Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Solar driven cooling systems: An updated review

A. Allouhi a,n, T. Kousksou b, A. Jamil a, P. Bruel c, Y. Mourad a, Y. Zeraouli b
a
École Supérieure de Technologie de Fès, Université Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah (U.S.M.B.A), Route d’Imouzzer, BP 2427 Fez, Morocco
b
Laboratoire des Sciences de l’Ingénieur Appliquées à la Mécanique et au Génie Electrique (SIAME), Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour – IFR – A,
Jules Ferry, 64000 Pau, France
c
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laboratoire de Mathématiques et de leurs Applications, IPRA, BP 1155, Pau 64000, France

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents a review of the available technologies to provide cooling from solar energy for both
Received 2 August 2014 thermal and photovoltaic ways. Several multi-criteria performance indicators figuring in the literature
Received in revised form are presented followed by a pros and cons analysis of the different solar thermal cooling processes. A
27 October 2014
market study is also carried out to evidence the potential of these solar cooling technologies. Finally, an
Accepted 12 December 2014
overview of various solar cooling installations in Europe, Egypt and China is presented.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Solar
Cooling
Thermal
Performance

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2. Solar thermal driven refrigeration systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2.1. Sorption refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2.1.1. Absorption cooling systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.1.2. Adsorption cooling systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.1.3. Desiccant cooling systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
2.2. Thermo-mechanical refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
2.2.1. Rankine cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2.2.2. Stirling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2.2.3. Ejector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3. Solar electric refrigeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.1. Vapor compression systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.2. Striling systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.3. Thermo-electric systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4. Hybrid systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.1. Combined adsorption-desiccant refrigeration system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.2. Combined adsorption-ejector refrigeration system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.3. Combined absorption-ejector refrigeration system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.4. Hybrid desiccant-conventional cooling system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.5. Other systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5. Optimal solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.1. Review of comparison results from the literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.2. Performance indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

Abbreviations: FPC, flat plate collector; ETC, evacuated tube collector; SAT, single-axis tracking solar collector (e.g. parabolic trough collectors or Fresnel type collectors);
SAHC, solar air heating collector
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 212 670424928.
E-mail address: allouhiamine@gmail.com (A. Allouhi).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.12.014
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
160 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181

5.2.1. Efficiency indicators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

5.2.2. Technical maturity indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.2.3. Economical indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.2.4. Environmental indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.3. Summarized comparative study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.4. Observations and recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6. News of solar sorption cooling systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.1. Market status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.2. Market barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.2.1. Economic barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.2.2. Technological barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.2.3. Other barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.3. Suggested actions to the removal of market barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.4. Advances in thermal cooling systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.4.1. Absorption systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.4.2. Adsorption systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.4.3. Liquid desiccant systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.5. Installations around the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.5.1. Open cycle installations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.5.2. Closed cycle installations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.5.3. Other installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

1. Introduction
The climate model projections presented in the last Intergo-
vernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report indicate that
the global surface temperature is likely to increase by 1.1 to 6.41 C
over the next century. Continued gas emissions at or higher than
current rates would cause more warming and lead to several
changes within the global climate system throughout the twenty
first century [1]. Furthermore, according to the International
Energy Agency report [2], the World CO2 emissions were evaluated
at 30,326 MT in 2010 and will certainly increase in the future. This
environmental status will cause significant changes in the struc-
ture and function of ecosystems, the ecological interactions of
various species and their ranges.
In parallel, the demand for energy and associated services, to
satisfy social and economic development and ameliorate human
comfort and health, is continuously increasing. Since approxi-
mately 1850, the global use of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) has
dramatically raised to dominate energy supply. In fact, the Key
World Energy Statistics [2] reported that the global world elec-
tricity consumption amounted to19738 TWh in 2010, in which 68%
came from fossil origin. The situation becomes serious with the
depletion of these resources. Shafiee and Topal [3] among others
estimate the time scale of fossil depletion as follows: around 107
years for coal, 37 for gas and solely 35 for oil.
To face the current situation, several conventions were set up,
one may cite: the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone Layer (1985), the five amendments of the Montreal Protocol
(1987) or the Kyoto Protocol on Global Warming (1998). All these
initiatives aim at reducing the share of fossil fuels in the world
energy mix and diminishing the employment of substances
responsible on the ozone depletion.
Cooling applications like air- conditioning and refrigeration
become as basics of everyday life. However, the conventional
systems use some refrigerants with high ozone depletion poten-
tial. Consequently, the EC (European Commission) Regulation
2037/2000 has programmed the prohibition of HCFCs (hydro-
chlorofluorocarbons) by 2015 [4]. Taking into account all these
circumstances, new thinking on the development of renewable
energies as a solution to meet human needs while saving the
environment has become a world top priority. Exploring solar
energy seems a fascinating idea since cooling needs coincide most
of the time with the solar radiation availability. In this sense,
different studies and researches were conducted to develop new
cooling technologies employing solar energy. Most of the pro-
posed cycles are able to eliminate or reduce considerably the
harmful effects of traditional refrigerating machines while allow-
ing interesting energy savings.
The aim of this paper is to give an overview of the state-of-the-art
of solar cooling systems for both thermal and electric paths. Hybrid
systems as well as the recent developments of solar refrigeration
technologies are also discussed. A comparison of the main techniques
is investigated and performance indicators relative to the relevant
technology choices are presented.

Table 1
Available solar thermal collectors in the market [5]

Motion Collector type Concentration ratio Temperature range (1C)

Stationary Flat plate collector (FPC) 1 30–200

Evacuated tube collector (ETC) 1 50–200
Compound parabolic collector (CPC) 1–5 60–300

Single-axis tracking Linear Fresnel reflector (LFR) 10–40 60–250

Parabolic trough collector (PTC) 15–45 50–400
Cylindrical trough collector (CTC) 10–50 60–300

