PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

( A CHRISTIAN MINORITY INSTITUTION)

JAISAKTHI EDUCATIONAL TRUST
ACCREDITED BY NATIONAL BOARD OF ACCREDITATION (NBA)
( AN ISO 9001 : 2000 CERTIFIED INSTITUTION)
BANGALAORE TRUNK ROAD,VARADHARAJAPURAM,
NASARATHPET, POONAMALLEE,
CHENNAI-602 103.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 1308 COMPUTER AIDED MACHINES DRAWING

PRACTICES LAB MANUAL

V SEMESTER MECH.
 ME1308 COMPUTER AIDED MACHINE DRAWING PRACTICE o0 3 100

OBJECTIVE
~ To understand and practice the drawings for machine components and simple assemblies

using standard CAD packages

~ To know - how on specifications of Indian Standards on drawing practices and standard

components.

1. DRAWING STANDARDS 6

Code of practice for Engineering Drawing, BIS specifications - Welding symbols, riveted joints, keys,

fasteners - Reference to hand book for the selection of standard components like bolts, nuts, screws,
keys
etc.

2. INTRODUCTION TO DRAFTING SOFTWARE 6

Drawing, Editing, Dimensioning, Plotting Commands, Layering concepts, Limits, Fits and Tolerances.

3. PRE PARA TION OF 2-D DRAWINGS 9

Orthographic views of standard machine components: Brackets, V Blocks, Stop Block, Screw threads and

Threaded fasteners.

4. ASSEMBLY DRAWING (Preparation of assembled view) 24

Flange coupling

Plummer block bearing

Lathe Tailstock

Universal Joint.

Machine. vice

Stuffing box

Piston and connecting rod

TOTAL: 45
REFERENCES

1. BHATT.N.D. and PANCHAL.V.M., "Machine Drawing", Charotar Publishing House, 388001,

38 th Edition, 2003.
2. P.S.G. Design Data Book
3. Ellen Finkelstein, "AutoCAD 2004 Bible", Wiley Publishing Inc, 2003'.
4. Sham Tikoo, " AutoCAD 2002 with Applications", Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company,
NewDelhi, 2002.
"CollabCAD Software", National Informatics Centre (CAD Group), Govt. of India, A-Block,
5. C.G.O. Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110003,2003" www.collabcad.com

WEB SITES:
1. www.autodesk.com
2. www.ptc.com
3. www.solidworks.coJn
4. www.autodeskpress.com
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sl. No. Particulars Page No.

1. Drawing Standards 1

1.1 Code of Practice for 1

Engineering Drawing & BIS
Specifications
1.2 Welding symbols 1
Riveted Joints
1.3 Keys 4
1.4 Screw Thread & Threaded 11
1.5 . Fasteners
Introduction to Drafting 21
2. Software 37

2.1 Drafting Software & Computer 37

Aided Design
2.2 Computer Aided Drafting 43

2.3 Limits,Fits & Tolerances 79

3. Preparation of 2-D Drawings
90
3.1 Orthographic Views of
standard Machine components
like Brackets, V Blocks, Stop
Block 90
Orthographic Views of Screw
3.2 Threads 92
Orthographic Views of Riveted
3.3 Joints
92
Assembly Drawing
4.

4.1 Flange Coupling - Unprotected 93

4.2 Flange Coupling - Protected 94
Plummer Block Bearing
4.3 95
Lathe Tailstock .
4.4 Universal Coupling 96
4.5 Machine Vice 97
4.6 Stuffing Box 98
4.7 Piston and Connecting Rod 99
4.8 Stop Valve 100
4.9 102
 UNIT 1: DRAWING STANDARDS
1. Code of Practice for Engineering Drawing:
The representation of any matter by some sign or mark on the
drawing is known as Convention or Code. As engineering drawings are used
to communicate technical information both within and outside a country,
for the unmistakable exchange of technical information both at the national
and international levels, it becomes essential to have a uniform drafting
practice. To make the drafting practice in our country more uniform and
also to in conformity with practices in other countries, the Bureau of Indian
Standards, known as B15, had introduced a Code of Practice for General
Engineering Drawings, 15:696 as early as 1955. Subsequent revisions were
undertaken in 1963 and 1972. Recognizing the greater need for
implementing the international standards, the Bureau of Indian Standards
recently introduced a new code SP: 46 in 2003.

The Engineering drawing committee of BIS has adopted .the 150

(International Standards Organization) standards in toto for the various
topics given in the following table in engineering drawings:

51. No. BIS Codes Topics

Technical products Documentation -
1. IS: 10711 - 2001 Size and Layout of Drawing Sheets
Technical product Documentation -
2. IS: 9609 (Parts 0 & 1) - 2001 Lettering
Dimensioning on Technical Drawings
3. IS: 11669 - 1986 Technical Drawings - Projection
Methods
4. IS: 15021 (Parts 1-4) - 2001
Lines
5. IS: 10714 (Part 20) - 2001

2. Welding Symbols:
The welded joints are classified according to the relative positions of
the parts being joined. The five basic types of welded joints are Butt joint,
Lap joint, Tee joint, Corner or Fillet joint, Edge Joint.

A B C D E
Butt Joint Corner Joint Tee Joint Lap Joint Edge Joint
Types of Welded Joints

1
 2. 1. Symbolic Representation of Weld:
Welded joints are symbolically represented on the drawing as shown
in fig. using
• An arrow line pointing to the joint where the weld is to be
made
• A dual reference line consisting of two parallel lines; one
continuous and one dashed
• A basic symbol to specify the type of weld
• A supplementary symbol to characterize the shape of the
external surface of the weld and
• Dimensions of the weld.

T
CONTINUOUS LINE

ARROW LINE

DASHED LINE

WELDED JOINT

\Velded [oint Representation

2.1.1. Positioning of Arrow Line:

The position of the arrow line with respect to the weld is generally of
no special significance. The arrow line may be placed on anyone side of
the joint irrespective of the particular side on which the weld is required as
shown in figure.

OTHER SIDE ARROW 510£ ARROW SIDE OTHERSIDE

Placement of Arr-ow Line

2.1.2. Significance of Reference Lines and Placing of Weld Symbol.

The weld symbols may be place either above the reference line as
shown in figure and or beneath the reference line as shown in figure. The
weld symbols will be placed on the continuous reference line if the weld is
on the arrow side of the joint as shown in figure and on the dashed
reference line if the weld is on the other side on the joint as shown in
figure. For symmetrical welds, the dashed line is omitted and the weld
symbols are shown above and beneath the continuous reference line as
shown in figure.

2
 A B c 0 E
Symmetrical Welds
Otherside
Arrow Side
Placing of Weld Symbols

2.2. Elementary and Supplementary Weld Symbols:

The elementary symbols recommended by the BIS for specifying the
type of weld are shown in the following table. The supplementary symbols
are used in conjunction with the elementary symbols when the shape of the
external surface of the weld is to be finished to a particular shape. When
the external surface of the weld is required flat, the symbol _ is used.
When the weld surface is to be convex, the symbol n . When the weld
surface is to concave, the symbol uis used.

NO. DESIGNATION IlLUSTRATIO·N SYMBOL

BUTT WELD BETWEEN PLATES WITH RAISED EDGES;

/7~
1 ED~E FLANGED .WElD/USAf (THE RAISED EDGES BEIN<;J
MELTED DOWN COMPLETELY) 6zl;ss~ ..J '- .

2 SQUARE BUTT WELD fr/;;tsss~ II

3 SINGLE-V BUTT WELD t5;;;ifsC~ V·
, SINGLE-BEVEL BUTT WELD t52;?£:S\~ V
. -

5 SINGLE-V BUTT WELD WITH 'BROAD ROOT FACE ·6222£;SS~

Y
6 SINGLE-BEVEL BUTT WELD WITH BROAD ROOT FACE ~ V
6zZ#:.;$~
7 SINGLE-U BUTT WELD (PARAllEL OR SLOPING SIDES)
Y
8 SINGLE-) BUTT WELD
' ..
(;/;£;S$S~ .~

9 BACKING RUN; BACK OR BACKING WELD /USN (;/2/Esss~ '='

.10 FILLET WELD

.~ ~

11 PLUG WELD; PLUG OR SLOT WElD/USAf

~~ r1

~
1i . SPOT WElD

~ 0

13 SEAM WELD '('~~ =€)=

,;('~
3
2.3. Dimensioning of Welds:
The main dimensions required to make a welded joint are size of the
weld and length of the weld. The size of the weld will be either the
minimum distance from the surface of the part up to the bottom of the
penetration, or height of the largest isosceles triangle in the case of fillet
welds. This dimension will be indicated on the left hand side of the weld
symbol and the length of the weld is indicated on the right hand side of the
weLd symbol as shown in figure.

WELD SYMBOL

SIZE ~ LENGTH OF WELD

J:h
\ \ / THROAT THICKNESS

-~--~- 7
~ 300
a5 300

LEGLENGTH Z

A B c o
Dimensioning of Welds' .

For fillet weld, either the throat thickness aor the leg length z as shown in
figure B are indicated. In figure C the weld dimension a51> 300 means that
the weld is a fillet weld of throat thickness 5mm and the length of weld is
300 mm. In figure D the weld dimension z71> 300 means that the weld is a
fillet weld of leg length 7mm and the length of weld is 300 mm.

3. Riveted Joints:
A rivet is a round rod made either from mild steel or nonferrous
materials such as copper, aluminium, etc., with a head of anyone of the
shapes formed at one end during its manufacture al1d its tail end being
¢d
~
slightly tapered as shown in figure.

Rivet

The length of the shank of the rivet must be sufficient enough to

accommodate the connecting plates and also provide enough to
accommodate the connecting plates and also provide enough material for
forming a head at its shank end. In general, the length of the shank of the
rivet will be equal to sum of the thicknesses of the connecting plates plus
1.5 to 1.7 times the diameter of the rivet.

4
 If l = length of the shank of the rivet
d = Diameter of rivet
t = thickness of each of the connecting plates,
then
lL t + (1 .5to1 .7)d
=
Various types of rivet heads for use in general engineering work and
boiler work as recommended by the BIS are shown in following figure. The
different proportions of these rivet heads are given in terms of the nominal
diameter d of the rivet. The rivet heads to be used for general purposes for
diameters below 12mm are specified in the BIS code IS: 2155 - 1962 and for
diameters between 12mm and 48mm are specified in the BIS code IS: 1929 -
1961. The rivet heads to be used for boiler work are specified in the BIS
code IS: 1928 - 1961. The rivet heads to use for ship buildings are specified
in the BIS code IS: 4732 - 1968.

~1.6d <1> 1.6d

"t)
e-,
~ ~ e-,
<;;) I <::)
~

R=O.06d ~
LI)

~ ~ ~ ~
I.:J I.:J
~ ~
~
<::
l.4J l.4J
-' -.l
-'

A B C
SNAP HEAD SNAP HEAD SNAP HEAD
for General Work for Ship Building tor Boiler Work

~
e-,
~ cl
<;;)
c=; <::>

R=OO6d
"t)
LI)
~ ~
I.:J
::t::
t-
~
~
I.:J I.:J
§ <::
l4.J
~
-.l
-.l

D E F
PAN HEAD PAN HEAD WITH TAPERED NEe" PAN HEAD-rYPE i
for Cprwral \Vork for General and Boiler Work . ,,' Boiler vvork

¢1.6d

¢d

G H r
'PAN HEAD-TYPE 2 ELlIPS01D FLAT COUNTERSUNK
. for Boiler \tVork for Boiler Work for General Work
Forms and Proportions of Rivet Heads

5
 J • K L
FL.AT COUNTERSUNK FLAT COUNTERSUNK HEAD 900 FLAT COUNTERSUNK
for Boiler Work for General Work for General Wor-k

¢ 2.25d
R 1.516·d

'M .N
·ROUNDED COUNTERSUN,K ROUNDED COUNTERSUNK MUSHROOM HEAD
for General and Boiler Works for Ship Building for General Work
¢1.5d ¢~d

Rt

P Q R
CONICAL HEAD STEEPLE HEAD FLAT HEAD
for Boi ler Work for Boiler Work for Gerleral Work
Form~ and Proportions of Rivet Heads
(Continued from Previous. Page)

6
3.1. Riveted Joints:
The two types of riveted joints are: Lap Joints and Butt Joints

Lap Joint: The simplest way to connect two plates by riveting is to

overlap them over a short distance along their edges and drill a row of holes
through both of them in the overlapped portion and a joint is made by
riveting as shown in figure. This type of joint is called as Lap Joint

PULL of-r7"-"7'" 1

I~~---PULL

A B
Before applying pull After applying pull

lap Joint

Butt Joint: When the plates are intended to take heavy loads, the buckling
action of the plates may be avoided by placing the connecting plates in
alignment so as to butt each other and a cover plate called strap is placed
over the joint between them and riveted to hold both the plates together as
shown in figure. This type of joint is called Butt Joint.

[OVER PLATE ORSTRAP

PULL

BUTT PLATE BUTTPLATE

A B
Before applying pull After applying pull
Butt Joint

Empirical Proportion for Riveted Joints

For the given thickness of the connecting plates, the other
dimensions such as rivet diameter pitch, the distance from the centre of the
Sl. No. ParticularsEmpirical Formulae
Diameter of Rivet
1.
d=6~
Longitudinal Pitchp = 3d2.
Distance of Centre of the Rivet from = 1.,5d
3.
edge of the plate
4.Marginm =d
Transverse Pitchp, = O.6p for Zig Zag Riveting
5.
Pt= O.8p for Chain Riveting
Thickness of Straps or cover plates
(i)Single Coyer Plates
t, = 1.125t6.
(ii)Double Cover Platest 2 = O.75t

7
rivet to the edge of the plate, transverse pitch, thickness of the cover
plates in case of butt joints, etc., that are required to make the riveted
joints, are obtained from the empirical proportions given in table.

Different Types of Riveted Joints:

1. Single riveted Lap joint
2. Double riveted Lap joint
3. Single riveted Butt Joint
4. Double riveted Butt joint with double cover plates & chain riveting
5. Double riveted Butt joint with double cover plates & zigzag
riveting
6. Diamond or Lozenze Joint

Exercise: Draw the following riveted joints for joining the plates of thickenss
9mm.

SECTION AA
SECTION AA

TA A B
Chain Riveting Zig-zag Riveting

Double Riveted lap Joint

8
 RIVETED IN CHAIN

PLATf.

BUTT PLATES

SECTioN AA SE(TlON BB

J---

\
1
I
\
TT~
AB '------U- ____ l
B
,A, B
Single CO\'N Plato Douhlo ("O\'N Plates
Single Riveted Butt Joint

~.

BUTT PLATE TOP COVER peATE ~£(TlON AA

:BOTTOH COVER PLATE BUTT PLATE

T A
T A
Double Riveted Butt Joint
with Double Cover Plates & Zig-zag Riveting

9
 BUTT PLATE

SECTION AA

BUTT PLATE
BOTTOM COVER PLATE

. Double Riveted Butt Joint

with Double Cover Plates & Chain Rivetmg

1Sd . Pt

't SECTION 55

~.

Diamond or Lozenze Joint

10
 Keys

Introduction
A machine runs by the power SUPIJlled to it by a prime mover such as, rnotor, engine, etc. l-he
power is transmitted from t.he prime mover to the machine through a coupler which couples the shafts
of the prime mover and the machine. vvithin the IT13Chinc/ the pOV,:'2r from the machine shaft is
transmitted to its parts. by the machine elements such as. gears, pulleys and belts, sprockets and
chains, etc. ·fhese elements have to be mounted on their shafts sa that there is no relative rotation
between them to effect the transmission from one to the other. /\ simplest methodwould be provide
a tight friction fit between the shaft and the bore. But this cannot be used eXCCIJt for cases of small
power transmission.Although a square shaft can transmit h!~~~')pr pow-r. it wi!' be.' difficult to make

a square hole.

TAPER 1:100
TAPER 1:100 w

I
I

x~
SECTION XX

.A
Key Assembly
1=".14., ,

11
 The most commonly employed method to connect a shaft and a part is to drive a small piece
of metal, known as key between the shaft and the hole made in the part mounted over it. The key
wi II be driven such that it sits partly into the shaft and partly into the part mounted on it. To introduce
the key, axial grooves, called key ways are cut both in the shaft and the part mounted on it as shown
in Fig. l· 'The key is fitted between the shaft and the part mounted over it as shown in Fig.. '
While transmitting the power, the kev wil] be subjected to shear and crushing forces.

Keys are extensively used to hold pulleys, gears, couplings, clutches, sprockets, etc., and the
shafts rigidly so that they rotate together. They are also used to mount the milling cutters, grinding
wheels, etc., on their spindles..

Types of Keys
The various types of keys used in engineering practice for. securing the hub of a pulley, or a
flange" or a machine part over a shaft are:

1. Sunk key -; ~' ·7. Single head key

2. Saddle key 8. Double head key

3. Flat key 9. Spline shaft

4. Gib-head key 10. Woodruff key

5. Feather key 11. Pin key

, 6. Peg key 12. Cone key·

. Classification of Keys
Keys are classified into two type's, (i) taper keys and(ii) para/Jet or ieether keys.
A teperkev is of rectangular cross section having uniform width and tapering thickness. The
taper keys are used to transmit only the turning moment between the shaft and the hub without any,
relative rotationaland axial motion between them. The examples oftapered keys are; (i) Taper sunk
key, (ii) Saddle key, (ii'i) Flat key and (iv) Gib-head key.

A parallel key or ieether key isalso of rectangular cross section of un iform width and th ickness
throughout. Parallel keys are used to transmit the turning moment between the shaft and the hub

a
along with the provision to allow small sliding ax-tal motion between them wherever required.The
examples of the parallei keys a-re, (i) Parall-el sunk key, (ii) Peg key, (iii) Single headkey, (iv) Double
head key and (v) Spline shaft.'

The woodruff key, cone key and pin key, are the specia. purpose keys used for, .specific
.applications. .
Sunk Taper Key

A sunk taper key shown in Fig. :L; . is of rectangular or square cross section of uniform.width
'having its bottom surface straight and f9P surface tapered .. The key is driven between the shaft and
the hub with half of its thickness to fit in the flat key way made in the shaft and theother halfhaving
the tapered surface to fit in the tapered key way made inthe hub. This type of key is generally used
to transmit heavy loads. The proportions of the keyare as follows.

12
 TAPER 1:100
TAPER 1:100
~D J
TAPER 1:100 w
w
/

,
x~

,SECTION XX
Sunk Taper Key
Flit 2

If 0 = didnleter of the shaft in mm, W = width of the key and T = thickness of key,
Width 'of key = 0.25 D' + 2' mm
Nominal Thickness '= 0.66 W

Standard Taper ~. 1:100 .

Hollow Saddle Key

A hollow saddle key is of uniform width but tapering in thickness having its upper side
flatand
the underside hollow so as to sit on a shaft as shown in Fig 3Since the saddle key holds the shaft
and the part mounted on it only by friction, it is not suitable for heavy loads. This key is used
when
there is frequent alterations in the position of the key on the shaft is expected. The proportions of the
are 1:100
key:TAPER as follows :.

I. . TAPER 1: 100

.x----1 I
I

TAPER 1: 100

.... L·
.~ ll~~-~--~--.-:---j
~~

. ...
hi ~I. . . ,I. '...
I...

