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WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH, VOL. 50, 98–118, doi:10.

1002/2013WR014087, 2014

Seasonal precipitation patterns along pathways of South American


low-level jets and aerial rivers
German Poveda,1 Liliana Jaramillo,1 and Luisa F. Vallejo1
Received 6 May 2013; revised 4 December 2013; accepted 4 December 2013; published 7 January 2014.

[1] We study the seasonal dynamics of the eastern Pacific (CHOCO) and Caribbean low-
level jets (LLJ), and aerial rivers (AR) acting on tropical and subtropical South America.
Using the ERA-Interim reanalysis (1979–2012), we show that the convergence of both LLJs
over the eastern Pacific-western Colombia contributes to the explanation of the region’s
world-record rainfall. Diverse variables involved in the transport and storage of moisture
permit the identification of an AR over northern South America involving a
midtropospheric easterly jet that connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans across the Andes,
with stronger activity in April to August. Other major seasonal AR pathways constitute part
of a large gyre originating over the tropical North Atlantic, veering to the southeast over the
eastern Andes and reaching regions of northern Argentina and southeastern Brazil. We
illustrate the distribution of average seasonal precipitation along the LLJs and AR pathways
with data from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (1998–2011), combined with
considerations of CAPE, topography, and land cover. In addition, the theory of the biotic
pump of atmospheric moisture (BiPAM) is tested at seasonal time scales, and found to hold
in 8 out of 12 ARs, and 22 out of 32 forest-covered tracks (64% in distance) along the ARs.
Deviations from BiPAM’s predictions of rainfall distribution are explained by the effects of
topography, orography, and land cover types different from forests. Our results lend a
strong observational support to the BiPAM theory at seasonal time scales over South
American forested flat lands.
Citation: Poveda, G., L. Jaramillo, and L. F. Vallejo (2014), Seasonal precipitation patterns along pathways of South American
low-level jets and aerial rivers, Water Resour. Res., 50, 98–118, doi:10.1002/2013WR014087.

1. Introduction where P and E represent the long-term mean basin-


averaged precipitation and actual evapotranspiration rates
[2] The hydrologic cycle is a fundamental component of (mm yr21), respectively, and R represents the long-term
the earth system, which demands a closer integration average of total runoff leaving the basin (mm yr21), which
between hydrology, meteorology, and atmospheric sciences includes the streamflow at the basin outlet and the net inte-
to foster their scientific progress altogether, as well as the grated lateral subsurface runoff.
earth system science. An example of the coupling between [3] On the other hand, if the control volume is defined
land surface and atmospheric water is provided by the over the atmospheric column, the long-term approximation
long-term water balance equation. The storages and fluxes of the vertically integrated water balance equation in flux
of water on a soil-land-atmosphere column can be defined form is,
over a continent or a river basin. If the control volume is
defined over the soil-land portion of a river basin, the long- 2QV 5P2E; (2)
term approximation of the water balance equation states
that [Manabe, 1969; Eagleson, 1994; Poveda et al., 2007]: where QV is the long-term average vertically integrated net
R5P2E; (1) transport of moisture across the control volume. Equations
(1) and (2) evidence the long-term equality between the net
runoff over land and the net transport of moisture by the
horizontal winds across the atmospheric column of the
Additional supporting information may be found in the online version of
river basin, so that [Peixoto and Oort, 1992]:
this article.
1
Department of Geosciences and Environment, Universidad Nacional R52QV : (3)
de Colombia, Sede Medellın, Colombia.
Corresponding author: G. Poveda, Department of Geosciences and [4] Equation (3) implies that both variables can be used
Environment, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Medellın, Colom-
bia. (gpoveda@unal.edu.co)
to diagnose each other in the long run, and that both
branches of the hydrologic cycle are mutually coupled, but
©2013. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved. also that river runoff, which is frequently and accurately
0043-1397/14/10.1002/2013WR014087 measured, is a highly relevant meteorological variable.

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

Therefore, it is worrisome to realize the significant mis- of South America (Venezuela and Colombia) and the
match between the modeled atmospheric moisture flux con- Greater Antilles [Amador and Maga~na, 1999; Poveda and
vergence and the runoff observed in the Amazon River Mesa, 1999]. It transports copious amounts of moisture from
basin [Marengo, 2006; Makarieva et al., 2013c]. Equation the tropical Atlantic into the Caribbean Sea, into the Gulf of
(3) provides the theoretical support to the concept of aerial Mexico, across Central America, and into the eastern Pacific
rivers, which are discussed in section 1.3. for the case of [Mo et al., 2005; Mestas-Nu~nez et al., 2007; Wang, 2007;
South America. Wang et al., 2007; Whyte et al., 2008; Xie et al., 2008;
Amador, 2009; Cook and Vizy, 2010]. The CLLJ activity is
1.1. The CHOCO Low-Level Jet and the World- mainly focused on the Intra-Americas Sea (IAS), and the
Record Rainfall Region Over Western Colombia Western Hemisphere warm pool (WHWP) [Wang and
[5] The lowlands along the Pacific coast of western Enfield, 2001, 2003; Wang et al., 2006, 2007]. During the
Colombia are among the rainiest places on Earth, with aver- boreal summer in the western Caribbean, the CLLJ splits
age annual precipitation exceeding 12,500 mm [Lopez, 1966; into two branches: one turns northward to the western Gulf
Arnett and Steadman, 1970; Snow, 1976; Nieuwolt, 1977; of Mexico reaching the central US [Hodell et al., 2008].
Eslava, 1993; Poveda and Mesa, 1997, 2000; Mapes et al., During the boreal winter, the northeast trades blow across