Two-axes tracking Parabolic dish reflector (PDR) 600–2000 100–1500

Heliostat field collector (HFC) 300–1500 150–2000
 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181
2. Solar thermal driven refrigeration systems
In thermal cooling systems, the sun heats directly the refrigerant
via a solar collector. A large number of solar collectors are available in
the market. A comprehensive list is shown in Table 1 [5]. A
comparison of theoretical efficiency of five representative collector
types at irradiation grades of 500 and 1000 W/m2 was performed by
Kalogirou [6] and the results are presented in Fig. 1. Recently, the
Institut für Solartechnik (SPF) presented real curves for some thermal
collectors whose maximum efficiency is close to 0.9 [7]. Actually,
solar thermal collectors are widely studied because of their indis-
pensability in thermal applications [8–10] and their market is in a
progressive growth (see Fig. 2 [11]).
We should note that thermal collectors presented in Fig. 1 are
the most encountered in solar cooling systems since their outlet
temperatures are in respect with the driven temperatures required
in solar cooling cycles.
In what follows, the different refrigeration techniques using the
thermal path are presented.
2.1. Sorption refrigeration
In solar sorption systems, the thermal power is the driven
power instead of the electric work communicated to the com-
pressor of a conventional machine. Such cycles utilize physical or
Fig. 1. A comparison of theoretical efficiency of five representative collector types [6]. Comments: FPC: Flat Plate Collector AFP: Advanced Flat Plate Collector CPC: Compound
parabolic collector ETC: Evacuated Tube Collector PTC: Parabolic Trough Concentrator
Fig. 2. EU Solar Thermal market 2000–2010 [11].
161
chemical attraction between a pair of substances (the sorbent and
the sorbate) to produce the refrigeration effect. Two types of
processes can be identified: closed and opened cycles.
The principle of a closed sorption cooling system is described in
Fig. 3. The generator picks-up the heat Qg from the solar collector
to reactivate the sorbent which absorbed the refrigerant in the
absorber. The refrigerant is then vaporized and subsequently
condensed in the condenser with the release of the condensation
heat Qc to the ambient. The regenerated sorbent returns to the
absorber, where the sorbent absorbs the refrigerant vapor coming
from the evaporator. During this process, the sorption heat Qa is
pulled to ambient. In the evaporator, the liquefied refrigerant from
the condenser evaporates and extract the heat Qe from the
refrigerated load. In an adsorption system, the sorbent is a porous
medium having the ability of adsorbing and desorbing the
refrigerant. The coefficient of performance (COP) in such systems
can be written as:
Qe
COP ¼ ð1Þ
Q g þ W el
where Wel denotes the additional electrical work caused by
the pump.
The overall efficiency of solar sorption systems is given by:
Qe
η¼ ð2Þ
Qs
162 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181
Fig. 3. Solar sorption refrigeration process.
Qs is the heat received by the solar collector from the sun.
Qs can be expressed as:
Q s ¼ I p  As ð3Þ
where As is the collector surface (m) and Ip is the solar radiation
(W/m2).
2.1.1. Absorption cooling systems
Absorption refers to the process in which a substance pene-
trates and gets incorporated into another one of a different state.
These two states create a special attraction to form a strong
solution called mixture. This process is reversible and can occur
by heating the mixture.
The absorption liquid chillers operate with the property of
some mediums to absorb liquid (exothermic reaction) and desorb
(endothermic reaction) steam. This was the first type of solar
refrigeration systems introduced by Ferdinand Carré in 1895. At a
village scale, Worsøe-Schmidt [12] developed a solar-driven
refrigeration system based on a solid-absorption (CaCl2/NH3) cycle
designated for developing countries.
The most used couples are Ammonia and Water (NH3/H2O) where
ammonia is the refrigerant, or Water and Lithium Bromide (H2O/LiBr),
where water is the refrigerant. The first couple can produce negative
cold, so it can be used for air conditioning needs and industrial
refrigeration, while the second can only make positive cold so it is just
used for buildings cooling. Other types of solutions were used like:
NH3/LiNO3 [13], LiBr / HO (CH2) OH [14] and others [15], but they are
still under development because of their poor performance.
According to Gordon and Ng [16], the COP of a single-stage
cycle ranges from 0.6 to 0.8. The COP can increase to 1.35 for a
two-stage cycle and about 1.7 for a triple effect machine.
The cycle can use flat plate solar collectors, evacuated tube
collector for double effect and concentrated parabolic collector or
evacuated tube collector for triple effect case [17]. Similar to
absorption cycle, the Diffusion-Absorption Cycle called also
Platen-Munters refrigerator, uses inert gas to keep a constant total
pressure in the whole system [18].
The development of solar absorption systems is clearly observed
through several researches have realized since 2003 in different
countries: Atmaca and Yigit [19] studied a solar driven single stage
absorption cooling system using a water–lithium bromide solution.
They developed a modular computer program to simulate various
cycle configurations and solar energy parameters for Antalya (Turkey).
Assilzadeh et al. [20] presented a solar cooling system designed for
Malaysia and other similar tropical regions using evacuated tube solar
collectors and a LiBr absorption unit. The simulation of the system was
investigated with TRNSYS software. The authors concluded that the
system can produce 1 t of refrigeration and determined the optimum
design parameters (a 35 m2 of evacuated tube collectors sloped 20 1C,
a 0.8 m3 hot storage tank and a pump flow rate of 0.25 kg/s). In
Tunisia, Bouaziz et al. [21] proposed a model of irreversible cycle and
optimization study of an absorption cycle, operating between four
temperature sources. Their model takes in consideration the irrever-
sibility of the thermal resistance between the machine and the
environment. Then, Balghouthi et al. [22] evaluated the feasibility of
solar air-conditioning in Tunisia, with simulations using the TRNSYS
and EES programs. In Spain, Castro et al. [23] built a prototype of an
air-cooled absorption chiller of 2 kW for air-conditioning application.
The selected pair was H2O–LiBr. Design specifications concerning the
heat exchangers involved were discussed. Targeted to the Algerian
climate, Kherris et al. [24] proposed an absorption-diffusion type
system, working with ammonia-water mixtures and hydrogen as inert
gas. The system COP was evaluated under different working conditions
with a maximum value exceeding 0.46. In order to contribute to the
reduction of electrical energy consumption in the building sector in
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; Said et al. [25] developed an alternate
design for a continuous operating solar- powered absorption refrig-
eration system using water-ammonia as working pair. Their analysis
indicates that the proposed solution allows an uninterrupted supply of
cooling with a COP larger than 0.6 under some conditions.
Very recently, several novel studies were investigated comprising
energy and exergy analyses [26–28]. Nowadays, absorption chillers
are present in the market in different power ranges and can be used
for both refrigeration and air-conditioning applications.
2.1.2. Adsorption cooling systems
The adsorption phenomenon corresponds to a solid (the
adsorbent)-gas (the refrigerant) surface interaction. The nature of
this interaction may be physical or chemical depending on causing
 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181
adsorption forces. In the physical adsorption, the molecules of the
refrigerant come to be fixed at the surface of adsorbent via
connections of the type Van Der Waals [29]. On the contrary,
chemical adsorption corresponds to the sharing of electrons
between the gas and the solid resulting in the involvement of
much higher energy levels.
One other difference between physical and chemical adsorption
relies on the solid/gas pair involved (Activated carbon-ammonia,
activated carbon-methanol or Silica gel-water for the physical
adsorption and ammonia salts with alkaline compounds or Hydro-
gen and Metal hydrides with low-hysteresis intermetallic for the
chemical adsorption). In all cases, the adsorption working pairs are
the critical components, and almost all the recent work on the
subject has been devoted to the improvement of the adsorber
efficiency by properly selecting the optimal pair [30–32].
Many systems integrate the adsorbent bed and the collector
together [33–35]. Thus, the adsorbent is packed in the solar
collector. For a continuous functioning, it is necessary to combine
two adsorption cycles and such systems can achieve a COP of 0.6.
Some researchers suggest a four-adsorber/desorber configuration
to improve the COP under some conditions [36]. Recently, novel
adsorption pairs were introduced by Askalany et al. [37] involving
composite adsorbents [38].
Many works were conducted in different countries to evaluate
the adsorption cooling systems under different climates: Buchter
et al. [39] presented the results of an adsorptive solar refrigerator
which was built and tested in May 1999 in Ouagadougou (Burkina-
Faso). The selected pair was activated carbon-methanol. The
machine reached a solar coefficient of performance of 0.13. Clausse
et al. [40] evaluated the possibility to produce heating and air-
conditioning of a special building situated near Paris (France),
using enhanced compound parabolic solar collectors to drive the
adsorption system. These authors introduced activated carbon-
methanol as the working pair and identified possible energy
savings. In China, Xu [41] performed a mathematical model for a
ribbed plate type adsorption bed operating with activated carbon-
ammonia. His simulation results showed that the system offers
better thermal conductivity of the adsorbent and lager heat
transfer field. Santori et al. [42] developed an autonomous solar
adsorption refrigerator (ice making) for humanitarian aid, using
Fig. 4. The principle of the solid desiccation cooling.
163
the activated carbon-methanol pair. The prototype tested under the
Italian climate (Messina) was able to produce 5 kg of ice with a solar
COP of 0.08 for 1.2 m2 of thermal collector area. El Fadar et al. [43]
tried to overcome the intermittence of the adsorption refrigeration
cycle via the implementation of a thermal sensible storage and a
two-adsorber configuration. Under the climatic conditions of Tetouan
(Morocco), this system achieved a cycle COP of 0.43 and a cooling
effect of 2515 kJ for a collector area of 0.8 m2. In the field of small
scale adsorption chillers, the SotTech AG Company evaluated the
performances, the efficiency and the technology potential of a solar
cooling installation in Austria [44]. Lately, many works were carried
out concerning the improvement of the system efficiency [45], the
test of environmentally friendly pairs [46, 148], the overcoming of the
intermittent character of the adsorption cycle [47] and the system
optimization [48].
2.1.3. Desiccant cooling systems
Desiccant cooling involves a combination of dehumidification
and evaporative cooling processes. It is considered as an open
cycle sorption cooling system because sorbent is used to dehumi-
dify air. Different desiccants can be found either in liquid or solid
phases.
2.1.3.1. Solid desiccation. Solid desiccation generally uses rotating
adsorption wheels made of Silica gel, zeolite or lithium chloride as
sorption materials. Fig. 4 illustrates the principle of this application.
– The outside air (hot and humid) enters in the system and cross
the desiccant wheel in rotation, in order to be dehumidified
(path 1-2). Because the adsorption reaction is exothermic, the
air is heated.
– The air then goes into a heat exchanger, to be pre-cooled
thanks to the extracted heat from the room (path 2-3). Several
technologies are possible like the rotary exchanger. The air is
then wetted to obtain the desired cooling effect (path 3-4-5).
– The extracted air from the room is again moistened, to reduce
even more its temperature (path 6-7). This air passes through
the rotary heat exchanger, to cool the new air during the
164 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181

Fig. 5. The principle of the liquid desiccation cooling.