Hollow Saddle KeV

.·F14·3

13
 If 0 -idiameter of the shaft in, mm, W = width of key and T = thickness,

Width of key = 0.25 D' + 2 mm

Nominal Thickness' = 0.33 W

Standard Taper = 1 : 100

Flat Saddle Key

A flat saddle key is similar toa hollow saddle key, except that its underneath surface
The key is.flat.
sits over the flat surface formed ,on the shaft and fits into the key way i'n the' hub as shown
in Fig. .4. When the shaft rotates, the key will be wedged between the flat surface on the shaft
and
the key
loads thesuitable
way-in be
andwillnot hub, and thus holds
for, shafts them to change
which frequently rotate their
together. Thisofkey
direction cannot
rotation. be used for
The
heavy
proportions of this key are as follows:.,

If D ~ diameter of the shaft in mm, W = width of the key and"T"= thickness of the key,
Width of key. ::::; 0.25 D ,+ 2 mm
Nominal Thickness = 0.33' W

Standard Tapper = 1 : 100

TAPER' 1: 100

TAPER 1:100.

,I..-

'TAPER 1: 100'

,
~ , ,
:
X-..J,
','SECTION xx
- w-
':""
FiAT BOTTOM

Flat,Saddle Key
, Fig. - ,.4

G lb-head Key

When a tapered sunk key is used, itcan be removed bystriking at its exposedthinend. Ifthis
end isnot.accessible, a head called gib is provided integral with the sunk taperkey.at its
thickerend
as shown in Flg. #5~ When a gib-head key is to be removed, a wedgeisforced.vertically in the gap
between the head of the keyand the vertical face of the hub. The proportions of the,: key are as follows.

14
 TAPER 1: 100
TAPER 1: 100
w
x--....j I

TAPER 1:100
/
I I

x---1
SECTION XX

G ib - head Key
Fig. '.5

If D = diameter of the shaft in mrn. W = width of the key, T = thickness of key,

h = height"of the head! b = width of the head.

Width of key = 0.25 D + 2 mm Height of Gib-head = 1.75 T'

Nominal Thickness = 0.66 W Width of Gib-head 1 ,5 T

Standard Taper = 1 : 100

Feather Key or Parallel Key

A feather keyor a parallel key permits an axial sliding movement for the wheel wera shaft
when both of them are rotating together. This facility will be required in several power t .nsrnission
i

applications! such as, for example, in gear boxes, loose pulleys, clutches: universal and fl~ \dJle types
of couplings, etc. In a gear box.for example, anyone of the driven gears have to be rn. ,~~d axially
over the driven shaft so as to engage with the driving gear to obtain different speeds.

x~

D~K
; ! .....\~\ .-,- - - - - - --.,

----~.. -.'-..:..:-_--K'OUND .~;EL-!iD1~·./ .,~.:'.\

---------- ._-_.-----

feather or Parallel Kev

fig 6

15
 A feather key is of rectangular, or square cross section with uniform width and thickness as
6. The ends of a feather key are usually rounded and the key will be sunk into theshown in
Fig.
shaft for half of its thickness so that itfits snugly into the key way recess in itwith a press fit.
The press
fit prevents the key from moving axially over the shaft when the driven wheel slides on it. In cases
countersunk set transmission,
of higher power screws. The proportions
the featherofkey
theinstead
'key are
ofas follows:
press fit will be secured to the shaft by
If D diameter of the shaft in mm,

W width of the key, and

T thickness of key,

Width of key = 0.25 D + 2 mm

Nominal Thickness .= 0.66'W

Peg Key
A peg key is a feather type of key having a peg provided in the centre of the top face of the
key as shown in'Fig.· .7. The peg fits in the hole drilled in the key way in the hub, The key is a sliding
fit in the key way of the shaft. The proportions of the key are as follows,

If D diameter of the shaft in mm,

W width of the key,

T thickness of key,

h th ickness of peg,

,I Width of key -: 0.25 D +2 mm

Thickness of Peg = 0.5 T

. Nominal Thickness, = 0.66 W

FLAT BOTTOM SECTION XX

Peg Key
Fig. .7

16
Single Head Key

single
A head key is also a feather tYJ)P of key provided with a gib head at one of its ends as
shown in Fig. .8. The key is connected to the hllb by a 5Crf-'\V. The key is a sliding fit in the shaft.
The proportions of the key are as follows.

.w

,
x-..j
FLAT BOTTOM. w SEcrlON xx

Single Head Key

Fig. .8

diameter of the shaft in mm, T = thickness of key, h

If D = = height of the head, b =
of the head. width
Width of key = 0.25 D. + .2 mm Height of the 'head = 1.75T

Nominal Thickness = 0.66 W Width of the head = 1.5 T

Double. Head Key

w
x ---.J.
I

x--Jt1
1 - - - . - .....

SECTION XX
_
- b L
~w

.
r

Double Head key

Fig.. '.. 9

17
[KEYS I
A double head key is also a feather type of key having integral gib· -.h ead at '-its ends
as shown
in Fig. .9. It fits tight in the hub and slides along with it in the key way in the shaft. Its
proportions
D = diameter of the shaft in rom; T' = thickness of key, h ., height of the
'are as Iffollows. = width

of the head,head, b
. Width of key = 0.25 D + 2 mm .Height of the head = 1.75 T

Nominal Thickness = 0.66 \V. Width of the head == 1'.5

T
Spline Shaft

A spline shaft has aseries of lengthwise rectangulargrooves extending for a small

portion of
its length leaving an equal number of feathers in between them as shown in Fig.19.These feathers
engage with' corresponding recesses provided in the hub. As compared to a keyed joint, a .splined
joint offers the following advantages; transmission of heavier loads, accurate centering of hub;
increased strength of the joint.

x~
,
I

I'

x~
SECTION XX

Spline Shaft
Fig, 10

Woodruff Key
'A woodruff key shown in .Fig. . : J 1 differs from those dealt earlier in that, it is not primarily
intended to withstand shear forces andisused in light classes of work for. holdingthe-huboverthe..·
shaft so as to prevent it from slipping. 'It has a uniformly thick curved-base disc
ofsh.. a semicircle. Itfits into a similarlyshaped key way in the tapered shaft orth~/
~~·$~fIiewhat
less than
$prhdle~_
The hub of the wheel has a tapered bore to suit the tapered shaft. The wheel
is.drivah{}t{·~W,.e
tapered shaft until it fitstightly over it. When a nut is then tightened-up
of the hub, the key grips the hubby thewedging action and locksit on the tapered shaft.The
hardagainsttheouter.face
pressure
exerted by the nut therefore relieves the shear stress. The proportions of the keyareas follows.
If 0 = diameter of the shaft in mm, d;.. diameter of the key, h = heightoftheiey, W
-swidth
of the key,

18
 Width of key = 0.25 D

Diameter of key = 4 W

Height of key = 1.75 W

¢d

0d

THICKNESS =W

Woodruff Key
Fig.11

Pin Key
A pin key shown in Fig. .12 is either a plain or a tapered rod driven in the hole partly drilled
in the shaft and partly in the hub. Pin keys are used generally to hold small toothed wheels, hand
wheels, levers, .etc., on the spindles to prevent them from slipping. Sometimes a pin key is also used
with shrunk-on wheel hub. In such cases, the hub of the wheel is bored with a hole equal to or less
than the diameter of the shaft. The hub is then heated to expand slightly and is driven on the shaft

TAPER 1:50
¢d

~.d / TAPER 1:50

~ £--------- SECTION XX

=--3- Pin Key

Fig. .12

19
 when it isstill hot. As the hub cools, it contracts and grips the shaft. To provide an extra positive hole
a pin key is also used. The proportions of the key are as follows.
""
If D = diameter of the shaft, d = diameter of the pin,

" -Djameter of Pin = 0.2 D Taper 1 : 50

11 .' ~ '. - .
~-~orJe. ~ey, ~ ~ < ~. ~.~ l i. ~ • .' '-
it
tl! .," til

Cone keys are used when pulleys having holes larger than th.e shaft are to mounted on them
A cone key consists of three segments of a hollow coriical bush as shown in Fig. .13. The hub a
. the;puJ ley-wiII
........'"
have
a tapered .b9~~tQ· suitrthc\.t·oi the cone key. The -segments of the cone key an
"".'.. • 1& j. :it. • ...

...
driven between the shaft andthe hub so as to hold them from slipping by the friction grip.

Cone Key
Fig. ,13

I Staking on
When a pulley with a hole in the hub larger than the diameter of the shaft is to be mounter
on th(~ shaft. atleast four or more number of flat keys are used as shown in Fig. .14, Thi
arrangement is convenient for fixing heavy wheels on the shafts in positions where 'it would b4
difficult to move the wheel on or off, if the shaft is fitted tightly in the hole. The staking on also permit
the hole being made large enough to pass over any enlarged part mounted on the shaft.

x---1 j
!

\ f
\ I

\ \ \25 D1 HOLE
DIA/'1:~ ¢D

THAN SH.4FT DIAMETER

RGER staking on
SECTION ~'X

Fig ,14

20
 Scre~
Th·reads-,.. and
ThreadedFasf.errer-s

.Screw and Screw Thread

A screw is a cylindrical or a-conical rod with a helical grooyecut on it. Its function is to
transform the input motion of rotation into output motion of translation. A screw thread is a .
continuous helical ridge formed by cutting a helical ~roove em .~ cylindrical or conical shank.
Basically screw threads are used to fasten the parts together, or to transm it motion and so po.wer, or
for the relative .adjustments of the adjacentparts. To perform .these specific functions, threads of
different profiles are used. The shape of the different types of the standard thread. profiles with
proportions and their suitability for specific purpose are discussed are h·ere.,

. -

Screw Thread Terminology

.E.XTERNAL.. rHRfADS>' ANt;LE OF, tHREAD
. . . INTERNA,L,THREADS
.

p ,'PITCH FLAN,K.'OR. SIDE

HHf/6HT,'OF
hJDEPTH pF THREAD.' FUNDAMENTAL 'TRIANGLE

Elements ofa Screw Thread

Fig. 1

21
 The following definitions refer to the various terms used. in screw threads. The various
elements of a screw thread 'are shown in Fig. . 1. The external thread is the thread cut on the outer
surface of a rod. The internal thread is the thread cut on the inner surface of a hole.

Root - It is the bottom portion of the surface of a thread, either flat or rounded which joins
the sides of the adjacent threads.

Crest ~ It is the top portion of the surface of a thread, either flat or rounded which joins the
sides of the same thread.

Flank or Side - It is the surface of a thread that connects the crest with the root and also it
offerscontact with its counterpart.
the surface

Angle of the Thread - It is the angle included between the sides of the two adjacent threads
and is measured on an axial plane.

Depth of the
It is Thread
the distance
- between the crest and the root of a thread which is
measured normal ro the axis on an axial plane. It is designated ash].

Nominal Diameter - It is the diameter of the cylindrical rod on which the threads are cut. This
diameter specifies the size of the screw.

Major Diameter - It is the diameter of an imaginary coaxial cyl inder wh ich bounds the crests
of an external thread or the roots of an internal thread. 0 and d denote the major diameters of the
internal and external threads respectively.

Minor, or Core, or Root Diameter - It is the diameter of..an imaginary coaxial cylinder which
bounds the roots of an external thread.br the crest s of an internal thread. D I' and cl, denote the
minor
diameters of the internal and external threads respectively.

Pitch Diameter - It is the diameter of the thread at which an imaginary coaxial cylinder that
can be passed so as to cut the, thread so that the width of the cut thread will be equal to the width
of the groove. 02 and d 2 denote the pitch diameters of internal and external threads respectively.

Height of the Fundamental Triangle --,. The imaginary equilateral triangle which bounds a V-
thread is called a fundamental triangle. In Fig. ..1, the triangle ABC is called the fundamental
triangle. Its height, H is measured normal to the axis on an axial plane.

Pitch - It is the distance from a point on a' screw thread to a corresponding point on the next
thread, measured parallel to the axis.' It maybe indicated as the distance from crest to crest, or from'
root to root, 'but theformer is the convention.

Lead - It is the axial distance advanced by a nut for its one full turn over a threaded rod. On
a single start thread, the lead and the pitch are identical, On a double start thread, the lead is twice
th~ pitch, and on a triple start thread, the lead is three times the pitch'. Thus, the lead may also be
defined' as the product of the pitch and number of starts.

Basic Profiles or Forms of Screw Threads

The profile of a screw thread is based on-whether it functions as a fastening device or a power
transmission element. The profile is triangular, known as V thread in the former, and squar~ or its

22
modiiicetions in the latter. Thus the two basic profiles, or forms of screw threads are: (i) V
thread
(ii) andthread.
Square

Standard Forms of V Threads

WhitwQrth Thread - British Standard
This thread was introduced by SirJoseph Whitworth and was standardised as British
Standard
thread, abbreviated as BSW. The profileof this thread with standard proportions isshown in
Fig. ..2.
It hd~ d thread angle of .55" and is rounded off at the crest and root which renders it less
liable to
damage than a sharpV thread.

. Whitworth Thread
Fig. ..2

Sellers ThreadEarlier American Standard

This thread was adopted earlier as the American standard thread' by the' American
Standards
Institution.The profile of this thread with standard proportions isshown in Fig. .3, Ithas 60°
thread
angle and both the crests and roots are kept flat. Now the unified thread shown in Fig. .4 is
the
American National standard thread.

Sellers Thread
Fig. '.3

Unified Thread - ISO Thread - Indian Standard

The Bureau of IndianStandards has adopted V-thread prof Ierecommended by the
International
23
 Organisation for Standards, ISO, metric screw thread for use in this country. This thread is also known
as Unified Thread. It has 60° thread angle. The profile of this thread with standard proportions is
shown in Fig. - ' .4.The dimensions of the internal thread is slightly different from that of the external
thread.

PERPENDICULAR TO AfC'

P INTERNAL: THREAD

,INTERNAL 'THREAD
p,

-)(TERNAL THREAD 'B/.SEC TOR OFDEF

~
....

Unified Thread
Fig. .4

Basic and Standard Forms of Square Thread

Basic Form of Square Thread
'The basic forfTlof a square thread is
O~5P
shown in Fig. - '.5. The flanks orthe sides of this
thread are perpendicular to the axis of the
thread. The depth. and th'e thickness of the

thread is equal to half the p i t c h . e ; . ·

c:),

Standard Form of Square Threads - Indian

Standard

T.he profile of the square thread adopted

by the Bureau of Indian Standards is shown in
Fig. .6.. The depth of the external threads is
equal to half the pitch. The sharp corners at the Basic Form of Square Thread
Fig. .5

24
[iCREW THREADS AND THREADED FASTENERS I

root of the external threads are rounded off to the radius R =O.25mm. The depth of the internal
threads is equal to O.5P + O.25mm. The sharp corners at the crest of the internal threads are
chamfered to O.25mm x 4.1°·
.p
INTERNAL THREAD

~. RO.25
es
it
""
~

INTERNAL THREAD
O.5P O.5P
p

O.5P D.5P

EXTERNAL THREAD

All Dimensions in mm
Square Thread - Indian Standard
Fig. '.6

Modified Forms of Square Threads

Acme Thread

This thread is the modified form of a square thread. Unlike the square thread it is easier to cut,
and is stronger atthe root. The angle of the thread is 29°. The inclined sides of the.thread facilitate
quick and easy engagement and disengagement, as for example, the split nut of 'the lead screw of "
alathe. It is satisfactorily used for power screws like brake screws, jack screws andon the valve
operating screws for axial power transmission. The section of this thread with standard proportion's
is shown in Fig. .7.

e:
e:
Vl
C'\I
cl
i-
a..
.lJ)
<::):....l-_ _....l.- -----J'"---~~/

Acme Thread
Fig. '.7

25
TrapezoidalThread -Indian Standard substitute for Acme Thread
The trapezoidal thread shown in Fig.8 is the ISO thread profile adopted by the Bureau of
Indian Standards in preference to the Acme thread.

p
INTERNAl THREAD

INTERNAL THREAD
./

."'-
EXTERNAL THREAO ."';

p 0::

All Dimensions in mm
Trapezoidal Thread
Fig. 8

A trapezoidal thread is designated ·by theletters Tr followed by the nominal diameter and
pitch, the two being separated by X sign. For example, a trapezoidal thread of nominal diameter 40
mm and pitch 7 mfJ? is designated as :

Tr 40 x 7'
p
Buttress Thread'
The profile of this thread is a
combination of square rand V threads,
combining the advantages of the .square
thread like ability to transmit power and low
frictional resistance with the strength of the V
thread. It is used for' transmitting
unidirectional load. as' in the case of screw..
press,vices and breech locks of guns to resist ..
the recoil. The section of this thread with
standard proportions is shown in Fig. '.9.
Buttress Thread
Fig. .. 9

Saw Tooth Thread - Indian Standard substitute ior Buttress

Thread
,'The saw tooththread shown in Fig.lOis the.ISO thread profile adopted by the Bureau of
Indian Standards in preference to Buttress'thread..

26
 [SCREW THREADS AND THREADED FASTENERS.'

EXTERNAL THREAD

~
Saw Tooth Thread
Fig. .10

Basic Knuckle Thread

.. The profile of this thread is yet another modification of the square thread. The sharpcorners
!of the squarethreadwhich are liable for damage are rounded offas shown in Fig. .tt . This thread
"is used where heavy wear and rough use is expected as In.railwav carriage coupling screw. The"·
advantage ofthis thread is that it can be rolled in a sheet metal or cast so as to have
shallowdepths
which makes its u'se on electric bulbs and sockets, bottle tops, etc.

O.5P - -- -~ ~ ..
O.5P

8asic Knuckle Thread

Fig. . '1'.1

Standard Form of-Knuckle Thread

The knuckle thread shown in Fig. .12 is the ISO thread' profile adopted by the Bureau of
Indian Standards in.preference to the basic knuckle thread shown in Fig. ,,11.

. A knuckle thread is designated by the letter K followed by the nominal diameter and pitch!
the two being separated by the x sign. For example a knuckle thread of nominal diameter
1Omm2.54
pitch andmm is designated as : Kl0 x 2.54 .

27
 EXTERNAL THREAD
.p P

INTERNAL THREAD ..

:r.::
V)

c:) R.O.238P

INTERNAL THREAD

Standard Form of Knuckle Thread

Fig. .12

Conventional Representation of Screw Threads

Since the true representation of screw threads involves drawing of the actual helicalcurves which
requ ires laborious d rafti ng work and ti me, threads are shown conventionally in the simpIified form.

Representation of Y-Threads
The external V -threads are represented by two thuiconunuous lines on the non-circular view,
and by a thin incomplete circle for about three-fourths of its circumference on the circular view as
shown in Fig.13. lfaccurate representation is required, the thin lines must be drawn at a distance
equal to the actual root diameter. For approximate representation, they may be drawn at a distance
equal to 0.9 x diameter of the rod. The limit length of the threads is shown by a thick line as shown
in Fig.73A or "by a medium dashed line-as shown in Fig.138

ROO"r DIA o.9.d ·A.PPX

THICK LINE THIN LINE

MEDIUM THICK
/

·.A B
External V-Thread Representation
Fig. 73

28
 SCREW THREADS AND THREADED FASTENERS

When the external Iythreaded partsareto be shown in section, the thin lines and the
incomplete
thin circlp representing the root diameter must be drawn on the hatched area ..l~ shown in
Fig. I he ir,tel~J V-threads are represented as shown in F;~. 14.
. "[RES'i CIRCLE THICK ¢ o.9d 138. CREST CIRCLE THICK ~ D.9d

--- - - - ---+---

ROOT CIRCLE' THIN ¢d

ROOT CIR[~.E tHIN ¢d
DASHED LINEDEFINING ROOT THIN

Internal V-Thread Representation

Fig. ' .14

Representation of Square and Other Forms of Threads

The square and other forms of threads may be represented in the same way as the V-
threads,
however the form of th.e thread may be indicated as shown in Fig. .15.