2003a; Sakamoto et al., 2011; Alvarez-Villa et al., 2011; the Isthmus, and three distinct wind jets form off the major
Dur an-Quesada et al., 2012]. Such copious rainfall inten- gaps of the Central American mountain range, in the Gulfs
sities are explained by the interaction of a low-level westerly of Tehuantepec, Papagayo, and Panama [Chelton et al.,
(CHOCO) jet, with topography and evapotranspiration from 2000; Xie et al., 2005; Serra et al., 2010]. The branch across
the tropical rainforests of western Colombia [Poveda and Panama veers to the south-southeast and merges with the
Mesa, 1999, 2000; Poveda et al., 2001, 2006]. CHOCO jet [Poveda and Mesa, 2000; Chelton et al., 2000;
[6] The dynamics and strength of the CHOCO jet has Xie et al., 2008; Sakamoto et al., 2011].
been associated with sea surface temperatures gradient [9] None of the mechanisms that were mentioned in the
between the Ecuador-Peru cold tongue and the warmer previous section to explain the recurvature of the CHOCO
Colombian Pacific, and is favored by the cross-equatorial jet toward the east upon crossing the Equator can explain
trade winds change of direction to the east after crossing the turning of the Caribbean LLJ to the southeast, across
the Equator at this longitude [Poveda and Mesa, 2000; the Panama Isthmus and its further merging with the
Poveda et al., 2001, 2006; Kessler, 2006; Amador et al., CHOCO jet. It could be explained by (1) surface conver-
2006]. The corresponding change in the sign of the Coriolis gence favored by the release of latent heat in the region’s
acceleration, the predominant north-south coast orientation, extraordinarily intense storms and mesoscale convective
in addition to land-sea temperature and friction gradients systems and (2) atmospheric pressure gradients created by
contribute to establish such westerly jet centered at 5 N. the condensation of water vapor evapotranspired by the
Also, the westerly flow can be explained by the strong tropical rainforest of the Choco-Darien region of western
cross-equatorial temperature/pressure gradient, where anti- Colombia. Could it be associated with the action of the
cyclonic vorticity is advected across the Equator by the biotic pump mechanism of atmospheric moisture? Such
divergent wind, which may be inertially unstable [Toma concept/theory is summarized in section 1.4.
and Webster, 2010a, 2010b]. Furthermore, the CHOCO jet
is enhanced by the latent heat released in the region’s high 1.3. Aerial Rivers East of the Andes
amounts of condensation and rainfall, most of which occurs [10] Oceans are primary sources of water for continental
in mesoscale convective systems (MCS), which in turn precipitation [Gimeno et al., 2010, 2013; Makarieva et al.,
favors wind surface convergence [Velasco and Fritsch, 2013a]. The Atlantic Ocean is the dominant source of mois-
1987; Poveda and Mesa, 2000; Mapes et al., 2003a; ture for continental precipitation over northern South
Zuluaga and Poveda, 2004; Mejıa and Poveda, 2005; America, including the Amazon and Orinoco River basins
Poveda et al., 2005]. [Gimeno et al., 2012], providing 125% of the identified pre-
[7] The average transport of moisture by CHOCO jet has cipitation over 10 days back in time [Stohl and James,
been estimated to be 3774 m3 s21, contributing to the stream- 2005; Drumond et al., 2008]. Upon entrance into eastern
flows of the Atrato and San Juan Rivers (5000 m3 s21), tropical South America and the Amazon River basin, water
which are considered among the world’s highest runoff rates vapor mixes with local evapotranspiration to augment the
[Poveda and Mesa, 1999, 2000; Poveda et al., 2001, 2006]. amount of moisture required for precipitation. The impor-
The CHOCO jet is orographically lifted over the topography tant role of evapotranspiration on precipitation recycling
of the western Andes, where upon interaction with the east- has long been recognized as a fundamental component of
erly trade winds, deep convection is further enhanced [Mapes the hydrometeorological dynamics of the Amazon River
et al., 2003a]. The CHOCO jet is also responsible for the basin [Salati et al., 1979; Eltahir and Bras, 1996; Tren-
transport of moisture into southern Central America during berth, 1999; Dirmeyer and Brubaker, 2007; van der Ent
the boreal summer and fall [Duran-Quesada et al., 2010]. et al., 2010; Goessling and Reick, 2011; Spracklen et al.,
The study of Sakamoto et al. [2011] evidenced that the trans- 2012]. Also, the relevance of Amazonia on the global cli-
port of moisture by the CHOCO jet can be traced back as far mate dynamics is highlighted by recent studies showing
south as 30 S, off the Chilean coast. that terrestrial water fluxes are dominated by biological
fluxes (transpiration) rather than physical fluxes (evapora-
1.2. The Caribbean or San Andres Low-Level Jet tion) [Jasechko et al., 2013].
[8] The easterly Caribbean low-level jet (hereafter CLLJ) [11] The transport of moisture through north-eastern
is located over the Caribbean Sea between the northern tip South America is associated with the dynamics of the

