⬎1 Week ⫺.15 ⫺.16 ⫺.30 ⫺.03 ⫺.20 ⫺.13
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43 23,579 .11 16.9

Hours worked per week
ⱕ1 Week 2 181 ⫺.00 ⫺.00 0 100 ⫺.00 ⫺.00 ⫺.07 .07
⬎1 Week 8 8,299 ⫺.07 ⫺.08 .19 3.13 ⫺.31 .16 ⫺.22 .06
Perceived controla
ⱕ1 Week 2 218 ⫺.02 ⫺.02 .08 68.4 ⫺.12 .08 ⫺.31 .26
⬎1 Week 12 16,784 .15 .19 0 100 .19 .19 .15 .23
Supporta
ⱕ1 Week 3 194 .10 .11 .15 44.6 ⫺.09 .30 ⫺.19 .40
⬎1 Week 10 4,419 .05 .06 .14 12.8 ⫺.12 .24 ⫺.05 .17
Health correlates
Fatigue
ⱕ1 Week 11 1,592 ⫺.35 ⫺.39 .13 29.6 ⫺.56 ⫺.22 ⫺.51 ⫺.27
⬎1 Week 14 9,131 ⫺.48 ⫺.56 .12 17.8 ⫺.70 ⫺.41 ⫺.62 ⫺.49
General strainⴱ
ⱕ1 Week 2 740 ⫺.27 ⫺.27 .06 36.8 ⫺.35 ⫺.19 ⫺.47 ⫺.08
⬎1 Week 47 31,041 ⫺.32 ⫺.33 .20 4.50 ⫺.58 ⫺.08 ⫺.38 ⫺.29
Attitudinal outcomes
Engagement
ⱕ1 Week 6 1,031 .15 .18 .06 69.2 .10 .25 .04 .32
⬎1 Week 4 3,099 .18 .22 .13 9.72 .05 .39 .03 .42
Work–family conflict
ⱕ1 Week 2 279 ⫺.18 ⫺.22 .23 17.5 ⫺.52 .08 ⫺.73 .29
⬎1 Week 36 19,082 ⫺.25 ⫺.28 .07 33.3 ⫺.37 ⫺.19 ⫺.31 ⫺.25
Note. k ⫽ number of studies. N ⫽ number of participants. r៮ ⫽ sample-weighted mean correlation. ␳ ⫽ estimate of population correlation corrected for
unreliability in the predictor and criterion. SD␳ ⫽ standard deviation of corrected correlation. %Var. ⫽ percentage of variance explained by artifacts. 80%
CV ⫽ 80% credibility value (L ⫽ Lower, U ⫽ Upper). 95% CI ⫽ 95% confidence interval (L ⫽ lower, U ⫽ upper). There were insufficient studies to
calculate moderated correlations for all variables included in previous tables. SD␳ is reported as 0 for all instances where Var␳ was negative.
a
Corrected correlations could not be compared because of nonpositive SD or 95% CI that include zero for both correlations. b Men ⫽ 0, women ⫽ 1.
ⴱ
p ⬍ .05.

for researchers to more directly address the role of sleep quality
and quantity on work-related outcomes, a step that the current
article makes clear is needed.
Gaps in Sleep Knowledge
Findings from this study identify several gaps in current knowl-
edge about the relationship between sleep and work that should be
addressed in theory and research. Importantly, a comprehensive
model of the impact of sleep on individual and organizational
workplace outcomes is absent from the literature. Across the sleep
literature, self-report measures have been used almost exclusively
to study sleep quality and sleep quantity. As suggested by our
moderator analyses, the use of self-report measures to assess sleep
introduces potential method bias into examination of the effects of
sleep on self-report outcomes (Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Lee, &
Podsakoff, 2003). On a more substantive level, no organizational
research was found regarding the implications of sleep for the
ability of employees to process information. The absence of a
sufficient number of primary studies related to job performance
and safety outcomes also prevented conclusive answers about how
performance constructs relate to sleep.
In addition to a lack of research about specific constructs, questions
still exist about more frequently examined constructs. A lack of
knowledge exists regarding the causal relationship between employee
sleep and employee health, as well as other outcomes. Such knowl-
edge could be developed by the propositions put forth by Mullins et
al. (2014). A final gap identified in this research was a shortage of
longitudinal and multilevel sleep research to fully understand the
impact of sleep on employee well-being and the role that organiza-
tions may play in positively impacting employee sleep.
Practical Implications and Future Research Directions
The effect of sleep on important organizational outcomes and its
relationship to malleable work characteristics suggests that sleep
 SLEEP AND WORK 11

Table 6
Meta-Analytic Correlations for Sleep Quantity Moderated by Time Duration Referenced in Measures