- "E ·f-
EE -
Representation of Square and other Thread Forms
Fig. .15

ExtERNAL THREADS OF A 'ARE SHOWN

Representation of Threads in Assembly
c
COVERING THE, INTERNAL .THREADS OF B &

In the sectioned .assembly drawing, the

-
externally threaded parts are always shown
covering theiriternaly threaded parts. For
example in Fig.16 the part A,' - externally,
threaded, has parts Band C threaded on it at its
both ends. The parts Band C have internal
threads. While showing the assembly in section,
the internal threads of parts Band C are covered
by the external threads of the part A as shown in
the figure. Since the part B is not completely
threaded on over the part A, the unengaged
portion of the threads of the part B are shown
uncovered as per the convention of internal V
threads. A C <:

,B
Threads in Assembly
Fig. 16

29
11.8 Designation of Threads ·
Threads are designated by indicating the type of
thread, ·1'110 x 1.is
-,
the major diameter and the pitch.
V-threads of ISO profile are designated by the letter M
followed by the major diameter and the pitch, the two
being
separated by x symbol. For example, V-threads of major
diameter 10 mm and pitch 1.25 mm is designated as M10 A
xl.25 as shown in Fig. 17 A. Sometimes when the V
-threads
are designated without indicating the pitch, for example M10
as shown in Fig.178, it will mean that the threads are cut
with coarse' pitch, whose value is to be obtained from the B
relevant Indian Standard Codes.
Multistart threads are designated by specifying the M10x1.25 DOUBLE- START
number of starts as shown 'in. Fig. .17C.

The screw threads are always considered as right hand

unless otherwise specified. When left hand threads are to be
designated the abbreviation' LH must be used as shown in
Fig. 170.
c
The square threads are designated by the 0 symbol as
shown in Fig.18. The trapezoidal threads are designated by
the .letters Tr as shown in Fig.19.

'Bolts and Nuts

Abolt is a fastening.element comprising of ahead at one ' D
end and a threaded portion over its cylindrical shank at the Designation of V-Threads
other end. The parts to be fastened temporarily by bolts and Fig.17

ruts, admitthe bolts through the holes in them having suitable

o 10x2
.learances.The projected threaded end of thebolt in turn now
idrnits the washer and nut, an internally threaded member,
vhich after sufficient turn offers necessary clamping grip. Bolts
md nuts of various shapes are used for different purposes but
·he hexagonal head and s.quare head are very common.
vlthough the square shape provides a betterspanner grip than
he hexagon, but needs one-fourth of a turn to bring it-into the
Designation of Square Threads
arne position for inserting spanner again, whereas a hexagon Fig..18
,eed only one-sixth of a turn and hence preferred. Although tr 10x2.5
an

tctagnoal shape would require one-eighth of a turn, the

as
panner grip reduces 'it is more liable to slip. In general, the ----~~

exagonal bolts and nuts are preferred forfastenings in

machines
vherever the space and other conditions permit. The square
ead bolts are used instead of hexagonal bolts when frequent
Designation of Trapezoidal Threads
rosening and tightening is 'required, for exampie, on job
Fig. 19
aiding devices like, vices, tools posts in machines. etc.

30 .
 SCREW THREADS AND THREADED· FASTENERS I
Chamfering on Bolt Heads and Nuts
The sharp corners on the external flat end
faces of bolt heads and nuts are taken off by
chamfering conically at 30° to the flat faces. The
chamfering produces hyperbolic curyes on the
side faces and leaves circular end face as shown
in Fig. .20. The bolt head is chamfered on its CHAFER CIRCLE
flat end face as shown in Fig. ~ 20. The nut is
chamfered either only on one end as shown in . -'

Fig.21 A, or on both of its ends as shown in Chamfer on aeu Head

Fig. .20

Fig. 218. CHAMFER CIRCLE

. -----\
The diameter of the chamfer circle wi II be
equal to the distanceacross flats of the hexagon.

The hyperbolic curves are shown on the'

drawing by arcs of circles. The method
ofdrawing
these curves by arcs is explained
Countersinking of Nuts
\ / FLAT BOTTOM
To facilitate easy insertion of-the nut over' ~[URV£S
CAUSEO, BY CHAMFER
the bolt at its threaded end, the threaded
holes A
in the nut are countersunk either only at the Chamfer on one end of Nut

bearing face of the nut as shown in Fig.. 22A

or on both the faces as shown in Fig.. 228.
11.12 Drawing of Hexagonal Bolt and Nut
In machine drawing practice, hexagonal
bolts nuts are drawn all most in all the
and
drawings. Drawing of these ,to the actual
dimensions involves laborious drafting work
and unnec~ss~ry time. Since the bolts and nuts CHAMFER
,, are standard items, they need not be drawn in
B
the assembly drawings to accurate sizes, instead Chamfer on both ends of Nuts .
they are drawn conventionally to empirical Fiz.!1.1
proportions listed in Table1. All the.
proportions are expressed in terms of the major
diameter of the bolt and nut.

Step by Step Procedure: Fig. ,23,

I Step: Draw the shank of the bolt equal to COUNTERSUNK

d and length. 'The thickness of
the given diameter <, 120
0 o
120
bolt head equal to D.8d and the thickness of nut
equal to O.9d are marked. Measure the width
A B
across corners equal to 2d and complete the three
Countersinking of Nuts
Fig..22
faces of the bolt head and the nut in thin lines.

31
 TABLE1
Empirical Proportions 'of Hexagon and Square Head Bolt & Nut

Detail Proportion

Nominal Diameter d = Size of Bolt or Nut, mm

Width Across Flats s = 1.Sd + 3mm

Width Across .Corners e = 2d

Thickness of Bolt Head k = o.8d

Thickness of Nut m = O.9d

Root Diameter d, = d - (2 x Depth of Thread)
or
= d - (4 x Thickness of lines)
or
= 0~9d (approximate)

Length of Bolt I = As specified

Thread Length b = 2d + 6mm (for I < 150mm)

= 2d + 12mm (for I> 150mm) \ .

Radius of Bolt End r = d (for spherical ends)

Chamfer of Bolt End . z = Depth of Thread x 45° or

= O. 1d (Approximate)

Chamfer Angle of Bolt' Head & Nut

The right view of the bolt and nut assembly is drawn as follows. With anv point Clan the axis
centre and radius equal to d, draw a thin circle. Draw the vertical diameter 1-2 of this circle. With
md 2 as centres and radius equal to d cut the circle on either side of the vertical axis and-inscribe
~ hexagon. The chamfer circle is drawn as a thick circle with the centre C, and radius ClEo

II Step: The chamfer arcs in the three face view of bolt head and nut are drawn a? follows.
rough the corner B, draw a line at 30° to the axis of the bolt or nut to cut it at 01. With 01 as centre
d radius 0lA draw the chamfer arc in the centre face. The chamfer arcs on the two side faces are
iwn as follows. Draw the perpendicular bisector of Be to cut B0 1 at 02.· With 02 as centre and
iius 02D draw the chamfer arc. Repeat the construction on the other side face.

III Step: The chamfer lines on the side faces of the three face views of the bolt head and nut
~ drawn as follows. Through the points P and Q draw lines inclined at 30 to the flat face of the
Q

boltor nut. The end of the bolt is chamfered to 0.1 d x 45°.

ad

32
SCREW THREADS AND THREADED FASTENERS I

RICiHT .VIEW FRONT VIEW

/
CHAMFER CIRCLE
.
LENGTH OF BOLT

~---------

I STEP~
THICKNESS OF BOLT HEAD o~8d' .' ·o.. THICKNESS OF NUr"
'CHAMFR ARCS 9.d
'., ~ R = l?1Af

o
B
II STEP ." Rz=OzD

.1.s·d+3rilm ROOT CIRCLE, . . LENGTH0F. THREAD _I:

Q

; .

""0.
--'--" '. . 0\
~, .'

. ,
, '\o~idx45°
" .

CHAMFER VlfW" ACROSS· CORNER. (THREE FACE.. VIEW)"..

" fiNE .'
. B/SEcro/? OF XY

i
.: 'r
.1·
··1 o. .'
jL-:..-~-------~~--JII'lI'"I--':'-" .i - -----. - -.----l~--tt-- .,

R=.Oi Y' VIEW ACROSS ( FLAtS. (TWO FACE VIEW)

. III STEP

Steps in Drawing Hexagon Head Bolt & Nut

Fig. .23

33
 The threaded portion of the shank is indicated by drawing two thin lines at a distance equal
d 1 = O.9d .
ft

The root circle in the right view is represented by a thin three-fourth of a circle drawn with
ritre C1 and diameter O.9d.

Thetwo face view of the bolt head and the nut is projected from the side view. !f the side view
not drawn, then the distance across the flats is measured equal to 1.5d+3mm. The chamfer arcs'
the two face view are drawn as follows. ProjectP to get X. Mark Y the midpoint of FG. Draw the
-rpendicular bisector of XV and·FG tointerseet each other at 03' With centre 03 andradiusCi.v

aw the chamfer arc. Repeat the construction on the-other face.

Drawing of Square Head Bolt and Nut

The square head bolt and nut are drawn to the proportions shown in Table 1,

RIGHT VlfW CHAt1FER CIRCLi FRONT VIEW

¢ =: LENGTH OF BOLT'
I ------~
1I
1.sd+3mm p .-
----p
.t

II
I·

1- -:-~- ~I
. _i ...I.-

2 '.
THICKNESS OF BOLT HEAD
p"
l.. o.iJd~
~ I STEP..
( NU\!
I THiCKNES~OF
·8ADIUS=OR .
f-o.9d __
~----.X.....,.P I RADIUS-ss

CHAMFER ARC II STEP

r erRCL£ ¢ 0.90'
- . \ CHAMFER LINE ~ LEN!J!H OF THREAD . "I
I
.I
i

--&--:to_ __ _ I _ - - - - -

III STEP
oteps rn Drawing Square Head Bolt and Nut in Vte\v J-\Lruss v.orners
Fig. 24

34
 SCREW THREADS AND THREADED FASTENERS

Step by Step Procedure: Fig. 24

I Step: Draw the shank of the bolt equal to the given diameter d and the length of the bolt. The
thickness of the bolt head equal to O.8d and the thickness of the nut equal to '0. 9d are marked.
The' as
right view of the bolt. and the nut assembly is drawn asfollows. With any point C, orithe axis centre
and diameter equal to 1.5d + 3mm draw the chamfer circle; Draw a square circumscribing the
chamfer circie with its sides inclined at 45° to the axis. Project the corners 1 and 2 to get points P.
Draw a thick: circle with diameter 0 to indicate the nominal diameter.
II Step: The chamfer arcs in the view across the corners of the bolt and nut are 'drawn asfollows,
Through the cornerP, draw a line inclined at 30° to the axis. Draw the perpendicular bisector of PQ
to intersect the 30° line at o. With 0 as centre and radius OR draw the chamfer arc. Repeat the
construction on the other face.

1·11. Step: The chamfer line is drawn at 30° to the flat face of the bolt head and nut. The
threaded
portion on the shank. of the bolt is .indicated conventionally by drawing two. thin lines spaced at a
. three-fourth of a
distance equal tocircle drawn
the root diameter d, = o.
with centre C 1 and The root circle
9d. diameterO.9d. Theinend
the of theview
right bolt is represented
chamfered tobya
O.ld x 45°.
thin
Drawing of Square Head Bolt and Nut in the View Across Flats
Fig. 25., The'
1.sd+3mm /
The square Head bolt and nut are sometimes drawn in the view across flats as shown in
empirical proportions in terms
Square Head'
CHAMFER 35
of CHAMFER
Bolt and
CIRCLE Fig. the diameter
Nut25
in' View d of.the
ARC Across oso
Flats bolt
LENGTH are shown. in the figure.
OF THREAD
 l~ ~
O•.5d
~ -
,
"'J 4

.. 'S. 1:~- U1

:[-
~ ~
~-,--
- "-,)
e::t
('D
,..
"Q.
J
L- :a._ _ ".
-------- .
i
(J)
~
C) I ~ » ~!!.!?£AD LENGT~
1
j
1

,O.3:1~- ,
I THREAD LENGTH
I~ to
r'~-' ___ LENGTH OF SCREW O.8d
~
fJ')

I I
~-- i...LENfiTHOF2£RE~6d

v,
O~6q
r ,- I~
~. ~j
-,
~' ,...,
r£.5~
,

<::)~ tn 1<::>
,
'& ~,

_. Ii
~c.. !~ • I

,/,

~Ilctl
l "
I .
--.
~ ~

i-:-· , ,
I •

o:;.: ....
~
-,: ~ .-._--~ -
Q
r-
'S.
Q.. ----
~

.,.
Q..

:E - ~ ~
~ Q. ~
L --
~"!'t'

0\ -I 1:J
i I
-~ I m - .0':'

~cI
-0 j
,I THREAD LENGTH I
~

V"J
i..
D
LENGTH__--I
'
I O.8d
: THREAD LENGTH ~

~g
----t-
,.....
THRf~_'
('C
_LENGTH OF" SCREW IO ..8d
'J')
IL£NG!H.._O!-_~~!? LENGTH OF SCREW I 1.25d, I
f"l 2.3d._.__.
-t
~ Et:fi
~ ..-
'J)

.._-
I~.
~_ ~ ,
O.5d ''\ ~

-l- 7' \.
,<:)
O 6J4..-..... I~

-'-
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 UNIT 2: I~TRODUCTION TO DRAFTING SOFTWARE

COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

Module 1 DRAFTING SOFTWARE

1. COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING (CAD)*

Computer Aided Drafting (CAD) is defined as an electronic tool employed to create and
modify engineering drawings using a drafting software with a compatible computer hardware.

1.1 INTERACTIVE COMPUTER GRAPHICS (leG)

The computer, upon receiving the input signals, creates the graphics. To the user, it appears
that the picture is changing instantaneously in response to illS/her commands, He/she can
give a series of commands, each one generating a graphical response from the computer. In
this way he/she maintains a 'conversation' or "dialogue': with the computer. Since a human
. is required to operate the systef!.l, CAD is referred. to as "Interactive Computer Graphics'.

1.2 APPLIC.ATIONS ·OF', CAD

S. No~ [Engineering Branch Applications

1. Mechanical Design of machine elements, CNC machine tools, Robotics, etc.
2. Automobile Kinematics, Hydraulics, Steering, etc.
3. Electrical Circuit Layout, Panel design, Control schematics.
4. Electronics S.chematic diagrams of Printed Circuits, Integrated Circuits.
Communication network, Satellite transmitting pictures, T. V.,
5. Communication
etc.

6.· Civil Mapping, Contour plotting, Building plans, Structural drawings.

"'-7.
....,.-r.-

Architectural Town planning, Interior decorations-Multi-storey complex.

8. Aeronautical Design of space-craft, FI ight simulator, Lofting.

9. Computer Science Flow charts, Multimedia, etc.

* Note: Computer Aided Drafting is, sometimes, abbreviated asCADr, instead of CAD.
( CAD also means Computer Aided Design. )

37
 DRAFTING SOFTWARE

2. DRAFTING SOFTWARE
Drafting or Graphics Software is designed to create, edit, revise and store data for the Basic
Graphic Primitives ( Drawing Entities ), vtz., points, lines, arcs, circles,etc.

2.1 DRAFTING SOFTWARE PACKAGES

AutoCAD - Developed by Autodesk Incorporation, USA, Unigraphics - Developed by
Unigraphics, USA, I-DEAS - Developed by Structural Dynamics Research Corporation, USA
and Pro/Engineer - Developed by Parametric Technology Corporation, USA

2.2 AutoCAD
AutoCAD was first introduced in 1982 by Autodesk. It has hit the technical world like a
shock wave, revolutionizing the manner of drawing preparation.· The latest version

AutoCAD Capabilities
• AutoCAD creates from simple 20 drawings to 3·D modeling of 3D objects.
• AutoCAD provides facilities that allow users to customize AutoCAD to make it more
efficient and therefore increase their productivity.
• The built-in programming language. AutoLISP helps to use AutoCAD commands
while designing.The drawings can be linked with design or manufacturing
packages such as ANSYS, IDEAS, PRO-ENGINEERS, UNIGRAPHICS, etc.

3. 'MANUAL DRAFTING Vs AutoCAD DRAFT:ING

Details Manual Drafting Techniques AutoCAD Drafting Te.chniques

Scales are used to prepare a
Scale drawing at full size, reduced
size or enlarged size.
Drawing/ You m~y select a stan~ard
Electronic
drawing sheet, i.e., A 2 or '-A 3•
sheet size
Drafting Drafting tools such as mini-
tools drafter,. set-scale, etc., are used.
Drawingprocessincludes
Drawing construction lines for drawing
process various views.
Accuracy of the drawing is
relatively not that good.
Accuracy
Modifications in drawings are
Modifiability not easier.
Drawings of repetition such as
Efficiency similar floor plans in a multi-
storey building are made slow.
No scaling while creating your drawing
on Auto.CAD. All the dimensions you
enter are input in real size, .i.e., 1 : 1.
You draw in real size, i.e., you set up an
electronic paper on the computer big
enough to hold the drawing at 1: 1..
AutoC·AD provides tools to help you
draw accurately like toolbar, etc.
Drawings are made from pre-defined
entities such as lines, circles and arcs.
There is a command for each entity.
Creating .lines" circles and other shapes
of exactly correct dimensions is easier.
Much easier to modify. The results of
CAD modifications are a lot cleaner too
- no more piles of eraser dust!
Drawings involving repetition such as
similar floor plans in a multi-storey
building arecreated faster.

38
 INTRODUCTION ABOUT DRAFTING SOFTWARE

AIM·:
$- To explain the drawing facilities available in CAD.
$- To bring out the advantages of using CAD systems,
$- To state the facilities of modeling available in CAD.
$- To outline the applications of CAD.

I-IARDWARE IN COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN:

A CAD system would consist of the following hardware components:
i.A graphical terminal
11.Operator input devices
Ill.One Of- more plotters and other-output-devise
IV.Centralprocessing unit
v. Secondary storage

THE DESIGN WORKSTATION:

The Workstation must accomplish five functions.
i. It must interface with CPU
II.It must generate a steady' graphic image for the user.
Ill.It must provide digital descriptions of the graphic image.
IV.It must translate computer commands into operating functions.
v.It must facilitate communication between the user and the system.

OPERATOR INPUT DEVICES:

These devic.escanbe divided into three general categories.
i. Cursor control devices
11.Digitizers
Ill.Alpha numeric and other Keyboard terminals

PLOTTERS AND OUT.PUT -DEVICES:

There are various types of output devices used in conjunction with a
. CAD system. These output devices include:
Pen plottersi.
11.Hard copy units
Ill.Electrostatic plotters
IV.Computer output to microfilm (COM) units

39
 CAD PRINCIPLES:
There are four fundamental elements of a drawing viz.; Points, Straight
Lines, Arcs and Curves.

There are many useful functions employed in a CAl) system, which are
very difficult or not possible if tried manually, Some of SUCll facilities are
listed below.
1. Scaling IV. Rotation
11. Zooming v. Mirroring
111. Translating VI. Duplicating

till.¥~XAGESOF USING CAD:

<.:\j~, . ;:;··:::~·C()nst- of quality drawings
tuction
11. Creation of Database
111. Creation of library
IV. Use of layers
v: Saving on repetition
vi. High Accuracy
VII. Editing the drawings
VIII. Time saving .

":'~PPLICATIONSOF CAD:
r. Geometric modeling
ii. Engineering analysis
111. Design Review & Evaluation
IV. Automated Drafting

CONCLUSION:
Cad application packages are tremendously powerful tools. The .speed
and ease with which a drawing can be prepared and modified with the help of a
computer offers a phenomenal time saving advantage over manual preparations
of drawings.