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

easterly trade winds from the Atlantic Ocean all the way to [14] If finally proven correct, the BiPAM theory would
the Andes, where they veer to the southeast to reach the La constitute a major breakthrough to understand fundamental
Plata River basin [Byerle and Peagle, 2002]. The flow processes in atmospheric sciences, hydrology, meteorol-
develops a core of particularly high speed, so-called South ogy, ecology, climatology, and plant and soil sciences,
American low-level jet (SALLJET) [Marengo et al., 2004; among others. As such, it has been submitted to thorough
Grimm and Tedeschi, 2009]. Such flow of moisture east of scrutiny by the scientific community, evidenced in the
the Andes was identified as an atmospheric river [Newell online discussions of the original paper by Makarieva and
et al., 1992], in reference to filamentary structures in the Gorshkov [2007], and their reply by the authors (http://
vertically integrated moisture flow field. The work of Mor- www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci-discuss.net/3/2621/2006/hessd-
aes-Arraut et al. [2012] broadened this concept to that of 3–2621-2006-discussion.html). Another paper led by the
aerial rivers (AR, hereafter), defined as preferential fila- same team of authors has been recently published contain-
mentary or broad pathways of moisture flow, because of ing an unusual comment by the Editor about the controver-
their near-complete symmetry/analogy with surface rivers, sial status of this new theoretical framework [Makarieva
which upon slowing down and broadening spatially form et al., 2013b]. Therefore, here we aim at testing whether
atmospheric lakes containing the highest amount of precip- the spatial distribution of observed seasonal rainfall inten-
itable water, analogous to depth in surface lakes. sities along main pathways of South American ARs east of
[12] Contrary to surface rivers, AR acquire water from the Andes conforms to BiPAM’s theory and predictions. In
evapotranspiration and lose it by precipitation (equation particular, we are interested in testing whether seasonal
(2)). The studies of Arraut and Satyamurty [2009] and rainfall decreases, increases, or remains constant over for-
Moraes-Arraut et al. [2012] investigated the seasonal ested areas of tropical and subtropical South America.
dynamics of AR over Amazonia and subtropical South
America, and confirmed that both the trade wind flow from 1.5. Objectives
the Atlantic Ocean into Amazonia, and the north/north- [15] The strong seasonality of precipitation over northern
westerly flow to the subtropics, east of the Andes, satisfy South America and Amazonia is tightly associated with the
the aforementioned AR criteria. The AR east of the Andes dynamics of both the ITCZ and the South Atlantic Conver-
is active year-round, although the highest amounts of mois- gence Zone, but also with land-atmosphere feedbacks and
ture transport occur during the austral summer, associated other mechanisms driving the region’s weather and climate
with more intense trade winds from the North tropical at different time scales [Nobre et al., 2009]. As a result, the
Atlantic, but also with water vapor evapotranspired in dynamics of the CHOCO jet over the easternmost fringe of
Amazonia. The long-term mean discharge of the AR east the Pacific, the Caribbean low-level jet, and the AR over
of the Andes to the subtropics during dry seasons varies tropical and subtropical South America exhibit strong
between 10 and 23 Gt d21 (115,000–267,000 m3 s21), for seasonality.
which the zonal airflow coming from the Atlantic, as well [16] Therefore, our main objectives are: (1) to identify
as local net soil evaporation constitute nearly equally the main seasonal pathways of the CHOCO and Caribbean
important contributors [Moraes-Arraut et al., 2012]. low-level jets and the most salient ARs in South America
east of the Andes using diverse atmospheric variables asso-
1.4. The Biotic Pump Theory ciated with the transport and storage of moisture; (2) to
[13] The biotic pump of atmospheric moisture (BiPAM) investigate the spatial distribution of average seasonal pre-
theory was introduced by Makarieva and Gorshkov [2007, cipitation along the trajectories of the low-level jets and
2010] and Makarieva et al. [2009]. It states that the atmos- ARs pathways; and (3) to test whether the spatial distribu-
pheric circulation is driven by atmospheric pressure gra- tion of average seasonal precipitation along the ARs path-
dients, which in turn are set forth by condensation of the ways conforms to the predictions entailed by the BiPAM
water vapor evapotranspired from forests. As such, the theory at seasonal time scales. Toward those ends, section
theory assigns a central role to forests in maintaining the 2. describes the data and methodologies employed, while
ocean-to-land atmospheric circulation. A central argument section 3. presents and discusses the results, and the final
in support of the BiPAM concept is that in forest-covered section summarizes the main conclusions.
regions, annual precipitation does not decline with increas-
ing distance from the ocean and may even grow as one pro-
ceeds several thousand kilometers inland, whereas, in 2. Data and Methods
contrast, where forests are lacking, precipitation decreases [17] Information from the European Centre for Medium-
with an exponential length scale of a few hundred kilo- Range Weather Forecasts Interim reanalysis (ERA-Interim)
meters [Makarieva and Gorshkov, 2007; Sheil and Mur- [Dee et al., 2011], will be used to quantify the horizontal
diyarso, 2009; Makarieva et al., 2009, 2013b]. A recent 925 hPa wind fields over northern South America, associ-
study by the same team of authors [Makarieva et al., ated with the CHOCO and the Caribbean low-level jets, as
2013a] investigated the spatial distribution of long-term well as to quantify diverse variables associated with the
mean annual precipitation over the Amazon along a diago- AR’s seasonal dynamics, such as vertically integrated
nal transect from the Atlantic Ocean to the Andes (0 S water-vapor fluxes and their divergence, precipitable water,
50 W, 7.5 S 81.5 W). Those authors state that in year- and the convective available potential energy (CAPE).
round active tropical forests, the biotic pump should control [18] Regarding the CHOCO and Caribbean low-level
annual precipitation, and conclude that annual precipitation jets, just one pathway will be considered for each, given
in the Amazon forest remains approximately constant from their narrow and well-defined trajectories throughout the
coast to interior. year. The associated average bimonthly precipitation will