Fig. 6. Solar thermo-mechanical refrigeration principle.

operation (2-3). Therefore, the air temperature rises between
points 7 and 8.
– The air is then heated to a temperature level compatible with
the solar production between points 8 and 9.
– The resulting heated air passes through the desiccant wheel, in
order to desorb the water contained in the adsorbent (regen-
eration step path 9-10).
The technological and economic viability of these technologies
was demonstrated by many authors. For instance, Henning et al.
[49] concluded that this process allows a saving up to 50% of
primary energy compared with a conventional solution with
mechanical vapor compression and have very low operating costs
and protect the environment. However, for further improvement
of the efficiency of these processes, it is necessary to enhance the
dehumidification operation and the regulation system [50,51].
Kanoğlu et al. [52] presented a method for energy and exergy
analyses of open-cycle desiccant cooling systems. The procedure
was applied to an experimental device functioning in a ventilation
mode with natural zeolite as the sorbent material. They obtained a
COP of 0.35 and an exergy efficiency of 11.1%. Schnabe et al. [53]
has introduced a thermally solar stand-alone air conditioning
system using desiccant wheels which has been installed and
monitored at an office building in Germany. The proposed config-
uration was operated with silica gel and used air collector. Authors
found that the COP is strongly linked to the operating and climatic
conditions as well as design specifications.
Some hybrid systems using rotary desiccant dehumidification
were discussed by La et al. [54] and Khalid et al. [55]. Recently, La
et al. [56] studied a solar driven two-stage rotary desiccant cooling
system assisted by a vapor compression air-conditioning system.
These authors pointed out that this type of solar cooling installa-
tions requires a special design in the case of high humidity
conditions encountered for instance under coastal or tropical
climate [57].
2.1.3.2. Liquid desiccation. In the case of liquid desiccation, the
dehydration process is accomplished by absorption. The desiccant
wheel is replaced by a dehumidifier and a regenerator. These
 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181 165

elements provide cooling of the air blown through an absorbent (EST) is less than 1 because of optical and thermal losses in the
solution, generally Water-Lithium Chloride [58] or Water-Calcium collector.
chloride [59,60]. The main difference compared with the Qg Qg
absorption process lies in the way the equilibrium temperature EST ¼ ¼ ð4Þ
Q s I p  As
is varying. In the case of a liquid desiccant; this temperature is not
found by the total pressure but by the partial pressure of the liquid The heat engine receives Qg in order to produce the mechanical
used in the humid air to which the solution is exposed to [61]. The work W and rejects heat Qa to ambient at a temperature TM. The
principle of this process is described in Fig. 5: engine efficiency (EE) is defined as the work produced per heat
input Qg as shown in the equation below
– The outside air (1) enters the absorber in order to be dehumi- W
dified. The absorption heat (generated by an exothermic reac- EE ¼ ð5Þ
Qg
tion) is discharged outside through the cooling tower.
– The air (2) then passes through a humidifier in order to be Through the mechanical work W, the compressor of the
cooled at the desired temperature, then is blown into the room refrigeration machine is driven so as to extract the heat Qe from
to be cooled (3). the cooling load at temperature TL. The heat Qc being rejected into
– The diluted solution created in the absorber is sprayed into the the ambient at temperature TM.
desorber above exchanger powered by the solar heat Knowing that the cooling efficiency CE is obtained by:
(endothermic reaction). Qe
– The extracted air from the building is blown into the regen- CE ¼ ð6Þ
W
erator (4). The resulting heated and moistened air is then
The overall system efficiency is expressed by:
discharged to the outside (5). The concentrated solution
obtained returns to the dehumidifier for a new cycle. Qg W Qe Qe Qe
η ¼ EST  EE  CE ¼   ¼ ¼ ð7Þ
Q s Q g W Q s I p  As
In order to increase the performance of the system by reducing
the quantity of heat to be supplied to the regenerator, a heat
recovery exchanger is installed between the diluted solution
leaving the regenerator and the concentrated solution leaving
the dehumidifier.
In principle, the COP of an open desiccant system is equal to
that of its closed counterpart. In fact, according to Gommed and
Grossman [62] who constructed a 16 kW installation in Haifa
(Mediterranean city), the system COP can reach 0.8 and could
increase if parasitic losses were minimized. Recently, Tu et al. [63]
carried out a performance analysis and a comparison between two
novel configurations of liquid desiccant air-conditioning system
operating with low grade thermal energies. These authors high-
lighted that both of these configurations, compared with other
liquid desiccant systems, may have some specific advantages such
as improving indoor air quality, presenting a compact structure
and making a better utilization of the space exhaust air to cool the
process air.

2.2. Thermo-mechanical refrigeration

In a solar thermo-mechanical refrigeration system, the aim is to

convert the solar heat into a mechanical work that can drive the
compressor of vapor compression, Rankine or Stirling power
machines. A schematic diagram of the system is presented in
Fig. 6.
The thermal collector supplies a heat Qg to the heat engine at
the temperature TH. The efficiency of the solar thermal collector Fig. 8. Ejector refrigeration cycle.

Fig. 7. Rankine cycle.

166 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181

2.2.1. Rankine cycle fabrication and the test of a prototype involving a solar-driven
Solar Rankine systems were proposed in the USA between 1975 Rankine cycle heat pump, as well as the assembly and field test of
and 1980 at the time of the oil crisis. However, the system was not the solar powered chiller. R11 was used as the working fluid and
competitive from an economic point of view. Solar energy can the COP in heat pump mode was claimed to be in the range of
drive both steam and organic Rankine cycles. Compared with a 1.5 to 3.0.
steam Rankine cycle, the solar-powered organic Rankine cycle The development of these systems stagnated until the turn of
with small-scale capacity has a low working temperature, high the 21st century, when new combined cycles were proposed. For
energy conversion efficiency and less harmful impact on the instance, a novel hybrid solar/gas system based on the combina-
environment [64]. Organic Rankine power cycle and a vapor tion of an ejector heat pump cycle with a Rankine cycle and using
compression refrigeration cycle can be put together as a Duplex- N-Pentane as refrigerant was analyzed by Oliveira et al. [69], the
Rankine system (Fig. 7). It uses the high-pressure vapor fluid to system can provide cooling/heating and electricity generation for
drive a turbine in the power cycle. buildings and the authors qualified the system as viable and
In the framework of a project jointly funded by Honeywell Inc., reliable.
and the National Science Foundation, Prigmore and Barber [65] Last but nut not least, a system that combines the Rankine
discussed the development of a demonstration prototype supply- power cycle and an absorption refrigeration cycle using an
ing residential cooling and electricity generation via a solar ammonia-water mixture as a working medium proved to be quite
organic Rankine cycle using R-113/R-12. The design solar collector attractive since both electricity and cooling can be produced by the
water temperature point was about 101.6 1C, providing an R-113 same machine [70,71].
temperature at the turbine inlet of 93.3 1C. Rankine cycle efficiency
was 11.5% and a 85% efficient R-12 compressor yields an overall 2.2.2. Stirling
coefficient of performance (COP) goal of 0.71. The principle of the Stirling refrigeration cycle consists on
Two years later, Lior [66] studied the application of a combined volume changes caused by pistons which lead to a change in
solar-powered, fuel-superheated Rankine cycle heat pump invol- pressure and temperature of the gas (compression). During this
ving a steam turbine. This cycle drives the heat pump in the process, the working gas does not undergo any phase change [72].
cooling mode. In the heating mode, fuel-fired drives the heat Such a system is recommended for specific applications compa-
pump. According to the obtained results, energy savings of 50–60% tible with a low temperature range. The thermal efficiency of the
were obtained in the cooling mode. In the heating mode, the cycle with ideal regeneration is the same as that of the Carnot
resource energy use was reduced by a factor of 3 to 4. cycle. A reasonable amount of work is obtained from the Stirling
The question of the choice of the optimum working fluids was cycle without the necessity of using very high pressures or large
dealt with by Wali [67]. He reported the results of an investigation swept volumes, as in the Carnot cycle. Furthermore, compared
of different possible working fluids suitable for solar organic
Rankine cycle applied to buildings cooling. He found that only Table 2
the halocarbon compounds R-11, R-113 and R-114 and the fluor Different PV cells technologies present in the market.
inert compounds FC-75 and FC-88 satisfied safety requirements.
PV cells Classification Efficiency(%)
A higher level of performance was achieved by the Biancardi
et al. [68] system. These authors described the design, the Silicon Si (crystalline) 25.0 7 0.5
Si (multicrystalline) 20.4 7 0.5
Si (thin film transfer) 19.17 0.4
III–V cells GaAs (thin film) 28.3 7 0.8
GaAs (multicrystalline) 18.4 7 0.5
Thin film chalcogenide CIGS (cell) 19.6 7 0.6
CdTe (cell) 16.7 7 0.5
Photochemical Dye sensitized 11.0 7 0.3
Organic thin film 10.0 7 0.3
Multijunction devices GaInP/GaInAs/Ge 34.17 1.2
a-Si/nc-Si (thin film cell) 12.3 7 0.3
Fig. 9. Solar photovoltaic refrigeration principle.