40
 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

The term Computer Aided Design (CAD) refers to the design of an object using the three features:
• geometric modelling
• computer graphics
• design tools (analysis, codes etc).
Any C.AD work is executed with the help of the computer with necessary- ~ardware (CPU,
Monitor, Mouse, Keyboard etc.i and software (graphics and modelling programs).
A geometric model is a graphical representation of an object, using the mathematical database
in the computer. There are three type of geometric modelling techniques used namely, wireframe
modelling, surface modelling and solid modelling. The term modelling always refers to 3D repre-
sentation of an object.'

Wireframe Model

A wireframe model is the simplest geometric modelling type, where an object is described by
points,
lines, circles and curves in 3D representation.
Surface Model

A surface model is similer to wireframe model where an object is described by surface entities
such
as B-spline surface, Bezier patches, coons pathces, ferguson surface etc.
,Solid Model

A solid model is a complete representation of a surface model, where the object is described by
the
.
solid entites such as block, cylinder, cone, sphere, wedge, torus etc. It always appears
.
as a solid to
Vlevver. .
the
A solid 'model will have the necessary physical material properties such as mass, density, and ~.
other design data related with' an object. A solid model can also be compared with an actual or
existing object. It can be rotated easily to visualise the object in the computer monitor screen.

41
 There are many solid modelling softwares, available in the software market. The commonly used
solid modelling softwares are - PRO/ENGINEER, IDEAS, CATIA, UNIGRAPHICS,
SOLIDWORKS, IRONCAD, MECHANICAL DESK TOP (MD·T) etc.

Wire frame model Solid model

(hidden lines removed). (A surface model appears like this but
does not have physical properties).

.-.:-Mo:delling and Drafting

Allthe modelling softwares availables in the software market are having the capabilities of
producing
2D drafting and sectional view in all ways. There are also dedicated 2D drafting softwares available
in the software market but, are not commonly used now-a-days.
"CO'MPUTER AIDED D'RAFTING USING Auto CAD 2000

Auto .CAD is one the 2D drafting and 3D modelling software commonly used in engineering prac-
tices. It is a powerful drafting tool that has theflexible features for creation of drawings, editing and
plotting. Following are few application areas of computer aided drafting:
(i) Preparation of 2D and 3D mechine component drawings.
(ii) Preparation of building drawings.
(iii) Preparation of Graphs using mathematical data.
(iv) Interior design and viewing.
(v) Preparation of company logo and presentation.
(vi) Preparation of work flowcharts, maps, layouts, etc.
The computerhardware and software requirements for computer aided drafting is already 'dis-
cussed in chapter 1. After the release of Auto CAD Release 14, the latest version Auto CAD 2000
is released by Autodesk, Inc, USA and that is discussed here.

42
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

1. STARTING AutoCAD
Switch on your computer! Windows XP is loaded automatically! After a few seconds, the
screen displays various icons (graphic images) such as My Computer, AutoCAD 2004, etc.

1.1 AutoCAD SCREEN

To start AutoCAD drawing:
Double-click the AutoCAD 2004 shortcut or
By clicking Start .~ Programs ~ Autodesk ~ AutoCAD 2004 ~. AutoCAD 2004

After a few seconds you could see the AutoCAD 2004 interface as shown in Fig. 1..

FIG". 1

See Fig. 1. AutoCAD 2004 Screen contains.Title Bar, MenuBar, Standard Tool Bar, Draw'
Tool Bar, Drawing Area, Cross Hair, Command Prompt Window, Status Bar, etc.

43
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

Title Bar: It is the top line of the AutoCAD screen. It lists the program name and file name.
Menu Bar: Various menus-such as file, edit, view, etc., are available from the Menu Bar.

Pull-Down Menus available on the Menu Bar offer a quicker way to access the commands
and functions that are the heart of AutoCAD 2004.
Pull-down menu options perform three basic functions:
• Display additional menu choices (options with ~ symbol), called as cascading menu.
• Displaya Dialog Box that contains settings, you can change.
• Issue a command that requires keyboard or drawing input.
As you select commands and options, AutoCAD 2004 flashes a single line help in Status Bar.

Status Bar: In place of the Coordinate Display, AutoCAD' displays a brief help text narrating
the function of the command along with the command name.
Just as the Pull-Down Menus, the commands in the Toolbars do the
Toolbars and Icons:
nitty-gritty work of creating new objects / editing, the existing ones. These icons are grouped
by action type. For example, the Draw Toolbar contains tools needed to create new objects.
The Modify Toolbar contains functions that modify existing objects in a drawing and so on.
The icon buttons in the Toolbars .pcrforrn three types of actions:
• Display further options known as flyouts (buttons with ~ symbol at bott?m right corner)
• Open dialog boxes
• -'Issue 'COlTIlnands that require keyboard or cursor input
If the required Toolbar is not displayed on the screen, right-click on any of the Toolbars to
get a Shortcut Menu. This Shortcut Menu lists out all the available Toolbars. Choose the
required Toolbar to make it visible.

The cursor is a display indicating the current "position of the pointer.

Cross-Hair Cursor:
The cursor is a pair of two crossed lines across the screen. When 'you are selecting an object,
the drawing cursor changes into a small square. This square is called selection box or
selection. cursor. The cursor can be controlled by mouse.

Drawing Area is the main are,a of the' screen where entire 'drawing is drawn. It may be set in
Imperial ot Metri:c System. The limit for Metric System is 0,0 and 420,297. For setting the
limits, use LIM~TS command.

Co-ordinate System: ' All drawings are superimposed on an -invisible grid 'Of co-ordinate
system, with a horizontal X-axis and a vertical Y-axis. Enter co-ordinates to locate a point.

1.2HQW DO YOU. 'COMMUNICATE WITH ,'AutoCAD 2004?

• A'utoCAD 2004 is your faithful' servant; it does everything you tell' it.Y QU can
'comrnlJnicate'with AutoCA,D~004usi'ng the pull-down-menus, screen menus, command
. ,line and the buttons on the toolbars.
• A command is a single-word instruction fro In . the user to perform the required task.
When you invoke a command,.. AtitoCAD responds by presenting messages in the
command prompt areaor by displaying a dialog box.
• A Dialog Box, is like a form, you fill out on the computer screen. It lets you to adjust
settings or make selections fro In a set of options pertaining to a command.
• The messages in the command prompt area often tell you, what to do next or they offer a
number of options.

44
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

1.3 FUNCTION KEYS

AutoCAD provides a set of function keys listed below for quick access to certain commands:
Fl - Online Help
F2 - Toggles between Command Window' On and Off
F3 - Toggles between OSNAP On and Off.
F4 - Toggles between Tablet On and Off
F5 - Switches among Isoplanes Top, Right and Left
Toggles between Coordinates On and OffF6
F7 - Toggles between GRID On and Off. (GRID is used to display dotted lines on the
screen at predefined spacing.)
(ORTHO Mode lets you draw
F8 - Toggles between ORTHOMode On and' Off.
horizontal or vertical lines)
F9 -
Toggles between SNAP. Mode On and Off. (If the screen is' on the SNAP Mode., the
This jumping distance can be set to any,cursor jUITIPS from point
to point only.
value, say, 0.1 unit.)
F 10 ~' Toggles between Polar Tracking On and Off
F 11AutoCAD
1.4 - TogglesMODES
between Objects Snap Tracking On and Off
AutoCAD can be used to create a drawing using the following two modes,
'I. Command Mode: In Command Mode, the user has to type thecommands on keyboard.
The software responds with appropriate prompts to help the user to input the' necessary
information. CommandMode only is explained in this text.
,2. Menu Mode: In this, the use of software is through a menu located on the top of the
monitor. Menu selection can be done through icons.

1.5 SETTIN'G UNITS FOR ENGINEERING DRAWING

To set UNITS such as distance, angle, decimal, etc., call UNITS from the screen menu. Now
type theun rr s command at the Command : prompt.

1.,6 .UTILITY COMMANDS

Utility Commands control the basic functions of AutoCAD as follows:
NEW, Creates a new drawing file.
OPEN'Opens the file which is already created.
CLOSECloses the active drawing
SAVESaves the current drawing and remains in the drawing editor screen.
EXITIs used to exit out of AutoCAD.

1.7 ,AutoCAD DEFAULTS

AutoCAD assumes, you want to enter drawing elements on Layer O. . This AutoCAD setting
is called default. (Given the name because - if you don't like the settings the programmers
put in AutoCAD, default lies with' them, not you.) AutoCAD lets you know what defaults
are set up by showing you default values in brackets <defaul t> in the command: prompt.
You can accept a <defaul t prompt> by just pressing the Enter key.

45
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

2. AutoCAD COMMANDS - Geometric Primitives

You have seen a bird's eye view about the robust AutoCAD 2004.Now let us take a
closer look at it and start to learn some simple, yet most powerful 2D drawing features.

BASIC PRIMITIVES FOR DRAFTING PACKAGE

In Computer Aided Drafting, the following two types of Basic Primitives are used;
• Geometric Primitives - 2 Dimensional Drawings
• Solid Modeling Primitives - 3 Dimensional Drawings

Geometric Primitives:Using AutoCAD commands, engineering graphics is formed by

drawing Geolnetric Primitives like points., lines, circles, arcs, rectangles, polygons, etc.

Entity: An entity is a Drawing Element or Geometric Primitive, viz., point, line, circle, etc.

NOTE: AutoCAD commands are invoked from the Command: prompt either by CAPITAL
or lower-case letters. Example., POINT or point. Also AutoCAD commands
are abbreviated to one or two characters. Example: L or 1 for line.

1. POINT (PO or po)

POINT command places a point in the drawing. Enter the command POINT. You are then
asked to identify the location of the point.
y
Problem 1: (Fig. 2) Plot a point of coordinates (80,60).
CommandPOINT~ (80,60)
Current point modes : +
PDMODE~O PDSIZE=O.OOOO
Specify a 'point': 80, 60 ~

(O,O),

FIG. 2

2. LINE (L or I),
Lines can be drawn by anyone of the following, three methods:

(l) Absolute Co-ordinate System (X, Y)

Absolute co-ordinate' values. are based on the origin (0,0). Use absolute co-ordinate when
you know X and Y values of the point from the origin. '

Problem 2(a): [Fig. 3(~)JDraw,a lineon the points (60,60) and (140,60).
Command": LINE ~
Specify first point: 60,60 .-J (60,60) {140,60}
Specify next point or [Undo]': 140,,60 ...-J FIG.3(a)
Specify next point or, [Undo]: ~

46
/"
; Coordinate Systems .in AutoCAD

There are four coordinate systems used in AutoCAD to locate a point on the screen. In
Autof.Al),
2-D drafting is done by considering the screen as the XY plane i.e. X values are considered
horizon-
tally and Yvalues are taken vertically. By default, the left lower comer on the screen is
considered as
the orgin (0,0). Auto CAD uses the following coordinate systems:
(i) Absolute coordinates
(ii) Relative coordinates
(iii) Polar coordinates
(iv) Direct
Absolute distance entry.
Coordinates

Inthis method, the points arc located to draw a line with respect to the origin (0, 0). To mark a
point,
value is given in pairs for X-coordinate value followed by Y-coordinate. Consider the following
example
to generate the given drawing.
20,70 40,10

40,50 80,50

20,20 80,20

Command LINE Press ENTER key or mouse left button,

Specify first point 20,20 Press ENTER
Specify next point or [undo] 80,20 Press ENTER
Specify {next point or [undo] 80,50 Press ENTER
Specify next point or [close/undo] 40,50 Press ENtER
. Specify next point or[ close/undo] Press··ENTER
Specify next point or [close/undo] 40, 70 Press ENTER
Specify next point or [close/undo] 20, 70 Press ENTER
Specify next point or [close/undo] 20,20 PtessENTER to complete the drawing.

Relative Coordinates

In this method, the points are located to draw a line with reference t.o the previous point.
Consider the
following example to generate the given drawing.
47
 -
40 I

I
I

I~
I
20.201_----_~
..60
.1

. Command LIT'iE
Specify the first point 20, 20
Specify the next point or [undo] @ 60,0
Specify. the next point or [undo] @ 0,30
Specify the next point or [close/undo] @ - 40, 0
Specify the next point or [close/undo] @ O, 20
Specify the next point or [close/undo] @ -20, 0
Specify the next point or [close/undo] @ 0, -50
Specify the next pointor [close/undo] , Press ENTER to complete the' drawing.

NOTE: press ENTER after giving the values.

Polar Coordinates

In this method, the points are located to draw a line by defining the distance of the point from
the
.current position and the angle made to that line. The angle referred in .AutoCAD is given in Fig.
\ Consider the.following example to generate the drawing given in Fig.

40

0
(Y')

48
 Command LINE
Specify the first point 20,20
Specify next point or [undo] @ 60<0
Specify next point or [undo] @ 30<90
Specify next point or [close/undo] @ 40<180
Specifynext point or [close/undo] @ 20<90
Specify "next point or [close/undo] @ 20<180
Specify next point or [close/undo] @ 50<270
Specify next point or [close/undo] Press ENTI~R to complete the drawing.

Direct Distance Entry

In this method, the points are located to draw a line using the distance entry in the direction of
the
cursor. Consider the following example to generate thedrawing given in .

•
40
-
t

C>
f""'

291 --~--
20. __
.....
.1

Command.. LINE [ortho on]

Specify the first point20, 20 move mOLlse horizontally right
Specify the next point or [undo]60move mouse vertically up
Specify the next point or [undo]3:0move mouse horizontally left
Specify the next point or [undo/close]40move mouse vertically up
Specify the next point or {undo/close]20move mouse horizontally left
Specify the 'next point or [undo/close] / 20move mouse vertically down
Specify the next point or [undo/close]50
_Specify the next point or [undo/close] .:Press ENTER to complete the drawing.

NOTE: To draw this drawing, theOrtho mode is on. Use F8 key to activate ·ortho on/off.

49
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

Problem 2(b): [Fig. 3(b)} Using line command, create a triangle for the given
points (60,60), (140,60) and (100,100).
(100,100)
Command: LINE .....
Specify first point: 60,60 .....
Specify next point or [Undo]: 140,60 ~
Specify next point or [Undo]: 100,100 ~
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: C ..... (140,60)
.( FIG.3(b)

(ii) Relative Rectangular Co-ordinate System (@ X distance, Y distance)

Relative co-ordinate values are based on the very last point entered.Use relative co-
ordinates when youknow the position of a 'point with respect to the previous points.

Problem 3: (Fig. 4) Using line command draw a square of side 80 units.

Command: LINE .-J (@ -80,0) (@ 0,80)

Specify first point: 60,60 .....
Specify next point or ~[Undo]: @80,0 .....
Spe~ify next point or [Undo]: @0,80 .-J
Specify next point or [Undo]: @-80,O ~
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: C ~

Distance is measured --ve towards up and right.

It is measured -ve towards down and left. (60, 60) (@80, Q)

FIG.4·

(iii) Relative Polar Co-ordinate System (@ distance < angle)

Polar co.. . ordinate system uses a distance and an angle with reference to the previous point to
locate a point. Angles are measured in anti-clockwise direction, taking 0° towards right.

Problem 4: (Fig. 5) (@ 80 < 90)

(@ 80 < 180)
Using line command draw a square of side 80 units.

Command: LINE .-J

Specify first point: 60, 60 .-J
Specify next point or [Undo]: @80<O .-J
Specify next point or [Undo]: @80<90 .-J
Specify next point or [tindo]: @80<180 .-J
Specify next point or [Close/Und~]: C .....
(60,60) (@ 80 < 0)
FIG.S

Undo means After

nullify.
drawing a line, say you realize that you have made an error. You.
can remove the line using Undo option. If you need to remove more than one line, you can
use this option any number of times, You can either type Undo or just U at the Specify
next point or [Undo]prompt.

50
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

3. RECTANGLE '( rec or rectang)

A rectangle is a polyline . based on two opposite corner points called diagonal points. A
polyline is a connected sequence of line and arc segments.

Problem 5: (Fig. 6) Draw a rectangle defined by diagonal points (l20,130) & (l80, 170).
Command: RECTANG ~
(180,170)
Specify first .comer point or
[Chamfer/Elevation/Fillet/
Thickness/~idth]: 120,130 ~
Specify other corner point or
[Dimensions] :"180,170 ~
(120, 130)

FIG. 6

',4. CIRCLE' (C or c)
(i) Cent.re and' Radius / Diameter

Problem 6: (Fig. 7) Draw a circle with centre (100,100) and diameter 40 units.
Command :£IRCLE ..-J
Specify c~nt~r point fqr circle or
040
[3P/2P/T~r (tan tan radius)]: 100,100
..-J
Specify radius of circle or
[Diameter] <IO.OOOO>: D ~
Specify diameter of circle <20.0000>: 40 ~

FIG. 7
(ii) 3Points

Problem 7: (Fig. 8) Draw a circle using the (175,174)

given 3 points': (209,153), (177,145), (175,174)
Command: CIRCLE ~
Specify center p~int for circle or
[3P/2P!Ttr (tan tan radius)]: 3P ~ (177,145)
Spe.cify· first point on circle, : 209, 153 ..-J '(209,153)
Specify secdnd point on circle : 177, 145 ~
Specify third poirtt on circle : 175, 174 ~ FIG.S·

(iii) 2Poin ts
Problem 8: (Fig. 9) Draw a circle using the given 2 points ': (190, 14'O)~ (190,180)
Command: CIRCLE ~ (190,-180)

Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr

(tan tan radius)]: 2P ~
Specify first end point of circle's
'diameter: 190,140 ~
Specify sec6nd end point.of circle's
diameter: 190,180 ~ (190,140)
FIG. 9

51
 COMPUTER AIDED. DRAFTING

(iv) Tangent, Tangent and Radius: (TTR)

You can draw a circle of given radiu.s and tangential to two given lines.

Problem 9: (Fig. 10)

Draw a circle with radius 20 units and two existing lines as tangents.

Command: CIRCLE ~
Speci~y center point for circle or
[3P/2P/Ttr(tan tan radius)]: TTR ~
Specify point on object for first tangent
of circle: (Pick a point on LINE 1)
Specify point on .object. for second tangent
LINE2
of circle: (Pick a point on"LINE 2)
Specify radius of circle <10.0000>~ 20 ~
FIG. 10

5. ARC (A or a)
ARC command allows you to create an arc segment. Arcs are partial circles.

(i) 3 Points
P3

Problem 10: (Fig. 11).

Draw an arc using three points PI, P2 and P3.
Command:. ARC ~
Specify start point of arc or [Cente'r]: (Pick Pi)
. Specify second point of arc or [Center/End]: (Pick P2)
P1
Specify end point of arc: (Pick P3)
FIG. 11

(ii) Start, Center Method

• Start, Center, End

Using center point P2, draw an arc anti-clockwise. from start point PI to a point that falls
on an imaginary line drawn from P2 through end point ?3. P3 determines the angle at
which the arc ends. The arc does not necessarily pass through P3.

P.roblem 11(a): [Fig. 12(a)]

Draw an arc using start point, center point and end point. P3

Command: ARC .-J

Specify start point of arc or [Cent'er]: (Pick PI)
Specify second point of arc or [Center/End]: C ~
Specify center point of arc: (PickP2)
SpeGify end point of arc
or
[Ang le / chord Length]: (Pick.f 3)
FIG. 12 (a)

52
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

• Start, Center, Angle

Angle option draws an arc anti-clockwise from the start point PI using a center point P2 with
an included angle. If the angle is negative, AutoCAD draws an arc clockwise.

Problem 11(b): [Fig. 12(b)}

Draw an arc using start point, center point and included angle of 135°.
Command: ARC .-J
Specify start point of arc or [Center]: (Pick PI)
Specify second point of arc at [Center/End]: C ~
Specify center point of arc: (Pick P2)
P2 P1
Specify end ppint of arc or
[Angle/chord Length]: A ~ FIG. 12 (b)
Specify included angle: 135 ~

• Start, Center, Length

A chord is a line connecting an arc's start point and end point.