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

Figure 1. Seasonal cycle of average 925 hPa horizontal wind velocity (m s21) over South America
during 1979–2012. Notice the recurvature of the CHOCO low-level jet toward the east after crossing the
Equator, and the recurvarture of the Caribbean low-level jet (CLLJ) toward the southeast after crossing
the Panama isthmus, both converging on the world-record rainfall region of western Colombia. Data
source: ERA-Interim reanalysis.

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

be estimated for December to January (DJ), February to Nicaragua and Costa Rica, and the other one crossing over
March (FM), April to May (AM), June to July (JJ), August the Panama Isthmus, which merges with the CHOCO jet.
to September (AS), and October to November (ON). This latter jet is also clearly observed over the easternmost
[19] Main pathways of ARs over tropical and subtropical fringe of the tropical Pacific from northern Chile to Colom-
South America east of the Andes will be identified for the bia, showing a more coherent southerly structure during
following seasons [Moraes-Arraut et al., 2012]: a Novem- August to November.
ber to March (NM) wet season, with high rainfall over the
Southern Hemisphere Amazonia, as well as over the low- 3.2. Vertical Cross Sections of the Horizontal Winds at
lands east of the Andes; a dry July to August (JA) season, 80 W
and two transition seasons during April to June (AJ), and [24] Figure 2 shows the annual cycle of average horizon-
September to October (SO). The seasonal AR pathways tal winds from 1000 to 500 hPa at 80 W between 5 S and
will be identified based upon the most salient features of 20 N. The opposite directions of the westerly CHOCO jet
the vertically integrated moisture fluxes and their divergen- (in gray) and the easterly CLLJ are clearly seen. According
ces, precipitable water and average seasonal precipitation. to the ERA-I reanalysis, the CHOCO jet is stronger during
[20] Seasonal precipitation will be quantified for the October to November (5 m s21), and weaker during April
period 1998–2010 using data from the Tropical Rainfall to May (1–2 m s21), both weaker than those estimated by
Measuring Mission (TRMM), whose 3B42 product pro- the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis (not shown). The seasonal
vides a fine-scale 0.25 Latitude-Longitude interpolated cycle of both low-level jets at 80 W shows that core veloc-
grid based on precipitation estimates from multiple satel- ities are located around 925 hPa.
lites and rain gauge data as well, although in a somewhat [25] Another salient feature observed in Figure 2 is a
indirect way [Huffman et al., 2007]. We use the TRMM midtropospheric jet between 700 and 600 hPa [Poveda and
data set owing to its high spatial and temporal resolution, Mesa, 1999], with a clear-cut annual cycle of maximum
although the precipitation radar algorithm likely underesti- velocities during June to July (30 m s21) around 15 N, and
mates precipitation in regions of intense convection over minimum velocities during October to November from 5 S
land [National Center for Atmospheric Research Staff, to 10 N. Such jet connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
2013]. across the northern Andes, and contributes to define an aer-
[21] With the aim of testing whether the spatial distribu- ial river over South America during April to August, as dis-
tion of precipitation conforms to the BiPAM theory, we cussed below.
will investigate the behavior of precipitation along the land 3.3. Precipitation Along the CHOCO Jet
and forest-covered portions of the AR pathways east of the
Andes, taking into account the spatial distribution of [26] Figure 3 shows the distribution of average seasonal
CAPE, as well as the South American topography and land precipitation along the CHOCO jet pathway. Precipitation
cover types defined by Eva et al. [2004]. Particular empha- is almost negligible from point 0 (30 S) to the Equator
sis will be given to the spatial behavior of rainfall over (point 15), for all seasons. Further onto the northeast, pre-
forests. cipitation increases to a maximum at point 19 by the Pacific
coast of Colombia. The seasonal march of maximum pre-
cipitation exhibits highest values in August to September
3. Results and Discussion (900 mm month21), followed by June to July (820 mm
month21), and October to November (780 mm month21),
3.1. 925 hPa Wind Field Over South America and lowest values in February to March (450 mm
[22] Figure 1 shows the mean annual cycle of the 925 hPa month21). Further east of point 19, precipitation shows a
horizontal wind over South America. The Caribbean low- sharp decline over the Colombian Andes, owing to the
level jet (CLLJ) exhibits higher velocities over the Colom- presence of the pluviometric optimum along the Andean
bian Caribbean at 70–80 W and 12–15 N, and a bimodal 
slopes [Poveda, 2004; Alvarez-Villa et al., 2011]. A very
annual cycle with maximum velocities during June to July good correspondence is observed between values of sea-
(11–13 m s21) and December to January (9–11 m s21). Min- sonal precipitation and CAPE along the CHOCO jet
imum velocities are observed during October to November pathway.
(5–6 m s21), and April to May (7–8 m s21). Estimates of [27] The inland transport of moisture by the CHOCO jet
average seasonal aerial streamflows transported by the CLLJ plays a key role in explaining the annual, interannual, and
differ among different reanalysis [Wang et al., 2013], as seasonal dynamics of western Colombia’s hydro-climatic
shown in Table 1. and weather patterns [Poveda and Mesa, 2000; Zuluaga
[23] The two branches of the CLLJ are also observed in and Poveda, 2004; Poveda et al., 2006]. Figure 4 shows
Figure 1, one passing through Central America over the simultaneous evolution of the quarterly moisture