80% CV 95% CI
Constructs k N r៮ ␳ SD␳ %Var. L U L U

Individual antecedents
Agea
ⱕ1 Week 9 13,205 ⫺.05 ⫺.05 .06 14.4 ⫺.13 .03 ⫺.13 .04
⬎1 Week 2 833 ⫺.13 ⫺.14 .06 38.8 ⫺.22 ⫺.05 ⫺.38 .11
Genderb
ⱕ1 Week 7 13,209 .07 .07 .06 11.8 ⫺.01 .15 ⫺.01 .15
⬎1 Week 3 1,456 .12 .12 .08 23.4 .01 .22 ⫺.01 .24
Organizational antecedents
Work load^
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ⱕ1 Week 7 4,598 ⫺.08 ⫺.09 .10 14.8 ⫺.21 .04 ⫺.29 .12
⬎1 Week ⫺.15 ⫺.16 ⫺.16 ⫺.16 ⫺.26 ⫺.07
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

3 1,015 0 100
Fatigue
ⱕ1 Week 5 560 ⫺.22 ⫺.23 .16 26.1 ⫺.43 ⫺.03 ⫺.39 ⫺.07
⬎1 Week 2 957 ⫺.13 ⫺.13 0 100 ⫺.13 ⫺.13 ⫺.21 ⫺.05
Note. k ⫽ number of studies. N ⫽ number of participants. r៮ ⫽ sample-weighted mean correlation. ␳ ⫽ estimate of population correlation corrected for
unreliability in the predictor and criterion. SD␳ ⫽ standard deviation of corrected correlation. %Var. ⫽ percentage of variance explained by artifacts. 80%
CV ⫽ 80% credibility value (L ⫽ Lower, U ⫽ Upper). 95% CI ⫽ 95% confidence interval (L ⫽ lower, U ⫽ upper). There were insufficient studies to
calculate moderated correlations for all variables included in previous tables. SD␳ is reported as 0 for all instances where Var␳ was negative.
a
Corrected correlations could not be compared because of nonpositive SD or 95% CI that include zero for both correlations. b Men ⫽ 0, women ⫽ 1.

has substantial practical value to organizations. In contrast to many
topics assessed on organizational surveys, much of the benefit of
measuring sleep can be obtained by using a single item. Indeed,
Hahn, Binnewies, and Sonnentag (2011) found that a single item
from the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) correlated .73 with
the complete PSQI, lending support to its use in assessing sleep
quality. This single item can provide an organization with a mea-
sure that is substantially correlated with employee health, affec-
tive, and attitudinal outcomes and will be easily understood by
stakeholders across the organization, and thus, should be regularly
included in employee satisfaction or well-being surveys. In addi-
tion, the current study clarified that measures of sleep quality and
quantity appear not to be notably affected by the length of time the
items reference, at least in terms of comparing more than 1 week
to less than 1 week, providing flexibility in measurement of the
construct.
Beyond the impact of sleep on workers in general, its effects are
heightened for the estimated 17–24% of employees who work
unstable shift work schedules (e.g., rotating schedules, on-call
work; Golden, 2015). The effects of night shift and irregular shift
work on disordered sleep as well as a myriad of health and
well-being outcomes are well-established (Burch et al., 2009; Haus
& Smolensky, 2006; Knutsson, 2003). Consistent tracking of sleep
among workers on such schedules should be of substantial concern
to the organizations that employ them. Training programs about
the risks of shift work and intervention strategies to reduce risk
should also be provided to both employees and their managers
(Knauth & Hornberger, 2003).
Although interventions to help poor sleepers would expend
valuable organizational resources, such interventions may provide
return on investment over the long-term given the potentially high
cost of poor employee sleep on organizations (Kessler et al., 2011).
To help employees experiencing poor sleep, organizations may
consider reducing the most difficult job demands, including hours
worked per week. Depending on the nature of the employee’s sleep
problem, increased job control may also attenuate sleep difficul-
ties, as may investigating ways of assisting employees in reducing
work-family conflict. Because alteration of job characteristics may
be difficult in some situations, organizations concerned about the
impact of sleep on employees should also consider interventions
based on previous research, which has demonstrated that short
duration of various types of psychological treatment, including
stimulus control therapy, relaxation training, and cognitive–
behavioral interventions, can beneficially impact sleep (Knauth &
Hornberger, 2003; Morin, Culbert, & Schwartz, 1994). Through
increasing focus on sleep measurement and intervention, organi-
zations have the opportunity to be leaders in promoting a healthier,
more satisfied, and more productive society.
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Received March 7, 2015
Revision received September 1, 2016
Accepted September 8, 2016 䡲