Fig. 10. World PV Cell/Module Production from 2005 to 2012 [78].

 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181 167

with all reciprocal piston heat engines working in these condi-
tions, the ideal Stirling engine enjoys the maximum possible
mechanical efficiency [73].
The solar-powered Stirling engine may be attractive for its high
efficiency at low capacity and its capability of producing both
power generation and refrigeration. However, these engines are
quite complex and require a high quality heat at temperatures
between 600 and 700 1C. Thus, the use of a high quality solar
collector is highly recommended. Finally, this technology is prac-
tically limited in term of capacity since its efficiency is a decreasing
function of the capacity.
2.2.3. Ejector
Solar ejector refrigeration is a low grade thermal energy driven
technology. It has been developed by replacing the compressor
with a generator, an ejector and a pump in the vapor compression
cycle [74] (See Fig. 8). Currently, the ejector refrigeration technol-
ogy can be classified into three main groups: Single, multi-stage
ejector refrigeration systems, and hybrid systems. The single stage
ejector system is the simplest form of this technology and is
widely installed worldwide. The first models used some CFC and
HFCF refrigerants [75], but recently, researchers tested different
safer refrigerants like hydrocarbon [76] or hydrofluoroether [77].
Solar ejector technologies have a COP usually inferior of 0.3 than
vapor compression systems, but they are attractive due to their
simplicity, the absence of moving parts and their low operating
and installation costs. Their major drawbacks are the complicated
design of the ejector and the difficulty to operate them over a wide
range of ambient temperatures.
gallium selenide/sulfide or Cadmium Telluride. The first genera-
tion of PV cells was characterized by a single junction crystal based
on silicon wafers (single and multi-crystalline silicon). While the
second generation was based on thinner films in order to reduce
the materials cost, the third generation concept incorporates
double or triple junctions as well as nanotechnology [79]. But
the still low efficiency of the photovoltaic panels remains their
major disadvantage calling development of new PV technology not
only to improve the cell efficiency [80], but also to reduce the
production cost of the PV modules [81–83].
An extensive listing of the highest independently confirmed
efficiencies for solar cells and modules measured under the global
AM1.5 spectrum (1000 W/m2) at 25 1C was presented by Green
et al. [82]. The most important types are presented in Table 2.
3.1. Vapor compression systems
The conventional vapor compression system is the most widely
spread technology available on the market for both air condition-
ing and refrigeration applications. Their solar based counterpart
(see Fig. 11 [61]) is still quite expensive due to its high installation
costs and the low efficiency of the photovoltaic panels. The main
advantage consists on its effective and simple design. It can be also
implemented in remote area far from the electricity grid if the
requested cooling capacity remains modest.

3. Solar electric refrigeration

A solar electric refrigeration system consists mainly of photo-

voltaic panels, electronics of regulation and an electrical refrigera-
tion device (see Fig. 9).
The overall efficiency of a solar electric refrigeration system is
written as:
Qe W Qe Qe
η¼  ¼ ¼ ð8Þ
W Q S Q s I p  As

where W is the electrical work required by the electric refrigera-

tion device.
Currently, photovoltaic (PV) cells are present in the market in
different power ranges, prices and efficiencies and are increasingly
adopted (see Fig. 10 [78]). Solar cells produce direct current
electricity from sunlight, using materials as mono-crystalline
silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, copper indium Fig. 12. A thermo-electric cooling and heating system driven by solar [93].

Fig. 11. Solar photovoltaic vapor compression system [61].

168 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181
The vapor compression refrigeration system utilizes a refriger-
ant (liquid state) circulating in the closed system and it is liberated
across its different components. The refrigerant absorbs and
releases heat from the space to be cooled, rejecting the rest of
the heat while passing through the components of the system.
Some medical, food and vaccine transportation and household
applications are the current applications for such systems. Solar
thermal collectors can also be suggested with a Rankine engine, to
convert heat into a useful work for the compressor [84].
3.2. Striling systems
The ideal Stirling cycle consists of two isothermal reversible
processes and two constant-volume reversible processes. Stirling
coolers can provide temperatures as low as 10 K [85]. Mennink and
Berchowitz [86] presented an analysis concerning the develop-
ment of a Stirling cooler for vacuum super insulated fridges with
thermal storage and photovoltaic power source for industrialized
and developing countries. The same authors presented a demon-
stration prototype at the 12th European Photovoltaic Conference
(April 1994), a COP of 3 was reported at an ambient temperature of
25 1C.
Stirling refrigerators are presently being used for cryogenic
cooling applications, where they are more efficient than the vapor
compression based systems. Pure Helium is in general the working
fluid used in such systems thanks to its extremely low liquefaction
temperature (4.2 K) and other appropriate characteristics.
Many companies produce this type of coolers in America [87]
and Japan [88].
Fig. 13. Combined Adsorption-Desiccant refrigeration system [97].
A novel combined configuration using a thermally-driven
thermo-acoustic refrigerator system without any moving part
was proposed by Luo et al. [89]. This cooling unit consists of a
heat engine and a thermo-acoustic-Stirling refrigerator. The sys-
tem has so far achieved a no-load temperature of  65 1C, a
cooling capacity of about 270 W at 20 1C and 405 W at 0 1C. In
fact, the result showed a favorable perspective of the system for
room-temperature cooling applications like food refrigeration and
air-conditioning.
3.3. Thermo-electric systems
In thermo-electric refrigeration, the cooling effect is caused by
creating an electric current through the electric circuit containing
junctions of different metals. This phenomenon is called the
reversed Seebeck effect [90–92]. Instead of the refrigerant, elec-
trons moving in the system are used as heat carrier to extract heat
from the cooling load. Thermo-electric elements are produced
from semi-conducting materials like bismuth telluride and anti-
mony telluride alloys Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3. Thermo-electric refrigera-
tion technology is preferable for moderate and quite low
temperature applications as in electronic chip cooling, portable
refrigerators and space applications. Fig. 12 shows the basic
diagram of an experimental investigation on a thermo-electric
cooling and heating, solar driven system conducted by He et al.
[93] with a PV thermal dual system.
The absence of moving parts and working fluid is one of the
main advantages of the thermo-electric cooling system. Moreover,
its structure is compact with a low voltage fan (that can operate
directly from 12-volt batteries or electricity supplied from PV
 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181 169

panels). The system is also insensitive to orientation and has a long
lifetime period. However, the COP is currently very low, ranging
from 0.1 to 0.4, and for a PV system, installation cost is expensive
and requires battery for the energy backup [94].
Sofrata [95] assessed the performance of thermo-electric refrig-
erator driven by photovoltaic cells, by investigating an effective heat
rejection procedure for the hot side of thermo-electric modules. Many
heat rejection alternatives have been tested. The system achieved a
minimum temperature of  3 1C. This author suggested some
improvements to increase the performance of the refrigerator.
Some thermoelectric air-conditioners with a small power
capacity are also available in the market [96].
4. Hybrid systems
Some combined or hybrid systems have also been suggested to
provide cooling from solar energy. They are briefly described in
the following subsection.

Fig. 14. Combined Adsorption-Ejector Refrigeration System [98].

Fig. 15. Combined Absorption-Ejector Refrigeration System [99].