Table 1. Average Bi-Monthly Aerial Streamflows (m3 s21) Transported by the Caribbean Low-Level Jet, After Three Different
Reanalysisa
Reanalysis DJ FM AM JJ AS ON

NCEP/NCAR 321,970 241,790 270,150 330,050 213,510 214,760


ERA-40 419,360 324,400 214,350 222,330 184,830 285,560
20CRv2 365,760 288,800 226,760 280,350 242,980 282,530
a
Estimated from Figure 3 of Wang et al. [2013].

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

Figure 2. Latitude-height cross sections of the seasonal cycle of the horizontal winds at 80 W between
5 S and 20 N, averaged over 1979–2012. The westerly CHOCO low-level jet is denoted in gray and the
easterly Caribbean low-level jet (CLLJ) appears further north. Data source: ERA-Interim reanalysis.

transport by the winds of the CHOCO jet alongside river (r 5 0.65 2 0.75, P > 0.95) are estimated between the
discharges of the San Juan River at Pe~nitas gauging station, transport of moisture by the CHOCO jet winds and both
and with rainfall at Buenaventura (3 530 000 N, 77 20 000 W), hydro-meteorological time series.
during 1969–1995. These two gauging stations are located [28] The convergence of surface moisture in the tropics
in Figure 3 (rightmost plot) one dot above and below the and the release of latent heat from condensation feedback
first point on land. Very high correlation coefficients on each other, as in the case of the transport of moisture by

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

Figure 3. Spatial distribution of average bimonthly rainfall (TRMM) and CAPE (ERA-I) during
December to January, February to March, April to May, June to July, August to September, and October
to November, along the CHOCO low-level jet pathway, delineated on (right) the South American land
cover map produced by Eva et al. [2004]. Color bars below the x axis denote the distribution of oceanic
and continental regions and their associated land cover types.

the CHOCO jet and the extraordinary rainy region over yr21) houses one of the country’s few deserts. Such tropical
western Colombia. The low-lands over the Pacific coast of dry region is explained by the strong divergence of the 925
Colombia are mostly covered by tropical rainforests, con- hPa zonal wind over the region [Poveda, 2004]. Precipita-
stituting one of the regions with the largest biodiversity in tion varies throughout the annual cycle, with highest values
the world. Unfortunately, it is seriously threatened by
deforestation and land use change, mining and monocul-
tures (oil palm, coca), to the extent that the region is among
the top five most critical hotspots for biodiversity in the
world [Myers et al., 2000; Mittermeier et al., 2004].
[29] At the same time, the CHOCO jet is focused and
enhanced by land surface-atmosphere interactions, given
the high evapotranspiration rates from the rainforest. The
cooling effect of evapotranspiration constitutes a natural
refrigerator of the lower atmosphere, an ecosystem service
from forests that needs to be quantified and valued accord-
ingly. Upon ascent of water vapor into the atmosphere,
condensation occurs in association with the extremely high
precipitation rates associated with the dynamics and ther-
modynamics of large mesoscale convective systems
[Zuluaga and Poveda, 2004; Mejıa and Poveda, 2005].
The release of latent heat by condensation warms the
medium-high troposphere and contributes to deepen con-
vection, and lowers surface atmospheric pressure by
removing water vapor and increasing the liquid phase. The
former process favors surface wind convergence, while the
second one triggers it, according to the BiPAM mechanism
[Makarieva and Gorshkov, 2007].

3.4. Precipitation Along the Southernmost Branch of


the Caribbean Low-Level Jet Figure 4. Time series of the quarterly moisture transport
[30] Figure 5 shows the average seasonal distribution of by the CHOCO jet winds (purple), alongside with (top)
rainfall along the CLLJ pathway. Precipitation is quite low river discharges of the San Juan River at Pe~nitas gauging
between points 2 and 8 along the Caribbean Sea, northern station (dark blue), and (bottom) precipitation at Buenaven-
Venezuela and Colombia. In fact, the Guajira Peninsula tura, located by the Pacific Ocean. Adapted from Rueda
located at the northeastern tip of Colombia (300 mm and Poveda [2006].