Problem 11(c): [Fig. 12(c)} Draw an arc using start point,

+
P2 P1
center point and chord length of 50 units.
FIG. 12 (c)
Command: arc +-I
Specify start point of arc or [CEnter]: (PickPlj
Specify second point of arc or [CEnter/ENd]: C ~
Specify center point of arc: (PickP2)
Specify end point of arc or
[Angle/chord L~ngth]: L ~
Specify length of chord: 50 ~

Chord Length option draws either a minor or a major arc.

FIG. 12 (d)
If the chord length is positive, A utoCAD draws minor arc anti-
clockwise from the start point P 1 and uses the chord length to
find the ending angle as in Fig. J 2 (c). ff chord length is negative,
major arc is drawn anti-clockwise from P 1 as in Fig. ] 2 (d).

Specify length of chord: -50 ~

(iii) Start, End Method

•Start, End, Angle
• Start, End, Direction
•Start, End, Radius

{iv) Center, Start Method

• Center, Start, End
• . Center, Start, Angle
• Center, Start, Length

(v) Continue Method

53
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING (:' J'

6. ELLIPSE (E'L or el)

Ellipse is defined in two ways:

• Define the full length of one axis and half-length of the other axis.
• Define center point of the ellipse (the point where the axes intersect) and half-length
of other two axes.

(i) Axis End points

First step is defining the first axis. The two end points of the axis are specifies. When the
first point is. specifies in this option, it prompts for the other end point. Depending on the
distance you specify the axes. AutoCAD does not make any difference between these two.

After the defining the first axis, AutoCAD gives you two options to define the length-
of the other axis. The first option is to define half-length of the other axis. The second
option Rotation defines the ratio of the major to minor axis by rotating an imaginary circle
about the first axis, you defined by the given rotation angle.Entering 0 defines a circle.
Rotation of 0° produces circle. The system accepts from 0° to 89.4° and 09t up to 90°.

Problem 12: (Fig. 13) Draw an ellipse using major axis end points PI and P2,
and minor axis endpoint P3.
OtherAxis Distance
Command: ELLIPSE ~ P3
Specify axis endpoint of ellipse or
[Arc/Center]: (Pic~Pi) P2
Specify o t h er endpoint of axis : (Pick P2)
Specify distance to other axis or
[Ro t a t Lo n} : (Pick P3)
FIG. 13

(ii) , Center, Axis End points

Problem 13: (Fig. 14) Draw an ellipse using center PI mdjorend point P2 and
minor end point P3.
Command: ELLIPSE ~ OtherAxis Di.stance
P3
Specify axis endpoint of·ellipse or
[Arc/Center]: C ~
Specify ce n t.e r of e Ll i.p s e : (Pick Pi) P2
Specify ·endpoin.t of axis : (Pick P2)
Specify distance to other axis or
[Rotation]: (PickP3) FIG.,14

(iii) Arc
AutoCAD constructs an ellipse using the methods discussed above.Then the parameters
about the arc are prompted for the used input.To specify start angle, you could enter a
numeric value. AutoCAD measures the angle from the angle of the first axis defined by you.
Parameter requires the same input as start angle to create the elliptical arc.

54
 i) COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

7. POLYGON (POL or pol)

POLYGON command draws regular polygons of sides ranging from 3 to 1024.

(i) Inscribed Polygon Option

Using Inscribed option, AutoCAD draws the polygon such that it vertices lie on the
circumference of an imaginary circle with the specified radius and center point.

Problem 14: (Fig. 15)

R30
Draw a pentagon inscribed in a circle of radius 30 units.

Command: POLYGQN ~
Enter number of sides <4>: 5 ~
Specify center of polygon or [Edge]: (Pick PI)
Enter an option [Inscribed in circle/
Circumscribed about circle] <C>: I ~
Specify radius of circle: 30 ~
FIG. 15

(ii) Circumscribed Polygon Option

Using Circumscribed option, AutoGAl) creates the polygon such that the side of base is
tangential to an imaginary circle with the specified radius and center point.

Problem 15: (Fig. 16) Draw a hexagon circumscribed in

a circle of radius 30 units. R30

Command: POLYGON ~
Enter number of sides <4>: 6 ~
Specify center of polygon or [Edge]: (Pick PI)
Enter an option [Inscribed in circle/
Circumscribed about circle] <I>: C ~
Specify radius of circle: 30 ~;
FIG. 16

(iii) Edge Option

Using Edge option, define the side of base by fixing two points and Auto CAl) constructs the
rest ofthe polygon. Here you have control over the exact size and orientation of the polygon.

Problem -16: (Fig. 17) Construct a hexagon of edges30

unit with one of the edges horizontal.

Command: POLYGON ~
Enter number of sides <4>: 6 ~
Specify center of polygon or [Edge]: E ~
Specify first endpoint of edge: 100;100 ~"
Specify second endpoint of edge: 130,100 ~ (100,100) (130,100)
FIG. 17

55
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

8. PLINE (PL or pi)

We have drawn several line segments using a single LINE command. But AutoCAD treats
each line segment as a separate object.

Polyline represents a group of lines and arcs taken as a single unit. It can have a
PLINE command lets you draw line and arcuniform or non-uniform
(tapering) width.
segments, but from start to end, it is treated as' a single object.A PLIN'E command
functions like the LINE command except thatadditional options are provided and all the
segments of the polyline form a single object.

Problem 17: .(Fig. 18) Draw a line of width 1.5 units from point P 1 to point P 2.
Comrnand: PLINE .-J
l P2
P1
Specify start point: (PickPl)
Current line-width is o. 0000FIG. 18
Specify next point or [Arc/Halfwidth/Length/Undo/Width]: W ~
Specify starting ~idth <0.0000>: 1.5 ~
Specify ending width <1.5000>: ~
spe c I fy n e x t; point or [Arc /Hal f wi d t hz Le nq t.h z Un do /Width T':' (Pick P2)
Specify next point or [Arc/Close/Halfwidth/Length/Undo/Width]: ~

Problem 18: (Fig. 19) Draw a line of width 1.5 units from point PI to point P2.
Command: PLINE .....
Speci fy start point: (Pick P 1)
Current line-width is O~. 0000
+
Specify next point or
P3P1P2
[Arc/Halfwidth/Length/Undo!Width]: W ~
FIG. 19Speci'fy ~tarting width <0.0000>: 1 ~
Specify end~ng width <1.00.00>: ~
Specify n~xt point or [Arc/Halfwidth/Length/Undo/Width]: A ~
Specify endpoint of arc or [Angle/CE~ter(Direction/Halfwidth/
Line/Radius/Second pt/Undo/Width]: CE ~
Specify center point of arc: (Pick P2)
Specify endpoint of arc or [Angle/Length]: (Pick P3) . /

Specify endpoint of arc or [Angle/CEnter/CLose/Oirection/

Halfwidth/Line/Radius/Second pt/Undo/Width]: .-J

Tapered Polyline:' The following width assignment gives the tapering width -for a polyline as
shown by the arrow/lead:

Specify next point or [Arc/Halfwidth/Length/Undo/Width]: W ~

, Specify starting width <0.0000>: 5 ~
Specify ending width <5.0000>: 0 ~

56
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

3. EDITING AND MODIFICATION

EDITING

The one certainty in the drawing business' is 'Change'.Change this!Change' that!

A drawing may be modified either during its preparation or during the revision of design.
This is called editing of the drawing.

COlTIITIands like ERASE, MOVE, etc., will ask the user to select one or more object for erasing,
moving, etc., by giving a prompt Select objects:

1. qBJECT SELECTION METHODS

There are various options available for the selection of the objects.

(i) Pick Box Method (Fig. 20)

The cursor is converted to a small box (square), called Pick Box.
The pick box is taken on to any point on the object to be selected
and the left button of the mouse is clicked. 'This method is used
for selecting individual object. Once an object is selected, it is
highlighted by temporarily; turning their line types to 'dotted'.
FIG. 20

r.
(Ii) Window (W) (Fig. 21) .P2 r- ----,

Create a rectangular window by picking the first corner PI and ·r l

-

I I I
thediagonalJy opposite corner P2 so that a window like area I I I
surrounds the objects to be selected. A II the objects lying wholly I I I
Note that the objects partlywithin thewindow I I I
:L L .J
are selected. _

within and partly outside the window are NOT selected.

P1
FIG. 21
(iii) Crossing (C) (Fig. 22)
It works like window, but select 'all the objects within the window P1r-- --.
and also objects crossing the, boundary of the window. Pick the
first corner PI, a window made of dotted lines is displayed, and I
r..,
I I
r"-
pick the diagonally opposite corner P2. I I I
I I I
-I
I I
L
-II

(iv) All
All the objects are selected for editing, P2
FIG. 22

(v) Multiple (M)

More than one object can be selected one after another by using mouse.
The selected objects
are not highlighted until you press ENTER key.

NOTE: After selecting the objects, press the ENTER key to finish the selection of objects.

57
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

2. ERASE (E or e)
Erasing - Yes, you can get rid of all your mistakes. Using ERAS E command, selected object
/ objects can be rerrioved from the drawing screen. It is used exactly the same way as an
eraser in manual drafting to remove unwanted portion of a drawing. The prompt sequence is:

Command: ERASE ..-J

Select objects: Use anyone of the Object Selection Method

OOPS

OOPS command is used to restore the erased object erased by the last ERASE command.

NOTE: Every time you execute an ERASE command, AutotlAl) keeps a copy of what you
ERASEd in case you want to OOPS it back into the file. But only the most recent
ERASE is kept.

3. UNDO (U or u)
Undo means nullify. -UNDO commands undoes the most recently performed -operations,
( LINE and PLINE commands have- Undo option, which is used to undo changes made within
these commandsv ) You can undo more than one command at one time,

The prompt sequence is:

Command: UNOO..-J
Enter the number of operations to undo or
[Auto/Control/BEgin/End/Mark/Back] <1>: ~
<Last Operation>

; Undoing -can be executed any number of times. For instance, four commands were
used to create- a drawing, First UNDO co-mmand undoes the last of the four commands, If
you execute U~DO command for four til1)es, the entire drawing will disappear.
If you
continue the UNiDO command for the fifth time, the AutoCAD displays Notin-g to Undo.

4.- REDO
REDO command reverses the effects of a single UNDO command. REDO must immediately
follow the UNDO command.

5. CHANGE
CHANGE command is used to modify the properties of objects like Color, Elevation, etc.
Command: CHANGE ~
Select obj e c t s : (Select an object) 1 found
Select objects: ..-J
Specify change -point or [Properties]: P ~
Enter property to change [Color/Elev/LAyer/Ltype/
1 tScale/LWeight/Thickness]: (Enter an option)

58
 '\4 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

MODIFICArrION

6. MOVE (1\1 or m)
You have learnt to ERASE objects wrongly drawn. If you have drawn something at a wrong
place, you need not ERASE .and recreate it again. MOVE instead. This needs you to select
object to be 1110ved and to specify the base point of the object and the displacement.

Command: MOVE .-J

Select ob j ects: (Select an objects 1 found
Select objects: ~
Specify ba~e point or displacement:(Select the base point of the object)
Specify second .point of d.i s pLac eme rrt or <use first point as
disp.lacement>:(Select the displacement point)

7. COpy (CO or co)

COpy command is used to duplicate the existing drawing to another place.
Command: COpy ~
Select obj ects: (Select an objecty s: found
Select obj e c t s : +-'
Specify base point or d i sp La cernen t , or [Multiple]: (Select basepoint)
Specify s~cond point of displacement or
<use first point as displacement>: (Select displacement point)

Multiple optionisused to make multiplecopies of the same object / drawing.

8. ARRAY (A.R or ar)

When you need to make multiple copies of objects but at a regular interval (in terms of rows
and columns or at a uniform angular distance around a given center point), COpy command
is difficult.AR:-RA'y command comes in handy,. in such situations. It display's an array
dialog box where' you can set the number ofrows, number of columns, etc. This dialog box'
allows you to preview. and modify the data set, prior to committing to the array.

Line 2
9. FILLET (F or f)

Fillet is an arc joining two adjacent lines. See Fig. 23.

Line 1

Command: FILLET ~
Before
Current settings: Mode = TRIM, Radius = 0.0000
Select f~rst objector
[Polylirre/Radius/Trim/mUltiple]: R ~
Specify fillet radius <10.0000>: 15 ~
Select first object or [Polyline/
Radius/Trim/mUltiple]: (Select Linel) After
Select second obj ect : (Select Line Z) FIG. 23

59
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

10. CHAMFER (eHA or cha)

CHAMFER command draws a line at the corner between

Chamfer two
line
selected
is lines.
defined by the offset distancesalong the selected lines from the intersecting corner of the
lines or by defining the angle and distance from the corner. See Fig. 24.

Une2
Command: CHAMFER ~
(TRIM mode) Current chamfer Distl :::: 0.0000,
Dist2 =. O. 0000 line 1
Select fir s t line or -[ Polyline / Di stance /
Angle/Trim/Method/mUltiple]: D ~ Before
Specify first chamfer distance <0.0000>: 5 ~
Sp'ecify second chamfer distance <5. 0000>: 5,~
Select first line or [Polyline/Distance/
Angle/Trim/Method/mUltipl·e]: (Select Linel )
Select second line: (Select Line2)
After

FIG. 24

Trim option trims the selected objects.

11. EXT,END (EX or ex)

EXTEND command extends an object to a boundary defined' by other objects. EXTEND

.cornmand does not extend closed polyl ines,

Command: EXTEND ~
Current settings: Projection=UCS, Edge=None
Select boundary edges ...
Select obj ects: (Select boundary object) 1 found
Select objetts: ~
Select obj e ct to extend or s h.i.ft es e Le c t; to tr.im or
[Proj ect /E,dge /UndQ]: {Select object to extend'[

12. STRETCH ('S or s)

ST·RE.TCH command stretches or compresses the selected objects in the specified: directic.
and magnitude. . Select the object by Crossing-Window method only.

13. LENGTHEN (LEN or len)

LENGTHEN command increases of decreases the length of selected objects. LENGTHEN does
not affect closed objects.

Command: LENGTHEN ~
Select an object or [DElta/Percent/Total/OYnamic]: (Enter anoptioni

14. ROTATE (RO or ro)

ROTATE command is used to rotate objects about a base point to required angle. To
determine the angle of rotation, you enter an angle value or specify a second point.

60
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

15. MIRROR (MI or mi) X1

P2r--
See Fig. 25. MIRROR command is used to draw sym- I
metrical objects about a particular axis, Just draw one 11-_--re
half of the drawing and AutoCAD can produce the I
II
other half by mirroring what you have done. Thus you II
reduce your effort and time by 50%. If the object is II
symmetric about multiple axes, then that many fold II
I I;
you can save time by doingmultiple mirroring.
I I X2
--1
L P1 AFTER MIRROR
Command: M~RROR ~
Select objects': (Pick PI) FIG. 25
Specify opposite corner: (Pick P2) 9 found
Select objects: ~
Specify first po i.n t. of mirror line: (Pick Xl)
Specify second point of mirror line: (Pick X2)
Delete source objects? [Yes/No] <N>: ~

16. ZO 0 M (Z 0 r z)
While drawing, it is required to bring the area of our 'interest to focus 0!l to the screen. ZOOM
command enlarges or reduces the view of the drawing. It acts like a ZOOITI lens on a camera.
Command: ZOOM t-1
Specify corn~r of window, enter a scale factor (qX or nXP), or
[All/Center/Dynamic/Eitents/Previous/Scale·
/Window] <real t.Lme >: (Enter an option)
All Option

Using the All option, you can view the entire drawing. in the current view port.
Center Option
It zooms to display a window defined by a center point and a magnification value or height.
A smaller value for the height increases the magnification and a larger value decreases if.
Dynamic Option
It zooms to display the drafted portion of the drawing with a view 'box.The view box
represents viewport, which can be enlarged or reduced and can be moved within, the drawing.
Extents Option
It zooms to display the drawing extents. AutoCAD produces the best fit of all entities in the
drawing about the extents of the screen.

Previous Option .
It zooms to display the previous view. A. total of 10 previous views can be restored.
Scale Option (X / XP )
It zooms the display at a specified scale factor. Scale factor are of two types, i.e., relatedto
drawing limits and related to the current size of the display.
Window Optlon
It zooms to display an area specified by two diagonally opposite corner points of a
rectangular window.

61
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

17. SCALE (SC or sc)

SCALE command enlarges or reduces the selected objects to the required Scale Factor
equally in the X, Y and Z directions. Scale Factor greater than 1 enlarges the objects.
Scale Factor between 0 and 1 shrinks the objects.

18. OFFSET (0 or 0)
OFFSET is used to draw parallel lines, concentric circles, parallel arcs andparallel polylines.
When offsetting an object specify the offset distance and the side of offset. See Fig 26.
·Comma~d: OFFSET ~
Specify offset distance or .
[Through] <1.0000>: 5 ~
Select object to offset or <exit>: (Select line)
Specify point on side to offset: (Specify the side)
Select obj ect to of f set or <exi t>: (Select circle)
Specify point on side to offset: (Specify the side) 5
Select object to offset or <exit>: ~
FIG. 26

19.' BHATCH (BH or bh)

Hatches are shaded patterns representing cross section of a mechanical component or any
Hatching iscivil representation such as RCC
(Reinforced Cement Concrete), roof, etc.
tedious and time-consuming job. Now with AutoCAD, the BHatch command makes this just
as a mater of a few picks and clicks away. See Fig. 27.
·Define the boundary: Define the
'boundary by selecting the boundary
or picking the internal points.For
this, select the 'object by any standard
object selection method that form the
Make sure that
theboundary also,
object you select form a closed
. boundary. Alternatively, if you pick
a point inside the closed boundary,
AutoCAD detects the boundary
automatically.

Specify the pattern:AutoCAD

provides a library of standard hatch
patterns there is a hatch pattern for
every commonly used material like
steel, concrete, glass, etc. If needed,
you can define your own hatch
Adjust the hatchpattern
also.
parameters like density of the pattern FIG. 27
and the orientation angle.

62
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

4. DRAFTING SETTINGS

1. DRAWING AIDS and DRAFTING SETTINGS

Drawing Aids are precise positioning tools used for locating specific points on a drawing.
SNAP, GRID, ORTHO, POLAR and OBJECTS SNAP are the positioning tools.

The term Drafting Setting refers to the cursors ability to snap exactly to a desired
point on an object. These settings are termed as Drafting/Drawing A ids. Using Drafting
Setting dialog box, the three drafting aids controlled are: Snap & Grid, Polar Tracking and
Object Snap.

2. DSETTINGS (DS or ds)

This command provides the drawing aids. viz., Snap & Grid, Polar Tracking and Object Snap
to create the drawing at a faster pace. When you invoke this command, AutoCAD displays
the Drafting Settings dialog box. This dialog box contains three tabs: Snap & Grid . Polar
Tracking and Object Snap.

(i) Object Snap

See. Fig. 28.Using Object

Snaps, you can locate an exact
position on an object like end
point or midpoint of a line,
intersection of two lines,
centre of circle, etc., without
knowing the coordinate or by
drawing construction lines.

WhenOb je ct;Snap On
[ F3] is checked on, the object
snaps selected under Object
Snap modes are active.

Object Snap Tracking

On [Fl1] turns object snap
tracking on and off.

Endpoint, Midpoint and

~enter icons snap to the
endpoint, midpoint and center
of objects like line, arc, etc. FIG. 28

Perpendicular icon snaps to a point perpendicular to an object. Tangent icon snaps to

the tangent of an object. Nearest icon snaps to the nearest point on an object.