170 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181
4.1. Combined adsorption-desiccant refrigeration system
Dai et al. [97] presented a hybrid solar cooling system, which
combines the technologies of rotary desiccant dehumidification
and solid adsorption refrigeration in order to provide cooling of
grain storage (See Fig. 13 [97]). The key components of the system
are the rotary desiccant wheel and the solar adsorption collector.
Three subsystems were considered: solid intermittent adsorption
refrigeration, desiccant dehumidification, and cold storage. The
system used activated carbon and methanol as working pair. The
study concluded that compared with the solid adsorption refrig-
eration system alone, the new hybrid system performs better.
Under typical conditions, the COP of the system is greater than
0.4 and the outlet temperature is less than 20 1C.
4.2. Combined adsorption-ejector refrigeration system
A solar driven combined solid adsorption–ejector refrigeration
and heating hybrid system as described in Fig. 14 was proposed by
Zhang and Wang [98] who elaborated the thermodynamic theory
of the system. The performance simulation and analysis were
made under normal working conditions. In this combined system,
a zeolite–water working pair was selected. Compared with an
adsorption system without an ejector having a COP of 0.3, the
combined system's COP was improved by 10% and reached a value
of 0.33.
Fig. 16. Hybrid desiccant-conventional cooling System [104].
4.3. Combined absorption-ejector refrigeration system
The concept of this combined cycle is to minimize the throttle
loss of the conventional absorption refrigeration by using an
ejector. Sözen and Özalp [99] presented a solar-driven ejector-
absorption cycle (see Fig. 15 [99]) whose feasibility was studied for
Turkey. According to the analysis, the system COP about 0.2, for an
8-month period (March to October). A performance study of a
similar system was also carried out by Göktun [100] who evi-
denced an increase of about 40% of the COP compared with that of
an ordinary absorption cycle.
In 2002, Jiang et al. [101] presented a thermo-economical analysis
comparison between an absorption–ejector hybrid refrigeration
system and a small double-effect absorption system. They concluded
that the COP of the three-pressure absorption–ejector refrigeration
system reached 0.9–1.0 and was slightly lower than that of the
commercial double-effect absorption refrigeration system. Economic-
ally speaking, the hybrid system had a lower annual total cost.
4.4. Hybrid desiccant-conventional cooling system
Generally used for air-conditioning, the first invention of a
hybrid desiccant-conventional system was made by Peterson and
Howell in 1990 [102]. This technology used a vapor compression
air conditioning system embodying a liquid desiccant for simulta-
neously cooling and dehumidifying conditioned air. The invention
used aqueous solutions of glycol or brine as the liquid desiccant.
 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181
Later on, Yadav [103] presented a thermodynamic modeling of a
system combining conventional vapor compression and liquid-
desiccant cycles using R-11 as refrigerant and water-LiBr as liquid
desiccant. The author studied the effect of operating parameters
on the system COP and cooling capacity. It was concluded that the
hybrid system is more promising under high latent heat load or
higher ambient humidity conditions.
A similar system (See Fig. 16 [104]) was proposed by Dai et al.
[104]. Their experimental investigation demonstrated that the
cooling production and COP of the new hybrid system can be
increased significantly (between 20% and 30%) compared with
those of vapor compression system alone.
4.5. Other systems
A novel method, the electrochemical absorption refrigeration
system was published in 1997, and consists of four main compo-
nents. A schematic diagram of this refrigeration cycle is given in
Fig. 17 [105]. The main system parts are:
– An electrochemical cell playing the role of a heat absorber,
equivalent to the evaporator of conventional vapor compres-
sion machine.
– A fuel cell rejecting heat equivalent to the condenser of a vapor
compression refrigeration system.
– A heat exchanger between gas streams and water flow stream.
– A current pump for bringing up the fuel cell's voltage to a
sufficient level for driving the electrochemical cell.
Environmentally speaking, the system operates without refrig-
erant compounds that participate in the ozone depletion or the
global warming. However, safety considerations linked with the
movement of oxygen and hydrogen must be addressed
A multi-aspect analysis including technical feasibility, design
parameters, modeling and transport processes of two-groups of
electrochemical refrigeration systems have been undertaken by
Gerlach and Newell [106]. It was found that the major problem of
such techniques is the high system sensitivity to losses in the cells.
One method able to use solar thermal path is the Thermally
Regenerative Electrochemical System (TRES), which has been
developed to be used in power generation systems. A wide variety
of designs and cycles are proposed. The driven temperatures vary
Fig. 17. Electrochemical absorption refrigeration System.
171
from several hundred degrees to 1200 1C. Therefore, the electro-
chemical couples are not directly transferable to systems at or
below room temperature needed for cooling applications
[107,108]. However this technology is still young its technical
feasibility has still to be investigated.
Another future alternative cooling technology is the magnetic
refrigeration based on the magneto-caloric effect. Depending on
the design of the system, this technique can be applied to attain
extremely low temperatures, as well as the range commonly used
in refrigerators,
This process uses specific materials with a high entropy change
like La(FexSi1  x)13Hx, Gd5(SixGe1  x)4, and MnFeP1  xAsx alloys.
They are called Giant Magneto-Caloric Effect (GMCE) materials
[109,110]. The disadvantages of this technology are the limited
temperature range and requirements for stable operation tem-
peratures. As a result, a combination of the adiabatic and magnetic
refrigeration processes can be a very promising solution. Food
refrigeration is one possible application [111]. However, for solar
applications this technology is still at its beginning [112].
5. Optimal solution
5.1. Review of comparison results from the literature
In 1998, Henning et al. [113] published an interesting compara-
tive study of three solar technologies (absorption, adsorption,
desiccant cooling) with various solar collectors. These systems
were applied to an office building with an area of 400 m². The
building was air conditioned with a set temperature according to
the German Institute for Standardization. Three regions were
chosen as reference: Copenhagen, Freiburg (medium hot climate)
and Trapani (hot and humid). According to the authors, payback
periods of solar cooling systems vary from 5.8 years (in the case of
absorption technology without back-up) and 37.7 years (in the
case of adsorption technology with a solar fraction of 90%). The
authors pointed out also that desiccant cooling technique allows a
lower potential of energy saving compared to thermal driven
chillers (absorption and adsorption technologies) because of the
significant electric consumption of fans in the case of desiccant
system. In this study, economic calculations were sufficiently
detailed, but energy ratios were not well specified.
172 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181

Table 3
Potential of energy savings for solar cooling systems [115].

Installation details Energy saving (%)

Technology Climate Building type Floor space (m2) Collector type Collector area (m2) Backup type

Lowest energy saving potential Adsorption Freiburg Hotel 643 FPC 180 Electric 29
Absorption Freiburg Hotel 643 FPC 150 Electric 25
Desiccant Perpignan Lecture room 240 FPC 150 Heat 16
Highest energy saving potential Adsorption Madrid Office 930 CPC 180 Heat 55
Absorption Madrid Hotel 643 ETC 150 Heat 52
Desiccant Madrid Lecture room 216 CPC 150 Electric 56

Table 4
Technology readiness level (TRL) method description.

Technology readiness level Description

TRL 1 Basic principles observed and reported

TRL 2 Technology concept and/or application formulated
TRL 3 Analytical & experimental critical function and/or characteristic proof-of-concept
TRL 4 Component and/or breadboard validation in laboratory environment
TRL 5 Component and/or breadboard validation in relevant environment
TRL 6 System/subsystem model or prototype demonstration in a relevant environment (ground or space)
TRL 7 System prototype demonstration in a space environment
TRL 8 Actual system completed and “Flight qualified” through test and demonstration (ground or space)
TRL 9 Actual system “Flight proven” through successful mission operations

As a part of the SACE project (Solar Air Conditioning in Europe),
other studies [114,115] attempted to evaluate the state-of-the-art,
future needs and overall prospects of solar cooling in Europe. The
survey and analysis concerned more than 50 solar-powered cool-
ing projects in numerous climatic zones. It was found that:
– The initial investment costs were much higher for solar cooling
technologies compared to the reference system (electric com-
pression chiller). For instance, this cost is 267% of the initial
cost of the reference system (310 €/kW) for absorption tech-
nology and 336% of the initial cost of the reference system in
the case of adsorption technology.
– According to the climate, the cooling load profile of the
building and the design parameters, the primary energy sav-
ings range from 29 to 55% for adsorption technology, from 25%
to 52% for absorption technology and from 16 to 56% for the
desiccant cooling system (Table 3).
– Related cost of saved primary energy lies at about 0.07 €/kW h
for the most promising conditions.
– Absorption systems average thermal COP ranged from 0.5 to
0.73, and can be up to 1.3 in the case of double effect when the
driving temperature is superior to 165 1C.
– The adsorption systems have slightly lower thermal COP (0.59)
than the absorption systems and can be applied at lower
driving temperatures, in the range of 53–82 1C.
– The thermal COP of the liquid desiccant system is 0.74 against
0.51 for a solid desiccant system.
Recently, a comparative study was directed by Fong et al. [116],
including three solar cooling technologies using the thermal path
(absorption, adsorption and solid desiccant processes), solar elec-
tric and mechanical refrigeration methods. The study concerned
the cooling of a typical office in the subtropical region of Hong
Kong. The authors found that, compared with the conventional
electric air-cooled refrigeration system, solar technologies allowed
an annual energy savings between 15.6% and 48.3%. In addition,
they concluded that solar electric compression refrigeration and
solar absorption refrigeration methods had the better energy
saving potential, while adsorption refrigeration was just slightly
higher (in term of energy savings) than the conventional vapor
compression refrigeration. In terms of performance, the solar solid
desiccant has the highest cooling capacity, but the largest energy
consumption.
Comparative studies concerning solar cooling solutions are not
many in the literature. A relative heterogeneity can be observed in
the announced results. This heterogeneity can be explained by the
variability of the system design, its operating conditions and the
mathematical models used in the case of simulation studies.
Therefore, the establishment of standard performance indicators
will have an extreme interest to reply to the question of the optimum
choice.
5.2. Performance indicators
In order to select the optimal solar cooling technology, the
tested system response to the following criteria has to be mea-
sured: the efficiency, the technical maturity, the economic feasi-
bility and the environmental impact. Accordingly, for each one of
these criteria, relevant indicators must be defined.
5.2.1. Efficiency indicators
5.2.1.1. Solar fraction SF. The Solar fraction or Solar Savings fraction
measures the amount of energy provided by the solar technology
divided by the total energy required, for the solar thermal cooling
system, it is defined as:
Qs
SF ¼ ð9Þ
Q s þ Q aux
where: Qs is the heat provided by the sun and Qaux is the heat
output of the auxiliary heater (kW). With low values of the term
Qaux we have a higher value of the SF.
5.2.1.2. Coefficient of performance COP. The Coefficient of
Performance COP (Eq. 1) and the solar Coefficient of
Performance (SCOP) (Eq. 10) depending on the produced cooling
effect (Qe) are the most widely used indicators to evaluate the
 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181 173