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

Figure 5. Spatial distribution of average bimonthly rainfall (TRMM) and CAPE (ERA-I) during
December to January, February to March, April to May, June to July, August to September, and October
to November, along the Caribbean low-level jet pathway, delineated on (right) the South American land
cover map produced by Eva et al. [2004]. Color bars below the x axis denote the distribution of oceanic
and continental regions and their associated land cover types.

during October to November (100–150 mm month21), and mechanism) altogether drive atmospheric circulation in this
lowest values during February to March (10 mm region, in the sense of Makarieva et al. [2013b]? This is a
month21). Precipitation increases from point 8 onward topic of ongoing research.
reaching a local maximum for most seasons on the Panama
Isthmus and the Colombian Pacific shoreline, with 750 mm 3.6. Identification of Aerial Rivers Pathways
month21 in August to September, 700 mm month21 in [34] The seasonal dynamics of three atmospheric varia-
June to July, and minimum values of 400 mm month21 in bles will be investigated to identify the main pathways of
February to March. Good direct correspondence between AR over South America east of the Andes: the distribution
seasonal precipitation and CAPE is observed along the of the vertical integral of water-vapor fluxes, their horizon-
CLLJ pathway during December to May, but an inverse tal divergence and precipitable water averaged for the Janu-
one during June to November. This observation deserves ary 1979–December 2012 period. Their dynamics will be
further investigation. discussed departing from their dominant source over the
[31] As discussed in section 1.2., there is a need to tropical Atlantic Ocean downstream into the continent.
explain the veering of the southernmost branch of the 3.6.1. Vertically Integrated Moisture Flux
Caribbean LLJ to the south across Panama and its conver- [35] Figure 6 shows the seasonal distribution of the verti-
gence into the quasi-permanent low pressure center over cally integrated moisture flux during November to March
the far eastern Pacific and western Colombia. (NM), April to June (AJ), July to August (JA), and September
to October (SO). The following features are worth noticing:
3.5. The World-Record Rainy Region Over the East- [36] November to March. Departing from the Atlantic
ern Pacific and Western Colombia Ocean, the highest values of water-vapor flux are observed
[32] We have shown that the two studied LLJs converge over the Atlantic Ocean off the mouth of the Amazon River,
at the ITCZ over the eastern Pacific and western Colombia. as well as over the Caribbean low-level jet by Colombia
Such convergence favors the strong activity of mesoscale (300–350 kg m21 s21). Upon entrance into tropical South
convective systems over the ocean-land edge, and supply America, the water-vapor flux diminishes over land (200–
the moisture to sustain the tropical rainforest of the Choco- 250 kg m21 s21) from the Caribbean coast of Venezuela to
Darien region, and therefore, its evapotranspiration rates. 5 S, and then it heads to the south across the eastern flank of
Besides, complex land surface-atmosphere feedbacks over the Andes, with values of 150 kg m21 s21 over Bolivia. The
the western Andes of Colombia contribute to enhance pre- flux splits into two branches in Paraguay, one follows the
cipitation offshore, through the action of gravity waves eastern Andes of Argentina, and the other one leaves the
[Mapes et al., 2003b; Houze, 2004]. continent through southeastern Brazil (75–100 kg m21 s21).
[33] Condensation processes over both the eastern The entire flux constitutes a big gyre around tropical South
Pacific (ocean) and western Colombia (land) contribute to America centered south of the Equator.
create the quasi-permanent low surface atmospheric pres- [37] April to June. The highest values of water-vapor
sure that favors surface convergence in a positive feedback. flux (350 kg m21 s21) appear over the tropical north Atlan-
Does condensation over the ocean and over land (BiPAM tic off the Amazon River mouth and near the Guyanas, as

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

Figure 6. Seasonal cycle of the vertically integrated water-vapor flux (vectors) (kg m21 s21), averaged
between 1979 and 2012. Data source : ERA-Interim reanalysis.

well as across the Caribbean low-level jet region. Upon (100–150 kg m21 s21). Further east, the gyre is centered
entrance into the continent north of the Equator, the easterly around 50 W and 20 S.
flux diminishes (150 kg m21 s21), while crossing over the [39] September to October. Highest water-vapor flux val-
Andes of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, and then it heads to ues (300–350 kg m21 s21) are observed across the CLLJ
the Pacific. The midtropospheric jet (600–700 hPa) region north of Colombia and off the Amazon River mouth.
discussed in section 3.2. makes part of this pathway con- Upon entrance on the continent, the flux decreases inland,
necting both oceans across the Andes. South of the Equa- crosses the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, and
tor, the easterly flux travels from the Andes all the way heads off to the Pacific Ocean. South of the Equator, the flux
from the tropical Atlantic, where it veers to the southeast travels all the way from the Atlantic to the Andes, where it
following the eastern Andes of Bolivia and northern Argen- gets redirected to the southeast in Peru and Bolivia. Upon
tina (150 kg m21 s21). Further onto the east, the gyre is entrance into northern Paraguay, the flux (200 kg m21 s21)
centered around 50 W and 18 S. splits into two branches, one borders the eastern Andes of
[38] July to August. The highest values of water-vapor Argentina, and the other one crosses over southern Paraguay
flux (350 kg m21 s21) are observed across the CLLJ region and leaves the continent through southeastern Brazil. Further
north of Colombia. The easterly flux crossing the Andes east, the gyre is centered around 45 W and 18 S.
over Colombia, Ecuador and Peru is broader than during 3.6.2. Divergence of the Vertical Integral of Water-
the previous season. South of the Equator, the easterly flux Vapor Flux
veers to the southeast by the Peru-Bolivia border, and heads [40] Figure 7 shows the seasonal distribution of the
to the south over the Argentinean Andes, as well as across divergence of the vertically integrated water-vapor flux.
Paraguay, and leaves the continent over southeastern Brazil The following features are worth noticing:

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

Figure 7. Seasonal cycle of the vertically integrated water-vapor flux (vectors) (kg m21 s21), and its
divergence (mm d21) (colored contours), averaged between 1979 and 2012. Data source: ERA-Interim
reanalysis.

[41] November to March. A well-defined narrow ITCZ continuous one appears over northern South America, con-
appears over the tropical Atlantic from the Equator to 5 N, necting both oceans across the Andes and western Colom-
associated with high convergence (negative divergence) bia. This route suggests the first AR pathway for this
values greater than 5 mm d21. Such region is surrounded season. Also, high convergence regions (5 mm d21) are
by two large high-divergence regions located on both hemi- observed along the eastern Andes all the way from Vene-
spheres over the tropical Atlantic. This ITCZ-associated zuela to northern Argentina, which defines a second AR
region constitutes the main source of moisture for continen- pathway for this season. A third high convergence region
tal precipitation, and as such it constitutes the departure appears right after the flux leaves the Andes and enters into
region of all AR pathways east of the Andes throughout the southeastern Brazil and Uruguay, constituting the third
year. Further inland, high convergence values (>5 mm pathway for this season.
d21) are observed over the Amazon River basin, the eastern [43] July to August. This season witnesses the northern-
flank of the Andes from Colombia to Argentina, and over most position of the ITCZ over both oceans and the conti-
the easternmost fringe of the Pacific off Colombia and Pan- nent. For the most part, pathways similar to the previous
ama. Upon leaving the Andes over Bolivia, both the flux season are evident during this one.
and its (negative) divergence decrease southward over Par- [44] September to October. During this season, the ITCZ
aguay, southern Brazil, and Uruguay. migrates southward over the tropical north Atlantic, and
[42] April to June. Compared with the previous season, a the region of convergence broadens up over the continent,
broader ITCZ appears in the equatorial Atlantic and while regions of high divergence appear by the South
the tropical Pacific, and a narrower and more zonally American coast from northeast Brazil to Venezuela. The

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

water-vapor flux and its divergence connect both oceans (53–60 kg m22). The distribution of this variable identify
crossing over the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. A three parallel AR departing from the tropical north Atlantic
second AR pathway is identified as the water-vapor flux and onto the continent, and then veering to the southeast and
its (negative) divergence acquire high values over north- leaving the continent through southeast Brazil.
western Amazonia, heading into southern South America [47] April to June. The highest values appear throughout
over the eastern flank of the Andes from Colombia to north- northern South America, with important aerial lakes over
ern Argentina. A third AR pathway appears from the south- the Amazon River mouth, north-western Amazonia, the
ernmost position of the ITCZ over the tropical Atlantic, Colombian-Venezuelan Llanos, and over western Colom-
entering into the continent by the Amazon River outlet, bia and the easternmost fringe of the Pacific Ocean (53–60
crossing the basin and leaving the continent through the kg m22). The two lakes on both sides of the Andes are con-
Paraguay-Brazil border and through southeastern Brazil. nected through the water-vapor flux, evidencing the pres-
3.6.3. Precipitable Water ence of an AR connecting the Amazon River basin with the
[45] Figure 8 shows the seasonal distribution of average Pacific Ocean. Two other AR pathways are evidenced from
precipitable water. The following features are worth the distribution of precipitable water, one bordering the
noticing: eastern flank of the Andes, and another one entering into
[46] November to March. Highest values appear over the the continent through northeast Brazil and leaving it
ITCZ across the tropical Atlantic, north-western Amazonia through southeastern Brazil.
and the eastern Andes. Two large aerial lakes are [48] July to August. The highest values are observed
clearly observed in Amazonia and the Pacific off Colombia over the Pacific off Colombia and Panama and into the

Figure 8. Seasonal cycle of the vertically integrated water-vapor flux (vectors) (kg m21 s21), and pre-
cipitable water (colored contours) (kg m22), averaged between 1979 and 2012. Data source: ERA-
Interim reanalysis.