Select All button turns on all object snap modes. Clear All button turns off all
object snap modes. Options ... button displays the Drafting tab in Options dialog box.

63
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAF11NG

(ii) Polar Tracking: (Fig. 29)

It controls Polar Tracking and settings

for polar angles, polar angle measure-
ments and object snap tracking.

folar Tracking On [FlO] icon

turns polar tracking on/off.

.!.ncrertlen tang icon

1 e: sets the
polar increment angle used to display
pofar tracking alignment paths.

When Track orthogonally only

is selected, AutoCAD displays only
orthogonal object snap tracking paths.
'I'r a c k using all polar angle
s e t t i nqsapplies polar tracking
settings to object snap points.
Polar Angle measurement sets the
basis bywhichpolartracking FIG. 29
alignment angles are measured.

(iii) Snap and Grid: (Fig. 30)

Snap controls cursor movement.

Grid helps to visualize the
distances and drawing area.

~nap On [F9] icon turns Snap

mode on or off.

Gr id On [F7] icon turns the

grid dots on or off.

Snap X spacing: and Snap

Y spacing: specifies the snap
spacing in the X and Y directions.
The values must be +ve numbers.

Ang Le icon
: rotates the snap
grid by the angle specified.

X base:andYbase:
--
specifies the X and Y base coordi-
nate point of the grid for rotation. FIG. 30
Gr id X s p a c i n q : and Grid Y spacing: specifies the dot spacing in the X and Y
directions. Grid snap icon sets the snap type to Grid. Rectangular s n a p icon sets
the snap style to Standard Rectangular snap. I S o~et ric s nap icon sets the snap style to
Isometric Snap. PolarSnap icon sets the snap type to Polar.

64
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

5. DIMENSIONING AND TEXT

DI1\fENSIONTNG

.AutoCAD provides three types of dimensioning:LINEAR; RADIAL and ANGULAR.

Dimensions can be Horizontal, Vertical, Aligned, Rotated, Ordinate, Baseline or Continued.

R
1. DIMLINEAR (DLI or dli)
.---------. Q
DIMLINEAR command
is used to measure horizontal/vertical
distance between' two points. See Fig'.31. The prompt sequence is:
(a )
Command: DIMLINEAR ~
Specify first extension line origin or 40
<select obj ect>: (Pick P)
Specify second extension line origin: (Pick Q)
Specify dimension line location or[Mtext/
Text/Angle/Horizontal/Vertical/ Rotated]:
(b)
(Select R to locate the position of dimension)
Dimension text = 40 FIG. 31

Command:

Mtext Option
Mtext option displays Multiline Text Editor which you can use to edit the dimension text.
Autot.Al) represents the generated measurement with angle brackets « ». To edit the
generated measurement, delete the angle brackets, enter new dimension text and click OK.

Text Option
Text option prompts you to enter new dimension text on the command line. Auto'CAl)
displays the generated dimension measurement within angle brackets.

Angle Option
Angle option changes the angle of the dimension text.
Specify angle of dime~ion text: (Enter an angle)

Horizontal, Vertical Options.

Horizontal I Vertical option creates horizontal /verticallinear dimensions.·
Specify dimension line location or [Mtext/Text/Angle]:

Rotated O.ption
Rotated option creates rotated linear dimensions,
Specify angle of dimension line <c~rrent>:

Object Selection
Prompts you to select an object to dimension when Select obj ect ischosen.
Command:DIMLINEAR ~
Specify first extension line origin or <select object>: ~
Select object to dimension:

65
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

2. DIMALIGNED" (DAL or dal)

Aligned Dimensioning is used to dimension inclined at an angle to X or Y axis. Dimension
created with DIMALIGNED command is parallel to the object being dimensioned. (Fig. 32).
Command: DlMALIGNED ~
Specify first extension line origin or
<select obj ect>:(Pick El)
Specify second extension line origin: (Pick E2)
Specify dimension line location or [Mtext/
E2
Text / Ang Le l : (Select the dimension location)
Dimension text = 6

3. DIMRADIUS (DRA or dra)

DIMRADIUS draws radial dimensions depending on the size of the circle or arc and the
position of the cursor. See Fig. 33.

Command: DIMRADIUS ~
Select arc or circle :(Pick a point P on the arc)
Dimension text = '5
Specify dimension line location or [Mtext/
Text/Angle]: (Select the dimensionlocation) FIG. 33

4. DIMDIAMETER (DIA or dia)

DIMDIAMETER draws diameter dimensions depending on the size of
the circle or arc and the position of the cursor. See Fig. 34. 030
Command: DIMDIAMETER -~
Select arc or circle:(Pick a point on the circle)
Dimension- text = 30
Specify dimension line location or
[Mtext /Text / Ang Ie]: (Select the dimension location) FIG."34

5. DIMCENTER (DCE or dee)

DIMCENTER command draws a center mark for arcs / circles (Fig. 35).
Command: D~MCENTER ~
Select arc or circle: (Select a point on the circle)

6. DIMANGULAR (DAN or dan) FIG. 35

Line Option (Fig. 36)
Command: DlMANGULAR ~
Select arc, circle, line,_ or
<specify vertex>: (Select a line)
Specify second line:(Select another line)
Specify dimension arc line location or
[Mtext/Text/Angle]:(Specify the location)
Dimensiori text = 125
FIG. 36

66
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

Arc Option ( F'ig. 3 7 )

Command: DIMANGULAR ~
Select arc, circle, line, or <specify vertex>:
(Select a point on the arc)
Specify dimension arc line location or [Mtext/
Text/Angle]: (Specify thelocation)
Dimension text = 270
FIG. 37

Circle Option( Fig. 38 )

Command: PlMANGULAR ~
Select arc, circle, line, or <specify vertex>:
(Select a point on the circle)
Specify second angle endpoint:
(Select another point on the circle) i

Specify dimension arc line location or [Mtext/ FIG. 38

Text/Angl~]: (Specify the location)
Dimension text = 120

7. DIMBASELINE (DBA or dba)

DIMBASELINE draws a series of related dimensions tneasured from the same baseline.

Linear Dimension(Fig. 39)

9Command: DIMLINEAR ~
5Specify first extension line origin or
<select object>: (Pick Bl)8 3 . - -....
82
Specify second extension line origin: (Pi~kB~
...---....... .Specify dimension line lo~ation or [Mtext/ 81
Text/Angle/Horizontal/Vertical/
Rota ted]: (Specify' the location)
FIG. 39
Dimension text = 5
Command: DIMBASELINE ~
Specify a second extension line origin or
[Undo·I-Select] <Select>: (PickB3)
Dimension text = 9
Specify a second extension lihe origin or
[Undo/Select] <Select>: ~

8. LEADER (LEAD or lead)

I-JEADER draws aline called Leader Line extending from the object to the dimension text.
Command: LEADER ~
Specify leader start. point:
Specify next point:
Specify next point or (Annotation/Format/Undo] <Annotation>:
Sp~cify next .point or [Annotation/Format/Undo] <Annotation>: ~
Enter first line of annotatio~ text or <options>: R10 ~
Enter next line of annotation text: ~

67
 COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

9"DIMCONTINUE (DCO or dco)

DIMCONTINUE draws a series of related dimensions that add up to the total measurements.
Gontinued dimensioning is also known' as chain dimensioning, See Fig. 40.
Command:DIMLINEAR ~
Spectfy first extension line origin or45
<select obj ect>: (Pick Bl)8 3 t - -..... 82
Specify second extension line origin: (Pick B2)
------.. 81Specify dimension line location or
[Mtext/Text/Angle/Horizontall
Vertical/Rotated]: (Specify the location)
FIG. 40
Dimension text = 5
Command: DIMCONTINUE ~
Specify a second extension line origin or
[Undo/Select] <Select>: (Pick B3)
Dimension text = 4

Specify a second extension line origin or [Undo/Select] <Select>: ~

10. 'DIMSTYLE (DST or dst)

DIMSTYLE is a saved set of dimension settings defining the appearance of the dimensions.

TE,XT
I
1. TEXT
TEXT. command lets you, write single line text on your drawing with specifies height and
orientation. TEXT objects can be created with variety of character patterns called STYLE.

Command: TEXT .-J

Cu r r en t; text style:
"Standa,rd" Text height:2.5000
Specify start point of text or [Justify/Style]: (Specify location)
Specify height <2.5000>: ~
Specify rotation angle of text <0>: ~
Enter text: Computer Ai~ed Drafting ~
Enter text: .-J

COMputer Aided DrQ fting

Justify Option: It justifies the text along its base line from a specified start point.
Style Option: It sets the text style which determines the appearance of the text characters.
Special Characters: Enter special characters by entering Control Codes.
%%d - Degree symbol (0) and%%c - Diameter symbol (0)

68
 ISOMETRIC DRAWING

Isometric drawings are used for better visualisation of an object. The isometric axes as discussed
in
isometric projections are used to draw isometric drawings. But curves and ellipses in isometric
drawings are drawn in isometric planes.
SNAP Command

The SNAP Command is used to set the style for isometric drawing.
Command SNAP
Specify Snap or [ON/OFF/Aspect/Rotate/Style/Type ]<0.5000>: S
Enter snap grid style [standard/Isometric] <S> I
Specify vertical spacing <0.5000> Press ENTER or nel-V S11ap

spaclng .

. Note:
1. The SNAP setting is activated by pressing F9 key on keyboard.
2. The GRID used to show a grid in drawing area is actuated by pressing F7 key on keyboard.

Drawing Isometric Circles

Circles are seen as ellipses in isometric drawings. An isoplane in set to draw the isometric circle
(ellipse) using ELLIPSE Command with Isocircle option.

fsoplane top

Isoplane left

Iso.plane right

Isoplanes to draw isocircles (ellipses)

ISOPLANE Command

The ISOPLANE Command is used to get the curve ellipse in isoplane (Top/right/left) for isometric
drawing..
CommandISOPLANE
Enter isometric plane setting [Left/Top/Right] <Top>: Press Lor R or T to select isoplane.
Current isoplaneTop

Note that toggle among different isoplanes is also obtained by using F5 key on the keyboard.

Dimensioning Isometric Drawings

The standared method to mark dimensions of an object is followed in isometric -drawings, then they
are edited using OBLIQUE option is DIM command.

69
 Command DIM
DIM OBLIQUE
Select object Select the dimension line to edit
Enter oblique angle (Press ENTER for none) 30 .

Note that the oblique angle is 30, 90, 150, 270, and 330 for standard isometric axes. For non
isometric lines their inclination angle is obtained using LIST command and that angle is used as
the
oblique angle for the correct isometric dimensioning.
Draw the isometric view of an object shown in Fig. 15.36

,. d

1",
so
"'"
"'" '" " (

1 30~

20

To draw the isometric drawing"

1. Select thepointa arbitrarly and draw a Ll1\TE, @ 40 < 30, @ 20 < 90, @ 30 < 150, @ 40 <
210,
@ 30 < 330, @ 40 < 30.
2. Again select the point a and draw a LINE @70 < 150, @ 50 < 90.
3. Draw vertical LINE from e andf@ 30 < 90, from a @20<90.
4. Draw LINE joining band c and use CHPROP to change LType to CENTRE line.
5. Set SNAP to isometric style.
6. Set ISOPLANE to left.
7. Use ELLIPSE Command and select Isocircle, select MId point of be to draw the ellipse with
radius 20.
.8. TRIM the portion of the ellipse below be.
9. COpy the portion of the ellipse with base point e and the second point of displacement d.
10. Draw LINE above the curved portion using QUAdrant option.

70
 JI. TRIM the lower invisible portion which is below the line drawn in step 10.
12. Mark the dimensions using DIMALINGED command.
13. Edit the dimensions to isometric by using DIM OBLIQUE option.

CREATING 3D DRAWINGS

ELEV command

The ELE\T Command is used to set extrusion thickness for new objects in Z direction and to add
third
dimens.ion in addition to X and Y values.
Command ELEV
New current elevation <current> Press ENTER or specify new value.
New current thickness <current> Press ENTER or specify.new value.

(Ill
'x Tbickness
<x::
,
N

Elevation

Note that all objects drawn after this command will be added the new Z-axis value. The existing
objects will not be affected.

VPOINT Command

The VPOINT Command is used to set a viewing direction for a thre~ dimensional visualisation of an
object. The X, Y and Z coordinate values are given' to specify the view point direction. Some of
the
import.ant view point coordinates are given below.
Vpoint coordinatesView displayed
0, 0, 1Top view
0, -1, 0Front view
1, 0, 0Right side view'
-1, 0, 0 Left side view
1, -1, 1 Top, front, right side view (isometric view)
-1, -1) 1 Top, front, left side view (isometric view)

71
 Command: VPO INT
Current view direction: VIEWDIR = current
Specify a view point or [Rotate] <display compass and tripod>: Enter view point coordinates.

Note that the viewpoints ·can be easily selected using the view point tool bar through mouse
instead of typing the coordinates through keyboard.
The display compass and tripod mentioned above are shown below are also used to set a view
point through mouse.

''C',
"'.~, ,:~"'- • -------/ .

/
,...1

XYZ axes tripod

Compass

VPORTS Command

The.VPORTS Command is used to divide the drawing area in the monitor screeninto multiple-tiled
view ports.
Command: VPORTS
The view port dialog box is displayed to create new viewport configuration.
The VPORTS command can also be given in the following option..
Command: VPORTS
~nter an option [SavelRestore/Delete/JoinlSi~gle?/2/3/4<3> : Enter value 4 using keyboard.
This will divide th-e current view port into 'four view ports of equal size. [Refer Fig. 15.39]

UCS' Command

The ues (User Coordinate System) Conunand is used to create and edit 3D objects. The ues
can be
shifted to any position and is indicated byues icon. The position ofUCS icon specifies the
orientation
Command DeS
in which 2D objects are drawn and the direction in which the objects are extruded to get 3D
Current DeS name: *WORLD*
object.
Enter an option [New/More/ortho Graphic IPrev/Restore/
SavelDelJApply/?/World] <World> Specify your option.

WCS (World Coordinate System)

The WCS is the default coordinate system in AutoCAD used in 2D drawings. Its origin is located at
the lower left comer of the screen. This coordinate system is fixed and cannot be moved like ues.

72
 f----

-+

Active viewport

C"REATING ~D OBJ"ECTS

The ELEV command used to create 3D wireframe model, it has only lines and curves representing
the object. ..
A solid model is a 3D object drawn in 3D view which can be used to get the top view, front view,
section etc. of that object.
Solid models can be prepared easily than the wireframe models by using the solid features like
Cylinder, Cone, Box etc. This solid models can be assigned physical properties for further
extension
of its application in Finite Element Model (FEM) for analysis such as stress, strain, deflection etc. A
solid model can also be used in computer Numerical control (CNC) simulation and preparation of
CNC program for machining such as milling, turning etc.

EXTRUDE Command

The EXTRUDE Command is used to create a solid object by extruding a 2D object along a
specified
path.

73
 Command EXTltUDE
Select objects Specify the objects using mouse
Select objects Press EI'1TER
Path <Height of extrusion> Enter the height

Note that only objects with polyline can be extruded and other lines are edited using PEDIT
conunand
with Join option to extrude it.

R
o o
Original 2D object Extruded 3D object in 3D view (set the
VPOINT like 1, -1, 1 to view the object)

CYLINDER Command

The cylinder command is used to create a solid cylinder, The cylinder base lies on the current XY
plane and the height or extrusion of it is obtained along Z axis. The-Uf.S position can be changed to
~reate a solid object is any specific direcflon. [Refer Fig. 1.5.41]

Command CYLINDER
Current wireframe density ISOLINES =4
Specify centre point for base of cylinder Of [Elliptical] <0, 0,os : Select the point using mouse.
Specify radius for base of cylinder or [Diameter] Enter radius using keyboard.
"Specify height of cylinder or [Centre of other end] Enter height using keyboard.

CONE Comrncmd

The. CONE Command is used to create a solid cone with a circular or elliptical base. The base of the
cone lies on the current XY plane and the apex point is defined in Z direction to refer the cone
height.
[Refer Fig. 15.42] .

CommandCONE
Current frame density: ISOPLANE = current
Select the point using mouse.Speficy centre point for
base of cone or [Elliptical] <O~ 0, 0>
Enter radius using keyboard.Specify radius for base of
cone or [Diameter]
. . Enter height using ke.vboard~Specify height of cone or
[Apex]
74
 height

. . I
,.--_ _
d_ia_m_et_
e~

Cylinder cOlnrnand

height

height

BOX Command
The BOX Command is used to create a solid rectangular or square box. The opposite base
corners
and the height of the box are given, to generate a
box. BOX
Cornmand Select the corner using mouse.
Specify comers of box or [Center] <0, 0, 0> Select the corner using mouse.
Specify comer or [cube/length] Enter height [Ising keyboard.
Specify height

75
U·NION Cornmemd

.The ·UNION ·Comn1and is used to create a composite solid by c-ombining several solids. The com-
posite solid is the result of combining the total volume of two or more existing solids.
Command UNION
Select objects Specify the object usins mouse.
Select objects Specify the object using mouse
Select objects
Press ENTER

Box

Before Union A fter Union

SU·BTRACT Command

The SUBTRACT Command is used to create a composite solid by removing the common area
shared by two solids. The composite solid is the result of subtracting the volume of one of object from
the other object.

76
 Command SUBTRACT
Select solids andregions to subtract from....
Select objects Select the solid using
Select objects mouse.
Select solids and regions to subtract ...
Press ENTER
Select objects
Select £'t...:,...,,~~ Select the solids using mouse.
Press ENTER

Before Subtract After Subtract

MASSPROP Command

The MASSPROP Command is used to analyse a solid model and lists automatically the ma~s prop-
erties of the solid.
Command MASSPROP
Select objects Select the solid objects
SOLIDS
Mass:
Volume:
Boundary" box:
Centroid:
Moment of inertia:
Products of inertia:
Radii of gyration :
Principal moments and X- Y-Z direction about centroid:
Write analysis to a file? <N> : Press ENTER or Y to write in disk

SECTION Command

The SECTION Cornmand is used to create a cross section of solid object througha specified cutting
plane.

77
 COIUI11311d · SEC1'ION
Select objects~ Select tile .s olid object using trtou se
Select objectsPress. ENTER
Specify first [Joint on section plane by [Object/Zaxisl
· XyVie\v/X}"/YZlZX] <3points>
Specify a point on X}' plane <0, 0, 0>· Press ENTER

K(utttn g plane

I'
~ rn
<.
J~
...
~ .
.,. .:.; (fO.sS. section on XY
I

,
"'" '~'
Cutting plane through
xy plane

H'IDE Command

The HIDE command is used to suppress the hidden lines in a 3D object by regenerating the
drawing.
CommandHIDEPress ENTER

78
 LiITlits fits an_d
Tolerances
Introduction
A machine is an assembly of innumerable number of parts of which some such as bolts, nuts,
screws, bearings, gears, chains, sprockets, couplings, etc., are the standard parts and the remaining
are specially designed for a particular machine. The standard parts are commercially available in the
standard sizes and selected from the ready stock, while the designed parts are manufactured as per
the design specifications. The standard parts are manufactured by mass production. If the machines
are required in large numbers, even the designed parts are also manufactured by mass production.
:The parts produced by rnass production must be interchangeable, ie., a part picked at-random must
fit properly with its counterpart also picked randomly, and both of them must satisfy functionally.
Because of the 'inherent limitations in men, material and machines, it will be impossible to
manufacture a part accurately to the exact specified sizes economically. It wHI be still more difficult
.to manufacture large number of identical parts, exactly to the same sizes. At best even with the
.greatest care they may be produced to the 'sizes very close to the. basic sizes. Thus the actual
,machined sizes may be either slightly greater or Jess than the basic sizes. Therefore it will be
inevitable to tolerate variations to the basic sizes so that the actual mach ined sizes may Iie with in the
lspecified limits of variations. The extent of variation that can be tolerated for a basic size depends.
imainly on the functional requirement of the part, its material, type of the force expected on .:it,
machining characteristics and the cost. If the tolerable sizes 'have to be very close to the basic sizes,
the cost 'of manufacture will be higher since gr.eater care and skill have to be exercised while
machining. The system of specifying the extent of permissible variations for the basic size is called
tolerencing. The amount of variation perm itted for a basic size is called. tolerance..The maxi mum and
minimum permissible sizes within which the actual machined size lies are called· limits. The
functional relationship between the two adjacent parts achieved by the specified tolerances is called

fit. .