system efficiency. The SCOP definition is simply given by:
Q releasing of 1 kg of a trace substance, relative to that of 1 kg of a
SCOP ¼ e
Qs
Other indicators may be proposed to evaluate the performance
criterion such as the Primary Cooling Efficiency (PEC) and the Solar
Thermal Gain (STG) [116].
5.2.2. Technical maturity indicator
This indicator permits to describe the state of the technology
and can be evaluated according to the Technology Readiness Level
(TRL). This indicator is a measurement system used by U.S.
government agencies and by many companies to assess the global
level of maturity of a given technology. For each technology a level
from 1 to 9 is attributed (see Table 4).
5.2.3. Economical indicator
These indicators are extremely interesting for the development
of solar cooling technologies, but are also the most difficult to
calculate. Many indicators were introduced in the literature,
among which:
5.2.3.1. Simple Payback Period (SPP). The SPP corresponds to the
time required to recover the extra costs ΔCinv over a conventional
system due to an annual reduction of energy costs ΔCop (Eq. 11).
This type of indicator considers neither the interest rate for the
investment, nor the inflation rate of energy prices [117]
ΔC inv
SPP ¼
ΔC op
5.2.3.2. Cost of primary energy saved. The Cost of Primary Energy
Saved CPE,saved can be defined by:
ΔC a;s
C PE;saved ¼
PEsaved
where ΔC a;s is the annual extra costs for solar technology ($/kWh)
and PE is the Primary Energy Saved in (kWh).
Other economic indicators like Capital Cost, Life Cycle Cost may
also be considered [118].
5.2.4. Environmental indicators
In the frame of the solar heating/cooling program [119], the
International Energy Agency (IEA) presented some indicators to
evaluate environmental impacts for solar cooling technologies:
5.2.4.1. Global Energy Requirement (GER). The GER presents the
entire demand, expressed in terms of Primary Energy (PE), which
cumulates at every life-cycle stage of each one of the solutions
used. It is expressed in terms of GJ of (PE).
5.2.4.2. Global Warming Potential (GWP). The GWP is an indicator
quantifying how particular greenhouse gases contribute to the
warming effect. The GWP is defined as the ratio of the time-
integrated radiative forcing arising from the instantaneous
ð10Þ reference gas. The refrigerants involved in the solar cooling
processes like the conventional ones are characterized by a
proper GWP.
5.2.4.3. Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP). Concerning the effect on
the ozone, the ODP indicator was also introduced to measure the
impact of the degradation of a chemical compound on the ozone
layer. The majority of the refrigerants used in solar cooling
technologies have low ODP values.
5.3. Summarized comparative study
As already specified, the choice of a solar refrigeration process
depends on economic, environmental and performance considera-
tions. As a first step of the comparison, a distinction between
photovoltaic and thermal paths must be accounted for. The review
of several researches allows to highlighting the following points:
– For cooling applications, solar thermal path is more suitable
from an economic and environmental point of view [120], in
fact the cost of a PV system is generally higher than that of a
thermal collector and the used refrigerants are safer.
– The PV cooling system installed in buildings cannot be qualified
as “a complete solar cooling system” since most the existing
photovoltaic plants are connected to the electric grid [121].
– Solar thermal technology is appreciated for producing heating
ð11Þ of the building and hot water during the months where cooling
is not requested [122].
– In other hand, most existing solar electricity cooling systems
are mainly used for cooling medicine applications in remote in
sunny regions [123,124], while thermal technologies are
applied for comfort cooling and air-conditioning in buildings.
ð12Þ The first pilot installations have been realized for different
capacity scales applications.
– Generally, the engines coupled with the PV system have a higher
COP compared with that of the thermal ones. However, the
effectiveness of solar collectors is greater than PV cells (12%).
Thereby, if we compare the overall efficiency η (given by Eq. 13)
of thermal and PV cooling systems, no large deviation will be
observed.
η ¼ COP  CE ð13Þ
where CE presents the conversion efficiency of each system.
It can be concluded that solar thermal path presents specific
interest when used for cooling applications (see Table 5). As a
result, it seems more interesting to address a comparative study
between the available thermal cooling systems. We have limited
our comparison by listing the various pros and cons of the
different available solar cooling systems using the thermal energy
as a driven power. The comparison concerns absorption, adsorp-
tion, desiccant and ejector processes (See Table 6).

Table 5 5.4. Observations and recommendations

Comparison between thermal/electric conversion systems for cooling applications.
The analysis of the previous conclusions allows noting the next
Criteria
points:
Conversion Technologic Economic Environnement Overall
system maturity efficiency – Advantages and disadvantages depend strongly on the implan-
tation conditions (installation scale, system power ranges and
Thermal þþþ þþþ þþþþþ þþþþ solar irradiance).
collecor
PV cells þþþþ þþ þþþ þþþ
– The potential of a solar cooling technology depends dramati-
cally on the local climate
174 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181

– It appears that most thermal processes are environmentally
friendly.
– General challenges for sorption processes present in the market
are cost reduction, design optimization, and improvement of
the system maintenance.
– Searching for the optimum working media for all processes is
very interesting.
– More research should be conducted for each process to
improve the COP in order to compete with conventional
systems.

Table 6
Advantages and disadvantages comparison.

Thermal Advantages Disadvantages

processes

Absorption  Operate silently  High installation cost and large installation area in case of continuous system
system  high reliability  Quite complicated system and requires advanced knowledge for maintenance
 No auxiliary energy for operation of the small system  High heat release to the ambient.
 Simpler capacity control mechanism,
 Easier implementation,
 Low-temperature heat supply

Adsorption  Low maintenance costs  Poor thermal conductivity of the adsorbent

system  No moving parts  Very sensitive to low temperature during night time
 Low heat source temperatures  Low COP
 Intermittent in basic system.
 Bulky machine

Desiccant  Uses water as a working fluid which is environmentally safe
system  Can be integrated with a ventilation and heating system
 Low heat release to the ambient (in the case of liquid
desiccant system)
 Difficult design for small applications and complex control strategy especially in
humid areas.
 Crystallization risk in liquid desiccant systems
 Requires dehumidifier
 Rotating elements (desiccant wheel, sensible heat regenerators) need
maintenance

Ejector system  Low operating temperatures heat can be used  Low COP
 Low operating costs  Complex design of the ejector
 Specific ambient temperature ranges are requfonclusion ired

Fig. 18. World repartition of large/small scale cooling systems [126].

Table 7
Marketed solar sorption technologies for cooling applications [127].