UPPER DEVIATION.
tOLERANCED DIMENSION

LOWER- OEVIATION-

ZERO LINE TOLERANCE ZONE TOLERANCE=·O.25

~
C"f

"'._------
c:)

\ ;Q
.:¥-----~_t~
'\ 1
I \ C"f I
\ ~-------..J>.L---.;~_oIlr_----IlllU-~--t---l.-" J Q:
--L._~~----~-~-

B.ASIC SHAFT MINIMUH SHAFT MAXIMUM· SHAFT

BASIC $IZE MINIHUH LIMIT ACTUAL MACHINED SIZE MAXIMUH LIMIT.

AI/ Dimensions in mm
Illustration of Basic Size Deviations, limits and Tolerances
Fif!. . 1

79
 Definitions
Fig.' .1 illustrates the various terms.

Basic SizellL- It is defined as the theoretical.size of a part, derived from the design after rounding
off to the nearest whole millimetre. The tolerances are always specified to the basic size.' In Fig. .1
the dimension 30mm is the basic size.

Actual Size - It is defined as the size actually obtained by machining. It is found by actual
of
measurement using measuring instruments. In Fig. ,1 the actual sizethe diameter of the shaft is
<p 29.925mm.

limits - The two extreme permissible sizes between which the actual size lies are called
limits.
Maximum limit'~/It is defined as the maximum permissible size for a given basic size. In
Fi8. . 1 the maximum li~it for the basic size of ¢30 is = ep30 + 0.035 = ¢30.035mm.

Minimum limit ~ It-is defined as the minimum permissible size for a given basic size. In
Fig. . 1 the minimum limit for the basic size of ep 30 is = </>30 - 0.215 = ljJ29.785mm.

Tolerance - It is defined as the amount of variation permitted to a basic size. The difference
between the maximum and minimum limits of a basic size is called tolerance. In Fig. .1 the tolerance
is = ¢30.035 - l/129.785 = 0.25mm.

Deviation - It is defined as the difference between the actual size or limit sizes, either
rfhaximum or minimum, and the corresponding basic size.
~f. Actu~1 Devi~ti~n - It i~ the algebraic differe~c~ between the actual measured ~ize and
the
;cprrespond,ng basic size. In Fig.. .1, the actual deviation = ep29.925 -.ep30 = - 0.075 mm.
~~:~>~

t':f'" Upper Deviation - It isdefined as the algebraic difference between the maximum limitofsize
i"nd
f~
the corresponding basic size. In Fig. . 1, the upper deviation is = l/J 30.035 -lfJ 30 = 0.035 mm.
,
F! lower Deviation -It is defined as the algebraic difference between the minimum limitof size
~Jld the corresponding basic size. In Fig. . 1, the lower deviation is = ep 29.785 - cfJ 30 = - 0.215
film.
Zero Line - Since the deviations are measured from the basic size, to indicate the, deviations
g.:raphically, the basic shaft, the minimum shaft, the actual shaft and the maximum shaft are aligned
~,~ the bottom and a straight line, called zero line is drawn through the top generator of the basic shaft
~~ shown in Fig. , .1. This line is called zero line because the deviations at the basic sizewill be zero.
When the zero line is drawn horizontally, deviations above this line will oe positive and below it
will be negative. In Fig.. . 1 the upper deviation,O.035mm is above the zero line and hence positive,
while the lower deviation, O.215mm is below the zero line, hence negative.

Tolerance Zone - In the graphical representation of a tolerance, the zone bounded by the
upper and lower limits of the basic size, shown hatched in Fig. . I, is called tolerance zone.

Tolerances
Tolerance on a basic size is obtained based on its performance. To achieve the required
tolerance, the manufacturing process which is capable of accomplishing the specified tolerance
economically has to be selected. The various manufacturing processes ranging from fine gauge
manufacture to the coarse manufacturing process such as sand casting, are classified by the Bureau
of Indian Standards into sixteen grades, numbering from 1 to 16. The tolerance is expressed in mircon
(micrometre). The tolerances that could be accomplished in each of the grades is shown in Table .1
and Table .2.

80
 TABLE 7.1
Degree of Accuracy Expected of Manufacturing Processes

Grad Grad
Process Process
No. No.
Worn Capstun or automatic; horizontal, or
Slip blocks, Reference gauges 'J 9
vertical boring machines

Milling, Slotting, Planing, Metal Rolling or

High quality gauges, Plug gauges 2 10
Extrusion

Drilling, Rough Turning and Boring, Precision

Good quality gauges, Gap gauges ..,. 3 Tube Drawing 11

Gauges, fits of extreme precision produced by .

4 Light Press Work; Tube Drawing 12
lapping

Ball bearings, machine lapping, diamond or fine 13

5 Press Work; Tube Rolling
boring, fine grinding

Grinding, fine honing 6 Die Casting or Moulding; Rubber Moulding 14

High quality turning broaching, honing 7 Stamping Iapproximately) 15

Centre lathe turning and boring, reaming, 16

8 ' Sand Casting (approximately), Flame Cutting
,capstun or automatic in good. ~on~~t.i?n
-' .. <. . . . . . - .... " .. - .... ~ .. .... ........ ,
,.~
__-... ....
_.~- •. ~!I"l"- .......,._._..... -~ ••• , _ . '. . _ .. ,

Recommendations' for Selection of Tolerance Grades

Grade of Tolerance
Manufacturing Processes
Difficult to achieve (an be easily achieved

Lapping 4&5

Honing 4 5

Cylindrical' & Centreless Grinding 5 6,7,:'8 & 9

Surface Grinding - Peripheral 5 6,7,8 &9

Surface Grinding on Face 6 7,8 &9

\

Diamond Boring 5 6&7

Boring 6 7,8 &9

Broaching 6 7,8, &9 .

i}

Reaming 6 7,8,9 & 11

~;:

Turning 7&8 9, 10, 11 & 12 I",

,.c'

Face Milling - Peripheral Milling 9 10,11 & 12

& 11
~.

Keyway Milling 9,10 .,1

Planing 8 9,10,11 & 12

Pre-drilling 10 11

Drilling with Fixture 10 11 & 12

Standard Tolerance Grades "'-.

The tolerance grades are numbered from 01, a, 1, 2, 3,

16 and designated as ITO, IT1,
IT2, IT3,IT16. The s~mbollT indicates that they are recommended standard tolerance grades.
Since the tolerance is a function of the basic size, the Bureau of Indian Standards has recommended,
eighteen grades of tolerances from ITOl to IT16 for basic sizes upto 500mm (15:919 -1963) and
eleven grades IT6 to IT16 for basic sizes above 500 mm and upto 3150 mm (IS: 2101-1962).
S.I
 7.8 Positioning of Tolerances - Fundamental Deviation
Although the permissible tolerances for the basic size of the mating parts are obtained based
on the manufacturing processes employed, the required type of fit between them can be achieved
.onlywhen the extent of deviation from the basic size within orabovewhich the permissible tolerance
must lie is specified, ie., the exact position of the tolerance zone with reference to the zero line is
.indicated. To specify the position of the tolerance zone, anyone of the two deviations either upper
or lower may be chosen. The upper or lower deviation that is chosen to' specify the position of the
tolerance zone is called fundamental deviation. For both the hole and shaft, the fundamental
deviations are indicated by letter symbols. The capital letters are used to indicate the fundamental
deviations for the holes, while lowercase letters are used for shafts.

The Bureau of Indian Standards has recommended 25 types of fundamental deviations for the
holes and the shafts of basic sizes less than 500mm in 15:919 -1963. For the holes, the fundamental
deviations are; ABC D E F G H Is J K M N P R 5 T U V X Y Z ZA ZS ZC and for the
shafts; abc d e f g h js j k m n p r stu v x Y z za zb zc. The numerical values of
fundamental deviations for the shafts upto 500mm may be obtained directly from Table'
; for holes may be obtained from Table, .

For the shafts and holes of. basic sizes above 500mm and upto 3150mm, 14 types of
fundamental deviations are recom~ended by the Bureau of Indian Standards. For the holes, the
fundamental deviations are; D· E,FG 1--1 Is K M N P R STU and for the shafts, the fundamental
deviations are; d e f g h js km n p r stu.

The symbols used for the fundamental deviations for the shafts and the holes are as follows:

Hole Shafts
Upper Deviation (E'cart Superior) ES es
Lower Deviation (E'cart Inferior) EI ei
Jndication of TolerancedSize

. The toleranced size is indicated by its basic size followed by a 'symbol'composed of the letter
~In some cases two letters) and a number. For example, 50gl. The value 50 indicates the basic size
In mm the letterg indicates the tolerance zone for the shaft and the number 1 indicates the tolerance
grade. . .
. ; Methods of Indicating Tolerances on Drawing .
The different methods of indicating the tolerances by their symbols or numerical values are
shown in Fig. 2 to.Fig. 1O~ While indicating the numerical values in allthe following methods, the
following rules should be followed.

(i) The upper deviation should always be written above the lower deviation irrespective of
whether it is a shaft or a hole.

(ii) Both ~he deviations are expressed to the same number of decimal places as shown in
.Fig. . 1, except In the cases where the deviation in one direction in nil as shown in Fig./ 1.

. .(iii) When tolerances .are u~iform on all the individual dimensions, instead of indicating the
tolerances on each of the dimensions, a general note assigning the uniform tolerances should be

stated, for example TOLERANCE ON DIMENSION ± 0.5. This simplifies the drawing and saves the
drafting time and labour. .

82
 The toleranced dimension is indicated by anyone of the following three methods by specifying:

(a) Basic size and the tolerance symbols,

(b) Basic size and the values of deviations,
(c) Limits of sizes. I.. Fig. 2
The toleranced dimension may be
1-0.030 J
indicated using the toleranced symbol as shown i-
60 f7O. 0601
in Fig. 2. If in addition to the symbols, it is nece-
ssary to express the values of deviations, may be Fig. 3
written as shown in Fig.' 3 1 or limits of sizes as
, 159.970)
shown in Fig. 4.
I.. 60 f7 r59.940

When the toleranced dimension is to be Fig." 4

indicated using the deviations, it may be shown
by any on,e of the methods shown in Fig. 5,

I..
Fig. 6 and Fig. 7., +0.1
42 -0.2
.. I
If the deviations are expressed in bilateral Fig. 5

system, the dimension is indicated as shown in o

Fig. 5./ 42-0..2
./

When the deviations are expressed in.the 1-- Fig.. 6

unilateral system, the deviation in one direction
I~
-I
will be zero. The dimension is indicated as
shown in Fig. 6 by writing digit zero for the'
deviation which is to be shown as zero.
Fig. 7
When the tolerance is symmetrical in
42.198
relation to the basic size, ie., the upper and
lowerdeviationsareequal, thevalueofdeviation
should be indicated once only, preceded by the
I.. 42.195

Fig.. . 8
sign ± as shown in Fig.. 7.

When the dimension is to be toleranced 30.5 min

usingthe limitdimensions, they may be indicated
directly as shown in8.
n«. Fig. 9

If a dimension is to be limited in one 30.5 max

~I
direction only, it must be indicated by adding
"min" or "max" to the dimension as shown In
1--
Fig. 10
Fig. 9 and Fig. 10.

'.13 Indication ofTole-ranees on Angular ·Oimerisions

f The rules given for the indicatiori of tolerances on linear dimensions are equally applicable
10
angular dimensions except that the units of the basic angle and the fraction thereof, as well as the
~eviations should be 'indicated as shown' in Fig. 11. If the angular deviation is expressed in either
~inutes of a degree, or seconds of a minute of a degree, the value of the minute or second should
{he preceded by 0° or 0 0 0 ' as applicable.

15.25~~ 0

...
83 14.75
A B c
Tolerances on Angular Dimensions
 Fits
A machine is built by assembling all its constituting parts. During assembling sometimes a part
may be required to be fitted into another part. In such cases, and during the working of the mach ine,
they mayor may not be intendedto have a relative rnotionbetweenthem.lf there should be a relative
motion between the two parts, they must be fitted loose, or tight otherwise. The fitting of one part
into the other, either loose or tight depends on the relationship existing between their mati-ngsurfaces
which inturn depends on the dimensional differences between the parts. The relationship existing
between the mating surfaces of the parts because of the differences in their dimensions is called fit.

Shaft and Hole ---. Terrninology

In mechan ical engi neering practice, generally a rod of circular cross section and a ci reu lar hole
are termed as shaft and hole respectively. Inthe systemoffits and tolerances, for the sake of
simplthe
even icity
non circular sections and also the space containing or contained by the two parallel faces
a
of any part such as, the thickness.of a key and the width of keywayor a slot, are also referred as
'shaft' and 'h'ole' respectively.'''

Clearance
It isdefined as the differencebetween the dimensions of the holeand the shaft assigned
intent-
ionally to obtain a particular type of a fit. It may be positive or negative. When the shaft size is smaller
than the hole size it will be positive and will be negative when the' shaft size is bigger than the hole
.size. The, value of the clearance will be tneximum when "the hole sizeisrnaxirnurn and the shaft
size is minimum. It will be minimum when the shaft size is maximum and the hole size is minimum.

Classification 'of Fits

A fit is established when one part is inserted into the other. The type of fit obtained between
the two parts is governed 'by the dimensional deviations assigned for the basic size of the shaft and
the hole. For a given basic size, the deviations assigned and the performanceare interdependent.
But since the performance Is the ultimate objective, the deviations assigned for a basic size must
satisfy the performance intended. But the performance itself is of varied type Iike, a shaft fitting tightly
Into a hole, or-capable of just rotation" or sliding loosely in it. So, fora given basic size, we can have
'different performances. Therefore to obtain different' performances, we need, to fix different
deviations for the basic size of the shaft and the hole. Each setof deviations for the given basic size
resultsin a particular type of performance. For example, for the shaftrotate in a hole, obviously

to
its dimensions should be less than the hole: Alternately, when a\shaft isto be held rigidly in a
hole,
its sizes should" be greater thanthat of the hole 5.0 that when the shaft is driven into the hole, the outer
surface of the shaft interferes with the inner surface of the hole. In the former,since there is a positive
. c learance between the two sizes, the fit is called cleetence fit, wh i Ie in the latter, because the surfaces
'interfere; the fit is called interference fit. A fit resulting due to the variations in the dimensions
::'b'etween that of the clearance fit and the interference fit is called transition fit. Thus the fits are
-classifled as clearance, interference and transition fits.

Clearance Fit
It is defined as the fit established, when a positive clearance 'exists between the hole and the
shaft. It is obtained by selecting" the maximum and rninimurn limits of the shaft and the hole so that
the clearance d'ue to the difference between the dimensions of the smellest possible hole and the
largest possible shaft is always positive. There are different classes inthis type' of fit depending on
the clearance and the specific operating conditions of the given mati ng parts. They vary with the shaft. .,
speed, shaft bearing load, lubricating oil grade, temperature and the length of 'the mating surfaces.

84
 + CLEARANCE = ¢ 29. 95 - ¢ 29. 90=0.05 TOLERANCE 'ZONE OF THE HOLE

TOLERANCE. ZONE·
HOLE SHAFT OF THE SHAFT

ABC
All Dimensions in mm
Clearance Flt
Fig r 12

Fig. 12 shows a clearance fit. The clearance between the smallest possible holeand t'he
largest possible shaft is ~.ep 29.95 - ep 29.90 == 0.05 mm. fig.7.12C shows the conventional
representation of a clearance fit, where the tolerance zone of the hole lies above that of the shaft.

Interference Fit
It is defined asthe fit established wne~ a,negative.clearan~e exist between the sizes of the hole
and,the shaft. It is obtained by selecting the maximum and minimum 'limits of the shaft and the hole
so that there isan interference of the surfaces and the clearance due to the difference between the
dimensions of the largest possible hole and the smallest possible shaft is always negative.
Interference fits are' obtained, by several methods, for instance, a shaft may be driven into the hole
with a considerable force, or heating the part having the hole in order to increase thed iameter of the,
hole, or by cooling the shaft and thus decreasing its diameter.

INTERFERENCE
. OR NEGATIVi-' . TQLERANCE: ZONE OF THE SHAFT
CLEAR~NCE~¢30.25-¢3().30-0.05 '
=

TOLERANCE ZONE
. HOLE OF THE. HOLE

A B C
AU Dimensions in mm
I nterference Fit
Fig. 13

Fig. 13 shows an interference fit. The difference between the dimensions of the largest
possible hole and.the smallest possible shaft is = ep 3,0.25 - tP 30.30 = - 0.05 mm . Fig. 7. 13C shows
the conventional representation of an interference fit, where the tolerance zone of the hole lies
entirely below that of the shaft. \ .
The interference fit is obtained by driving a shaft into the hole with a considerable force. When
the force applied ,isheavy' the interference fit is called heavy force fit, and when a fighter force is used
.to drive the shaft into the hole, it is called light force fit.

, 85
 The interference fit can also be obtained by heating' and subsequent cooling. The part
containing the hole is heated so that the diameter of the hole will, increase due to material expansion,
and then after insertingthe shaft in the hole, on cooling the hole will. shrink to hold the shaft rigidly.

Transition Fit

It is defined as the fitestablished when the dimensions of thehole and the shaft are such that
there exists a positive clearance or a negative clearance when the shaft is fitted into the hole. It is
obtained by selecting the maximum and" minimum ii'mits for the shaftand thehole such that there
exists a positive clearance when the smallest possible shaft is fitted into the largest possible hole,
or a negative clearance when the largest possible shaft is forced into the s'}1allest possible hole.

TOLERANCE ZONE TOLERANCE. ZONE TOLERANCE ZONE

OF THE·, HOLE, OF THE HOLE OF THE SHAFT

TOLERANCE ZONE TOLERANCE ZONE, TOLERANCE ZONE

OF THE SHAFT OF THE SHAFTOF THE ft:DLE

A B

POSITIVE
CLEARANCE == INTERFERENCE, ()R NEliATIV£
030.60- ¢30.55 == 0.05
=-0.15
=
CLEARANCE fj)30.50-¢30.65 '

c o
All Dimensions)-n mm
Transltlon Fit
Fig. 14

Fig. 14A shows a transition fit. Fig. 14C shows the fitting of the smallest possible shaft of
ep3·O.55 mm in the 'largest possible hole 'of ep 30.60mm allowing a positive clearance of ¢30.60-
ep30.55 = O.05mm. Fig 1.40 shows the fitting of the largest possible shaft of ¢30.65mm in the
smallest possible hole of ep30.50mm gives an interference fit of ¢30.50 -30.65 = - O.15mm.
Fig. 148 shows conventional representation of transition fits in which the tolerance zones of the
hole and the shaft overlap.

System of Fits
To obtain the various types of fits, the amount of maximum and minimum clearances, either
positive or negative, that must exist between the mating parts are chosen, and then the aggregate

86
tolerance which is equal to the difference between the maximum and minimum clearances is
apportioned between them. While apportioning the aggregate tolerance between the two mating
parts, from the point of view of production economy one of the mating parts is regarded as being
constant in size by fixi ng its lim it dimensions and by varying the lim it di mensions of the other, various
types of fits are obtained. In one of the system, the hole limit dimensions are considered constant and
various types of fits are obtained by suitably varying the limit dimensions of the shaft, while in the
other, the shaft lim it dimensions are constant and various types of fits are obtained by suitably varying
the hole limit dimensions. The former is called hole bests system since the hole limit dimensions are
regarded constant, while the latter is called shaft basis system since the shaft limit dimensions are
considered constant..

Hole Basis System'

In this system, the different types of fits are obtained by associating. shafts of varying limit
dimensions with a single hole, whose1ower deviation is zero. When the lower deviation of the hole
is zero, the minimum limit of the hole will be equal to its basic size, which is taken as the base for
computing all the other limit dimensions. The limit dimensions' on the hole and the shaft are
computed by selectingsuitable clearances and tolerances on the shaft and the hole.

Fig,
15 shows the clearance and transition fits in thehole basis system. Fig. 15A shows the
tolerance zone for the hole having its lower limit equal to the basic size.. The zero line is drawn
through the lower limit since the .Iower deviation is zero. Both the limit dimensions of the shaft lie
below the zero line for the clearance fit as shown in Fig. 158 while they are above the zero line
for the interference fit as shown in Fig. 15C.

TOLERANCE ZONE OF THE HOLE TOLERANCE ZONE OF THE SHAFT

TOLERANCE ZONE OF THE SHAFT ZERO LINE

HOLE CLEARANCE SH~FT INT~RFERENCE SHAFoT

A '13 C
Basic Hole Clearance Shaft Interference Shaft
Hole Basis, System
Fig.. 15

Shatt Basis System

In this system, the different types of fits are obtained by associating holes of varying..Iimit
dimensions with a single shaft, whose upper deviation is zero. When the upper deviation of the shaft
is zero, the maximum limit of the shaftwill be equal to its basic size, which is taken as the base for
computing all other limit dimensions. The limit dimensions on the hole and the· shaft are computed
by selectin.g suitable clearances and tolerances on the shaft and the 'hole.
..

87
 TOL.ERANCE ZONE OF THE SHAFT tOLERANCE ZONE OF THE HOLE TOLERANCE ZONE OF THE HOLE

ZORE LINE

BASIC SHAFT

CLEARANCE HOL{ INTERfERENCE HOLE

A "S-- C
Basic Shaft Clearance Hole Interference Hole

Shaft Basis System

Fig. 1.8

Fig. 18 shows the clearance and transition fits in the shaft basis system. Fig. 18A shows the
tolerancezone for the shaft having its maximum limit equal to the basic size -. The zero lineis drawn
through-the maximum limit since its upper deviation is zero. Both the limit dimensions of the hole
lie above the zero line for the clearance fit as shown in Fig. .188 while they are below the zero line
for the interference fit a~ shown in .Fig. 18~.

I
Methods of Indicating Fits on Drawings
.The different methods of indicating the fits on drawings by using letter symbols andnumerical
values are shown in Fig. 21 and Fig: 22.
lndications of Fits ,by Letterand Grade Symbols~:
When it is required to indicate the fits by letter and grade symbol, the tolerance symbol for
the hole must be placed before that of the.shaft as shown in Fig. 21 A, or the tolerance symbol for.
the ,"ho.le must be placed above that of the shaft as shown in Fig. ,21 B, and' the .symbolsbeing
precededbv the basic size indicated onceonly.

I
I

I
I

+ 0.04 1)
¢20H7/h6 H7 (/)30 F7 (:+0.02.0
f/J20h6

¢30 (7
o)
-0.013
A B
Indication of Fits by Letter and Grade Symbols
Fig.. 21

When itis also necessary to specify the numerical-values of the deviations, they should be
written in brackets as shown in Fig. - 21 C.

88
Indication of Fits by Numerical Values
The methods of indicating the fits by the numerical values are shown in Fig. 22. The
.dimensions for each of the components of the assembled parts should be preceded by the name as
shown in Fig. . 22A, or item reference asshown in Fig. 228, the dimension forthe hole being placed
in both the cases above the shaft.

2
I

I
I

I"
I

+0.3 '+0.3
HOLE 30+0.1 1 30 +()·.1
-0.1 . -0.1
SHAFT 30-0.2 2 30-0.2

A B
Indicating of fits by Numerical Values
Fig. 22

89
UNIT 3: PREPARATION OF 2-D DRAWINGS

Exercise 1: Draw the three orthographic views for the given Pictorial Views.

DOVETAIL BRACKET

END BRACKET
020 R20

/ /

ROD SUPPORT
90° - GUIDE BRACKET

. OPEN BEARING

90
 3 HOLES ¢10

VAll Dirr:.ensions in mm

MODIFIED V - BLOCK

STOP BLOCK

CJ. BRACKET STOP BLOCK

91
Exercise 2: Draw the Front view, Top view and Side view of ISO threaded
hexagonal bolt 150mm long, 24mm diameter and a thread length of 60 mm
with a hexagonal nut. Indicate all the proportions and the actual dimensions.

Exercise 3: Draw three views of a square headed bolt with a hexagonal nut.
Show the bolt head and the nut across corners in the front view. The nut is
screwed on the bolt. The bolt is 20mm diameter, 120 mm long with a thread
length of 50mm. The end of the bolt is chamfered to 45 0

Exercise 4: Draw the sectional front view and the top view of a double riveted
lap joint using rivets in chain arrangement. Take the thickness of the plates as
10 mm. Show all the dimensions on th'e drawing

Exercise 5: Draw a double riveted zigzag butt joint with double cover plates in
section and a plan view. Thickness of plates is 50mm. Show at least three
rivets in each row. Indicate all the dimensions.

92
 UNIT 4: ASSEMBLY DRAWING
Exercise 6: Details of a Flanged coupling - unprotected type are shown. Draw
to 1:1 scale, the following views of the coupling showing all the parts
assembled with one of the shafts being projected by a distance of 5mm into
the bore of the other flange. A) Front view with top half in section B) A view
looking from the nut end.

,5'HEX. NUT Fe 410 W 4

BOLT DETAILS: ALL FILLETS AND ROUNDS RADII Bmm 4HEX.BOLT.
3'TAPER KEY
t. DIAHETER : 0.2d+3mm Fe 410 W 2,
2SHAFT
2. LENGTH: 1.5d Fe 410 W
1FLANGE 2
3. NUHBER ; 4 FORd « 75mm PARTNO. DES,CRIPTION 2:
6 FORd > 75mm BOLT C/,
HATERIAL NO. OFF

1.2Sd+20 1.25d+20
TAPER KEY 1
0.5d 0.5d
45
SHAFT

021
4 HOLES.. ¢ ON
12+8.
P(¢ 140' EClUl*SPACED HEX.'NUT Fe 410,W'
HEX. BOLT , Fe .410 ~ 4

TAPER KEY Fe 1f1.0W .' 2

.sHAFT' Fe 410,W 2
FLANGE 2
CI
DESCRIPT/qN MATERIAL NO. OFF

....
c:ia
io~
~~~+--- .~

""
20

75 ® ®,

-f2
TAPER 1:100

r-,~
~1- ~=-=.-+--~
,E 5"= : ''..
80
ALL.FILLETS

OUN
All Dimensions in mm

t-=-=- - Details of Flanged Coupling - Unprotected Type

OSR
+- -:- -. " 3
f":"H'-

93
Exercise 7: Details of a Flanged coupling - protected type are shown. Draw to
1:1 scale, the following views of the coupling showing all the parts assembled.
A) Front view in section, B) End view looking from the nut end.

ALLiiLLETS AND ROUNDS RADI/3mm

BOLT DETAILS:
1. DIAMETER : 0.2d+3mm
2. LENGTH : 1.5d
3. NUMBER: 4 FORd < 75mm SHROUD
6 FOR d > 75mm
BOLT
FLANGE NO.2

SPIGOT
FLANGE NO.1

-SOCKET SHAFT
TAPER KEY

All Dimensions in mm. Flanged Coupling - Protected Type. Fig. 76.9

g~ -
~~
16:g:~~ ~
® ~ 6 HEX. NUT Fe-410 W 4

:i1 J
® 'S. ~

,
5 HEX. BOLT
TAPER KEY
Fe-I,10W
Fe-I,10W
4
i-
):-t[3---- .:""1--1

3
SHAFr
FLANGe NO.2
Fe-410W
CI 2
~
2 FLANGE NO.1 1~
'Il5 41_' 12 __ DESCRIPTION
r I 1 CI 1

~ ¢200
PART NO.

¢200 TAPER 1:100

HATERIAL
25
NO. OFF

~
~ '0 <;::)

~ ~ ~
'-' '&Q... '&

-l

z-is" 4¢16+g·01~N
mr=-"
HOLES . 4 HOLES ¢16+oo. o270N
10-8.090 :APER
PC¢ 150 EOUI-SPACED
--"1'f+4---546 PC¢ 150 EOUl-SPAC:O

~ +-1-1 ~5
80 16-0

UOi ALL FILLETS AND ROUNDS R 3

0
..

mm Details of Flanged Coupling - @

i\IJ f)lIllensions in
--1 Protected Type

94
Exercise 8: Views of the parts of a Plummer Block are shown in figure. Draw to
1:1 scale, the following views of the bearing. A) Front view showing right half
in section B) Top view C) Right side view.

Plummer Block

M10

8 SHAFT Fe 4TOW 1
7 LOCK NUT M10 Fe 410 k( . 2
6 . NUT M10 Fe 410 W Z
5 BOLT 1'1.10 Fe 410W Z
4 BEARINfi TOP HALF BRASS 1 I

BEARING BOTTOM HALF ---{

3 BRASS 1 i
CAP CAST IRON
2 1
BODY [AST IRON
1
ITEM NO DESCRIPTION MATERIAL NO OFF
REVISION NO UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED NAME DATE
DATE OIMENSIONS IN MM SIGNED

,
(HANGED CHAMFERS 1 x 45 DRAWN
APPROVED RADII CHECKED
STANDARD
ABC g. COMPANY BANGAL ORE
APPROVEP
RS SCALE
DETAILS OF
E3-~ PLUHHER aLOCK SHEET 10F 1

.... .Details of a Plummer Block

95
 Exercise 9: The details of a tailstock are shown in figure. Assemble all the
parts correctly and draw the following views of the assembled tailstock to 1:2
scale. A) Front view in section. B) A view looking from the dead centre end C)
Top view.

PART NO. PART NO.

NO. DESCRIPTION MATERIAL OFF NO. DES€RIPTION MATERIAL OFF

7 BODY CASJf'lRON 7 77 STUD Fe470W I

2 FEATHER Fe470W 7 72'" WASHER M16 STD Fe470W 2

3 BARREL CAST/RON 7 73 HANDLE CAST IRON I.

4 SCREW SpINDLE Fe470 W , 1 14'" HEX. NUTM16 Fe470W 7.

r--
S FLANGE CAST IRON 7 ,S CLAMPING PLATE CAST/RON 7 I

e SCREW 'Fe470W 4 16 . SQ. HEAD BOLT Fe410W 1

7 FEATHER KEY Fe470W 7 77* WASHER M22 STD Fe410W 7

8 HAND WHEEL CAST IRON 1

- 78'" HEX. NUTM22 Fe410W 1

9'" WASHER M 72 STD Fe 410 W 7 19 CENTRE CAST STEEL I

70'" HEX. NUTM72 Fe410W 1

._----
- - - . - - - . - - - - - - "'-28if
4 HOLES /'jP-..f.QUI __. KEY WAY'4.5x2.5
SPACED ON PC</> 56
76 038
022

ITEM NO DESCRIPTION

DESIGNED
DRAWN
APPROVED CHECKED
STANDARD
ABC s COMPANY BANGALORE
APPROVED
SCALE

DETAILS OF TAILSTOCK
EJ~~' ~~-"-=-_
.......------------ SHEET 1 OF1

Details of a Tailstock

96
Exercise 10: Figure shows the details of a Universal Coupling. Assemble the
parts and draw the following views of the assembled coupling. A) Front view in
section B) Top view C) Right side view. Insert the important assembly
dimensions.

PIN FORK

Universal Coupling

(j)
KEY WAY 8)(3.5 18
TAPER PIN Fe-410W
COLLAR Fe-410W
PIN Fe-410W
.PARALLEL KE Fe-410 W
SHAFT Fe-410 W

032

¢16

o ¢25
.d
f===l... @
ALL UNMENTIONED FJ~LETS & RouNDS R3 . .®
~/N 4"JO
Details of TAPER I:JO
Universal 5 JJ-f~
Coupling

97
 Exercise 11. The details of a Machine vice are shown in figure. Draw the
following views of the assembled vice to 1:1 scale with the jaws spread 50mm
apart. A) Front view in section B) Top view C) Left view showing the movable
jaw in half section.

Machine Vice
r----......------__ .....
~~--.;;....---.- -_=_':"':':':"~~~~~----------------- ~

~j=~,t!~ 037 R3
A~ lO'

~~~
10 ~
OIL HOLE¢3 ~

...... ..-
.
~

e-..,
..:t

.@
o
~
¢t20 ~

~
52 2 HOLES ¢5
60DEEP 13 AND TAPr----"----I
SECTJON AA116 .DEEP 10
2 HOLES 05 DEEp· 13 .1

AND TAP M6 DEEP 10

100 (1)
5

~~t 1~
CLAMPING PLATE Fe 410 W 1
LOCK NUT Fe 410 W 1
NUT Fe 410 W 1
WASHER Fe.410 W 1
SCREW ROD Fe 410 W 1
SCREW M6 Fe 410 W 6
JAW GRIP CAST STEEL 2
MOVABLE· JAW CAST IRON 1
BODY OF VICE CAST IRON
1
DESCRIPTION MATERIAL NO OFF
UNLESS OTHERWiSE STATED NAME.&,.;.-_--+-~ DATE~_
DESIGNED .
DIMENSIONS iN MM
t----+---+--t---,r----t CHAMFERS 1 )( 45·
DRAWN
100
RADII CHECKED
I'
1WIDTHx 1 DEEP
.~ STANDARD
APPROVED

GROOVES ON 80TH WAYS~

DETAILS OF ~
GROOVES SHEET 1 OF 1

Details of a Machine Vice

98
Exercise 12. The figure shows the details of the Gland and Stuffing Box. Draw
the following views of the assembled stuffing box. Select 1:1 scale. A) Front
view in section. B) Top view c) Left side view.

4 HOLES ¢ 14 DEEP 24
AND TAP M 16 DEEP 16

072
¢62
<V
tM16~

062
All Dimensions in turn
nt.-Iail, of &l Gland and Stuffing Box

99
 Exercise 13: Figures shows the details of a Petrol engine Piston and Connecting
Rod.Assemble the piston and the connecting rod together with their
assembled parts and draw the following views of the assembly to 2:1 scale.
A) Front view with top half in section B) Top view. C) View looking from the
big end.

DISTANCE PIECE GUDGEON PIN PISTON RING

NiJ~OFi=-2 -- -" .,., --~
-NO. OFF 2

PIN
No.oll2
PISTON

COVER

f..0NNECTING ROO
I
PLUG-GUDGEON PIN
NUT NO. OFF 2
NO.OFFl
P(·trot Engine Piston and Connecting Rod Assembly

I
I 3

L n=-~:~4
.
__3_2_.5_~
10 10

60
~----~ .._~~---~~
i PISTON RING 2
3 1 PLUG-GUDGEONPIN 2
<.:c;
~."
.-L......",.,...-------
5 ..
!
2 GUDGEON PIN
PIC" TON
1 ' ALUMINIUMALLOY! 1
ITEM' NO DRAWING NO DESCRiPTION MATERIAL i NO OFF
REVISION NO! I ! i ! UNLE&S OTHERWISE STATED i ! NAME DATE
. DATE
I ! I
I DIMENSIONS IN MM J DESIGNED
I
i !
0

I I,. I
CHANGED
I CHAMFERS 1 x 45 ! OR'AWN
APPROVED I I
i I RADI! 1 I CHECKED I
I STANDARD j
ABC & COMPANY' BANGALORE
i APPROVED i
SCALE
!
~-l
DETAILS OF PISTON I
E}@l FOR PETROL ENGINE
hKF.F.T1 OF 1

100
 150
,5.. ACE ;:
fJeL.f
;!:. 1B . , . .. ...f. . . - - - " - - - -
52 .j
\ II i 72 ,/1,'
2 HOLES /110
DEEP 15
i
I

.. 1.
'/;;\7.
'v -LI~--H-2
~?.!L..;

35 OIL HOLE

Fe 410 W 1
[-20 Br 2
[-20Br 2
DURALUMIN 1
BRONZE 2
BRONZE 2
Fe 410,W -2-
[-20 Br 2
, BRONZE 1
I DURALUt1IN 1
r MATE-RIAL NO OFF

i DATE.

RADII

A B [ & COMPANY BANGALORE

SCALE
;DETAILS OF CONNECTING _ROD'!
E3@-i FOR PETROL ENGINE; SHEET i~-"-

Details of a Petrol' Engine Connecting Rod

101
 I -i-
~ 034 THREAD
R30

120
2HOLES·¢26

~II i

17 TAPER PIN Fe 410W ,

~~J1. (j)' 16 COMMERCIAL
PACKING FIBRE
1
HEX. NUT M12 Fe 410 W
15 HEX. NUT M20 2
HEX.NUT M24
14. Fe410 W 7
HAND WHEEL Fe410W
13 STUD ~12 2
CAST IRON 1
22 22 12 STUD M20 Fe 410W
COLLAR STUD
I. Fe 410W 2
11 COLLAR Fe 410W
10

.1
I
SPINDLE --Pe410W 6
j .. 350 9 VALVE SEAT
GLAND 2
8 1
8 HOLES 11116 ONP[11l200~ 7 Fe 410W 1
6 'BRASS 1
BRASS
5 1
4 VALVE GUN METAL 1
, 3 BRIDGE CAST IRON 1

\
COVER GUN MET.AL
2 BODY GUN METAL 1
\ 1 1
.L ITEM NO DRAWING NO DESCRIPTION MATERIAL NO OfF
) ~EVISIO~ NO UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED NAME DATE

r
DATE DIMENSIONS IN MM . DESIGNED
CHANGED CHAMFERS 'It 45· DRAWN
APPROVED RADII 1 CHECKED

-is(/ A~C
s COMPANY BANGALORE
STANDARD
APPROVED
SCALE

DETAILS OF STOP VALVE

EJ~ . SHEET 1 OF 2

102
 ®

¢70
6 HOLES.¢22

-I
I
ON PC¢225 r~
I ¢22 I THROUGH SLOT ~

~
~

~
~

<;:)
~

+-~~--I I-.....+----+-----it--f ~ ___t_, 75

I ~! ® .@
// ~~ili=_i-......+_---"-'".-- ._1t_"51-l~ I:
, I

/f
gJIJ~
__
\
i. 1M....._..... ~ it ./"L14 H20
(2HOLESr,!J2i DEEP 33 ,2 HOLES ¢10.25 DEEP 18
iTEM NO DESCRIPTION MATERIAL NO OFF
AND TAP 1'124 DEEP 24 AND TAP 1'112 DEEP 12
REVISION NO' UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED NAME DATE
D~_l. ~ DIMENSIONS fN M~ DESIGNED

t--+--1
H - -i . '

4ARt1S CHANGED I CHAMFERS 1 x 45 DRAWN

rr:': APPROVED ;" ! I I RADI! 1 CHECKED

STANDARD
A .8' C g CDMPANY BANGALORE APPROVED
. ._~__+- _ _L . . . - - - - - - " - -
I SCALE
I .. i
DETAILS OF STOP VALVE
L ._------"-'--------------1 SHEET 2 OF 2

Details of a Stop Valve

to~