Type of system Water chillers (closed thermodynamic cycles) Direct air treatment (open thermodynamic cycles)

Physical phase of sorption material Liquid Solid Liquid Solid

Sorption material Water Lithium-bromide Zeolite Silica gel Lithium-chloride Lithium-chloride Silica gel (or zeolite),
Refrigerant Ammonia Water Water Water Water Water Water
Type of cycle 1-effect 1-effect 2-effect 1-effect 1-effect 1-effect Cooled sorption process Desiccant rotor
COP thermal range 0.5–0.75 0.65–0.8 1.1–1.4 0.5–0.75 0.5–0.75 0.5–0.75 0.7–1.1 0.6–0.8
Driving temperature range (1C) 70–100 70–100 140–180 65–90 65–90 65–90 60–85 60–80
120–180
Solar collector technolog FPC, ETC, SAT FPC, ETC SAT FPC, ETC FPC, ETC FPC, ETC FPC, ETC, SAHC FPC, ETC, SAHC
 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181 175

6. News of solar sorption cooling systems

6.1. Market status

One old study (1975) evaluated the market reaction to the solar
cooling concept. It outlined the importance of non-economic issues,
such as system innovation, reliability and power rationing protection,
market receptivity of solar cooling systems [125]. In spite of the
limited technologies at this time, the authors gave guidance for
considerable improvement in the industrial market analysis. The
major recommendations were the improvement of the system
efficiency and cost reduction. Nowadays, with a larger range of
available technologies, remarkable growth can be observed in the Fig. 20. Market Shares of the existing manufacturers [131].
solar cooling market using sorption processes especially in Europe.
According to the report of the one of the sub-task of the task B 38 of
the International Energy Agency [126], 113 large scale solar cooling
systems and 163 small scale systems have been installed worldwide,
254 installations are located in Europe, 13 in Asia, mostly in China
and Japan, 4 in America (3 in USA and 1 in Mexico), 3 in Australia and
2 in Africa (Egypt and South Africa). Fig. 18 [126] displays the
distribution of the worldwide number of installations indifferent
countries, classified according to their small or large scale.
The characteristics of the available solar installations in the
market using sorption phenomenon s are shown in Table 7 [127].
The next figure (Fig. 19 [126]) shows how these technologies are
distributed in the market: with about 82%, absorption systems
represent the majority of these installations followed by adsorp-
tion systems (11%). In the 269 installations identified (113 large
scale installations and 156 small scale installations) desiccant
cooling systems are only used in large applications.
The absorption machines marketed by CLIMATEWELL [128] and
ROTARTICA were adopted in 34% and 23% of cases, respectively.
SORTECH AG [129] and INVENSOR [130] and are the only manufac-
turers of adsorption chiller present at the small scale (Fig. 20 [131]).
The breakdown of the total cost of small solar cooling installation is
indicated in Fig. 21 [132,133].
Thermal collectors with auxiliary equipments amount for 55–
70% of the installation cost (depending on the installation char-
acteristics). Consequently, further effort must be paid in order to
reduce the cost of thermal collectors.
Recently, the Quality Assurance in Solar heating and cooling
Technology (QAiST) [134] elaborated a multi-aspect questioner
concerning 57 installations using solar cooling processes. The
installations are located in different parts of Europe, mostly in
Germany, Greece, Spain and Austria. The analysis leads to the
following results:

Fig. 21. Component cost repartition of cooling systems [132,133]. (a) Small scale
[132] and (b) Large scale [133].

– Among the 57 installations, 44 are also used for space heating.

– Various building types are encountered, the most frequently
are offices, followed by commercial buildings and hotels (see
Fig. 19. Percentage of use of the different technologies [126]. Fig. 22 [134]):
176 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181
– Flat Plate and Evacuated Tube were the most widely used
technologies as collectors (see Fig. 23 [134]). The total collector
area varies between 10 m² and 2700 m².
– According to the installation size, the investment costs of the
solar cooling plants vary between 12,000 euro and 1.4 Million
euro.
– Satisfaction was reported in 35 cases out of the 57 installations
studied.
It is obvious that the market in some regions is more dynamic
than in others as a result of socioeconomic obstacles in addition to
others that prevent the adoption of such systems.
6.2. Market barriers
The common barriers limiting solar cooling installations can be
divided into three categories: economic, technological and others.
6.2.1. Economic barriers
– Weak competitiveness against conventional cooling method
because of the initial cost and performance difference.
Fig. 22. Cooled building types [134].
Fig. 23. Thermal collector used by the cooling systems [134].
Table 8
Cooling installations in Europe.
Open cycle Adsorption closed cycle
Center for Renewable Energy Sources in Koropi, Greece Residential building in Thening, Austria
Solar Info Center SIC in Freiburg, Germany Liquid CNRS PROMES Research Center Office, Perpignan, France
– Relatively high payback periods. For example, in European
countries with high specific cooling load, the SPP is 13 years–
21 years depending on the initial investment [132]
– Lack of potential users like commercial buildings.
– Lack of commercial and industrial investors.
– Lack of subsidies in developing countries.
6.2.2. Technological barriers
– It is true that some processes has reached a high level of
technological maturity; however system complexity is still a
major obstacle.
– Lack of demonstration plants and experience to improve
performance of such systems.
6.2.3. Other barriers
– Solar cooling use a new principle which is not well known by
the different economic agents.
– Lack of awareness about the environmental advantages of solar
cooling systems, especially in underdeveloped countries.
– Realization works are limited in some countries such as
European countries due to the feeble international sharing of
the expertise in solar cooling technologies.
– Climatic conditions variability makes difficult the standardiza-
tion of the prototypes.
6.3. Suggested actions to the removal of market barriers
– For underdeveloped countries, awareness of energy and envir-
onmental constraints must prompt states to move towards
such solutions and this of course, requires global cooperation to
share knowledge, expertise and experiences.
– For countries that have already made a step toward these
cooling technologies, some support policies should be taken to
Absorption closed cycle
Agència de la salut pública in Barcelona, Spain
ISI Pergine, Business Centre, Trento, Italy
 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181
remove market barriers such as: tradable certificates and tax
reductions.
– Applying financial incentives such as tax reductions to encou-
rage the adoption of these new technologies.
– Improvement of design guidelines, operation and maintenance
concepts.
– Development of new affordable simulation tools to assess
systems performance.
– More demonstration projects must be performed in different
part of the world to provide real operational data about the
performance.
– Skill enhancement by giving specific training courses for the
professional and technical actors.
– Include these techniques into the international standards of
energy and environment saving.
6.4. Advances in thermal cooling systems
6.4.1. Absorption systems
In the frame of the Subproject SP3 entitled Sustainable power
generation in homes, funded by Spain's Ministry of Science and
Innovation, a suggestion was evoked in order to upgrade the
classical absorption cooling system, through the conception of a
new adiabatic absorber permitting the increase of the mass
transfer coefficient of falling film absorbers. One of these proto-
types described by Izquierdo et al. [135] was designed to supply
7 kW of nominal cooling power, using a new flat-sheet adiabatic
absorber. The system COP was around 1.05 and was able to chill
water up to 7–18 1C under extreme outdoor temperatures without
any sign of crystallization.
One recent development concerned the investigation of an air
cooled double effect absorption chiller operating with (LiBr/H2O).
The main advantages of this system are the absence of cooling
tower and the independence on water. Accordingly, it can be
suitable for residential and commercial purposes [136].
6.4.2. Adsorption systems
Development concerning adsorption solar cooling systems
focuses on improving heat and mass transfer inside the adsorbent
bed. In order to increase the heat transfer coefficient between the
substrate and the adsorbent, one option is to glue the adsorbent
onto the heat exchanger [137]. Moreover, numerous working
groups study the opportunity to directly crystallize adsorbent
onto the heat exchanger substrate [138,139].
Development may also concern the use of some modern
working pairs involving composite materials such Water/selec-
tive-water-sorbents (SWS). In fact, the analysis of SWS physico-
chemical properties shows that these composite materials are
highly competitive with the usual working materials, like silica
gels, zeolites, carbons [140]. Another novel working pair is Water/
aluminum phosphates (AlPOs). This pair demonstrated good
adsorption characteristics thanks to it neutral and high electro-
negativity anion framework [141].
In order to enhance the recovery efficiency of low temperature
heat sources and reduce temperature fluctuations in the evapora-
tor and the condenser, recently, an innovative dual-mode, four-bed
adsorption chiller was suggested. The installation is able to
operate with a wide range of driving temperatures making the
usage accessible throughout the year [142].
6.4.3. Liquid desiccant systems
High energy density is required when using concentrated
solutions for storage because of the low flow rate, so different
prototypes have been built based on advanced conception with
177
new materials; one of these researches focuses on a new dehu-
midifier design [143]. The novel dehumidifier consists of a stack
plates, made of standard twin wall polycarbonate. The plates are
covered with a promising textile so as to increase the exposure
time of the desiccant on the plates and thus enhance the mass
transfer and the heat exchange.
Lately, a new solar membrane liquid desiccant air conditioning
unit was carried out. The system uses liquid-to-air membrane
energy exchangers for air dehumidification and dilution of desic-
cant solution regeneration. Compared to a traditional liquid
desiccant cooling system, this novel configuration, avoids the
problem of desiccant droplets carry over in supply and exhaust
air streams. This system is therefore convenient in household use
and commercial buildings [144].
In what follows, we consider six solar cooling installations in
Europe based on different techniques developed in six different
countries (see Table 8).
6.5. Installations around the world
6.5.1. Open cycle installations
6.5.1.1. Center for Renewable Energy Sources in Koropi, Greece.
A desiccant evaporative cooling system is used to provide
cooling and heating to serve the solar thermal building at the P.
E.N.A. demonstration site of C.R.E.S. A 10 m2 area of flat plate
thermal collectors is employed; an auxiliary electric heater is
mounted directly in the hot water storage tank. In winter, the
solar thermal system feeds a water-air heat exchanger installed in
the desiccant cooling system to heat the room.
The technology takes into account simple and relatively cheap
components, and has revealed a reliable system operation during
the first test period. The low driving temperatures allow the use of
low cost flat-plate selective collectors.
6.5.1.2. Solar Info Center SIC in Freiburg, Germany. The purpose was
to ensure the air-conditioning of a chain of offices and a seminar
room via a liquid desiccant evaporative cooling system. Flat plate
collectors are used. A separate storage of diluted and concentrated
solution was scheduled which allows a decoupling in time
between regeneration and dehumidification operations to a
certain degree. In winter, the district heating network from the
University Hospital is supplying the air heating.
With a specific annual collector yield of about 270 kWh/m²/year, an
average COP of 1.0 was reached considering the overall cold produc-
tion of the air handling unit.
6.5.2. Closed cycle installations
6.5.2.1. Agència de la salut pública in Barcelona, Spain. Installed in
2007, the solar cooling installation was dedicated to a part of the
Public Health Agency of Barcelona (PERACAMPS building). The
system consists of a LiBr absorption chiller with 35 kW of cooling
capacity, 82 m² of selective flat-plate cooling production. In
function of the season period, different control strategies were
elaborated in order to direct the solar production towards heating
or cooling demands. Economic estimations consider that this
system can save approximately 72 MWh/year of primary energy
and provide about 85 MWh/year for heating demand and about
231 MWh/year for cooling demand.
6.5.2.2. ISI Pergine, Business Centre, Trento, Italy. The concerned
building is a business center in Trento having an area of 10,000 m2.
The solar plant consists on an absorption chiller of 108 kW heated
by 240 m² flat plate collectors and a 175 kW wet cooling tower for
heat evacuation and a storage tank to stabilize the system behavior
when the solar radiation is irregular. The nominal winter thermal
178 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181
loads is evaluated about 229 kW, and the heating system was sized
accordingly. During summer, thermal loads are around 188 kW,
while the solar collectors supply a power of 145 kW. The
appropriate power generated by the absorber is about 108 kW.
According to the estimation, this system can generate 70% of the
site cooling utilizing solar energy with important CO2 emissions
saving.
6.5.2.3. Residential building in Thening, Austria. This was the first
solar cooling plant in Austria concerning a residential building.
This family house is a standard low energy building located in
upper Austria with a heat load equal to 7 kW. The cooling need
occurs during summer months (from May until September).
Initially, there was a solar heating system largely dimensioned
and because of the hot climate, an active cooling system was
introduced. Heat rejection is accomplished by a wet cooling tower.
According to the house owner, thanks to the large dimensioned
solar collector and the heat storage for winter operation, the
system can satisfy the cooling need without any auxiliary heat
from the pellet boiler.
6.5.2.4. CNRS PROMES Research Center Office, Perpignan, France. The
concerned building is the3-level CNRS PROMES research center
office of 5000 m², located in (Perpignan, France). The cooling
system is an adsorption chiller of 7.5 kW powered by 24 m²
double glazed flat plate collectors. The distribution system is an
independent chilled/hot water network using fan coils. The heat
rejection operation is realized by a dry cooler assisted by a spring
water spraying device, only during very hot periods.
The system is functional for more than 1.5 years for both
heating and cooling applications. The overall electrical COP has
achieved an average of 10 for an annual monitoring period. Energy
savings were estimated about 540 euro/year. Several installations
in different countries of Europe are also in operation [145].
6.5.3. Other installations
6.5.3.1. Administrative building, Sharm el Sheikh, Egypt. The cooling
project aims at cooling an administrative building with a surface of
567 m² and training facilities in addition to an accommodation for
students in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt [146].
The installation is constituted from: 82 m2 of evacuated tube
collectors with operation temperatures below 100 1C and the three
absorption chillers (ROTARTICA single effect of 8 kW maximum
cooling capacity.
Thanks to the implemented cooling system and the passive
measures, a reduction of around 47% of the usual energy con-
sumption was reached.
6.5.3.2. A large construction, Beijing, China. In China, a recent project
had been planned and realized by Beijing Solar Energy Research
Institute [147]. Beijing climate is characterized by a highest
temperature of 38 1C in summer and a lowest temperature of
15 1C in winter. The project can be considered as a large scale
installation (more than 2600–3000 m² as a total construction area).
The solar plant consists of 850 m2 of solar collectors operating at
temperatures between 80 and 95 1C with efficiency larger than 40%,
and can provide up to 50 t of hot water at 60 1C. The rest of the
installation involves Libr absorption chillers, hot water tanks, cooling
towers, fan coils and winded tube, an auxiliary electric boiler and
controlling system. With this configuration, the solar driven system
can cool the water to a temperature of 8 1C. The cooled water is then
sent to the fan coils in order to cool the different rooms
7. Conclusion
Solar cooling is an innovative, promising alternative to reduce the
peak energy consumption generated by excessive use of vapor
compression systems, especially during summer months. The attrac-
tiveness of utilizing solar energy is mainly due to the demand and
supply of energy coincides. In fact, cooling is required when the solar
radiation is abundantly available. Furthermore, great majority of solar
techniques employs harmless working fluids.
This paper exhibits synthetically different aspects of the solar
cooling topic. Based on an extensive literature review, various
types of the available technologies using both thermal and electric
options were presented. Market status and recent developments of
solar cooling systems were reported. Appropriate indicators to
compare various solar cooling processes were also discussed. It is
clear that all solar cooling systems have a great potential due to
their environmental and energy advantages like energy saving and
reduction of CO2 emissions.
The thermal option has been widely studied with a special
focus on adsorption, absorption and desiccant cooling systems.
Generally, these systems demonstrate satisfactory results to
ensure cooling demands. For instance, numerous configurations
implemented in different climatic zones of Europe allowed sig-
nificant energy savings ranging from 29 to 55% for adsorption
technology, from 25 to 52% for absorption technology and from 16
to 56% for desiccant cooling system. Moreover, thermal driven
systems have the advantage to serve in heating and hot water
production during periods when cooling is not requested.
The comparative study of the different thermal cooling options
reveals that:
– The double effect absorption technology driven by parabolic
trough collectors using Lithium Bromide/water as a working
pair has the maximal coefficient of performance (1.1–1.4).
Absorption chillers are appreciated because of their easy
implementation and silent operation.
– Adsorption cycle is less efficient than absorption cycle but
requires lower heat source temperatures (generally between
65–90 1C). Furthermore, adsorption systems have no moving
parts and low maintenance costs. The major challenge for these
systems is to improve the thermal conductivity of the adsor-
bent bed and to overcome the cycle intermittence.
– Desiccant cooling systems offer good humidity control and
could be integrated with heating and ventilation. These sys-
tems are limited to large scale facilities due to the complex
design and the high initial cost.
– Thermo-mechanical technologies (namely Rankine and Stirling
cycle) are significantly more expensive compared to sorption
systems and requires scheduled maintenance plan. Conse-
quently, these systems are not suitable for low capacity
applications. In contrast, ejector cooling systems have low
operating costs and are powered with low heat source tem-
peratures but the major drawback of this technology is the
complex design of the ejector and the significant dependence
on the ambient temperature.
Despite the undeniable success achieved by solar cooling processes,
several barriers come across their worldwide implementation. The
major obstacles are the high installation cost and the low performance.
Subsidies proposition, payment facilities together with cost reduction
must be the most realistic actions to be undertaken by policymakers
and manufacturers to remove the first barrier. Performance enhance-
ment in order to compete with the conventional solution is possible
throughout the research of optimal designs and development of novel
high-efficient options eventually based on hybrid configurations.
 A. Allouhi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 159–181
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