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

Meso-American Isthmus (53–60 kg m22). Secondary max- criteria in mind, we confirm that the midtropospheric jet
ima appear over the tropical north Atlantic and over north- discussed in section 3.2. makes part and contributes to
western Amazonia and the Colombia-Venezuela Llanos define an AR that travels all the way from the tropical
(47–53 kg m22). The lowest values appear over the Andes Atlantic to the tropical Pacific across the Andes of Colom-
from southern Peru to northern Argentina and Chile (0–6 bia. As a result, Figure 9 shows the ARs pathways along
kg m22). the average seasonal TRMM precipitation fields, identified
[49] September to October. Qualitatively, this season thereafter by the respective season: NM1, NM2, and NM3
looks rather similar to the previous one, though the highest (November to March), AJ1, AJ2, and AJ3 (April to June),
values of precipitable water over Amazonia reach southern- JA1, JA2, and JA3 (July to August), and SO1, SO2, and
most latitudes. SO3 (September to October). The identified ARs pathways
were verified for consistency with those discussed in Arraut
3.6.4. Pathways and Satyamurty [2009] and Moraes-Arraut et al. [2012].
[50] Three preferential pathways of ARs east of the
Andes were identified for each season using a simultaneous 3.7. Precipitation Along Pathways of AR East of the
analysis of the previously discussed meteorological fields. Andes
Streamlines were identified for each season using the high- [51] In this section, a quantitative test of BiPAM’s pre-
est vertically integrated water-vapor flux values, that simul- dictions is performed to the distribution of seasonal precipi-
taneously cross over regions exhibiting high average tation on land, P, with distance, x, from the ocean. As it
precipitable water and precipitation values. With such was previously mentioned, BiPAM predicts that mean

Figure 9. Pathways of aerial rivers in South America east of the Andes along the seasonal cycle of
rainfall (mm month21) for November to March, April to June, July to August, and September to October,
averaged between 1979 and 2012. Data source: TRMM.

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

annual precipitation over forests does not decline exponen- BiPAM’s prediction holds along 64% of the studied tracks,
tially with distance from the ocean, but it keeps constant or whereas it does not hold for 36% of forested tracks.
even increases with distance inland. With the aim of testing [55] A qualitative assessment of the seasonal distribution
it at seasonal time scales, parameters of the linear regres- of precipitation along the identified pathways (supporting
sion ln P 5 a1 bx will be estimated along the selected AR information) also evidences that for most seasons and AR
pathways. The value and sign of b will define whether pre- pathways, precipitation distribution also conforms to
cipitation increases or decreases in an exponential manner BiPAM’s predictions, amid topographic and orographic
or it remains constant with distance from the ocean. Statis- effects. For most tracks for which the quantitative BiPAM
tical test of significance for the value of b will be per- test does not hold, it is easy to show that topography and
formed to discern whether the identified trends are orography are at play and introduce further complexity to
statistically equal to zero (constant rainfall over land). explain the distribution of rainfall over land, thus affecting
[52] Table 2 shows the regression analysis results per- the interpretation of results with respect to BiPAM’s predic-
formed to the seasonal distribution of rainfall with respect tions. This is a topic of ongoing research.
to distance from the ocean along the entire land portions of
the ARs pathways. Results indicate that BiPAM’s hypothe-
sis holds in 8 out of 12 ARs pathways, and does not hold in 4. Conclusions and Discussion
4 out of 12 pathways. A careful analysis of the latter set of [56] We have investigated the seasonal dynamics of two
pathways evidences that the presence of orography, land low-level jets surrounding the northern South American
cover types different from forests, and the position of the seas: the eastern Pacific CHOCO jet and the Caribbean jet
ITCZ can explain why BiPAM’s theory does not hold for (CLLJ), as well as the most conspicuous aerial rivers (AR)
the entirety of these pathways (see supporting information). east of the Andes, using information from the ERA-Interim
[53] It is also necessary to test whether BiPAM’s hypoth- reanalysis during January 1979 to December 2012. The
esis holds over the forest-covered lands of South America. seasonal cycle of both low-level jets at 80 W evidences
Figures 10–13 show the pathways along the topography that core velocities of both jets appear at around 925 hPa.
and land cover of South America defined by Eva et al. The Caribbean low-level jet (CLLJ) exhibits maximum
[2004] (left plots), and the distribution of average seasonal velocities during June to July and December to January,
rainfall along each of the selected pathways, including and minimum velocities during October to November and
cross sections of land cover and topography along the path- April to May. The CHOCO jet is stronger during October
ways (right plots). to November and weaker during April to May. Bimonthly
[54] The quantitative test of BiPAM’s predictions was analysis of the low-level jets allowed us to identify that the
applied over forest-covered regions delimited along the CHOCO and the Caribbean jet (southern branch) converge
ARs pathways, as shown in Figure 14, hereafter identified in the world-record rainfall region over the Pacific coast of
as NM1-AB, NM1-CD, NM2-AB, NM2-BC, NM2-CD, Colombia, mostly covered by tropical rainforests. We con-
AJ1-AB, AJ1-CD, AJ2-AB, AJ2-BC, AJ2-DE, AJ2-EF, jecture that the biotic pump of atmospheric moisture mech-
AJ3-AB, AJ3-BC, AJ3-CD, JA1-AB, JA1-CD, JA2-AB, anism (BiPAM) might contribute to explaining the
JA2-BC, JA2-CD, JA2-DE, JA3-AB, JA3-BC, JA3-CD, extraordinary rainy region over western Colombia, and that
SO1-AB, SO1-BC, SO1-CD, SO1-DE, SO2-AB, SO2-BC, the very existence of the rainforest enhance, sustain, and
SO3-AB, SO3-BC, and SO3-AC. Regression analysis focus both jets toward itself. Unfortunately, the magnificent
results between ln P and x for forest-covered lands are tropical rainforests of western Colombia are currently being
shown in Table 3. The sign and statistical significance of b seriously endangered by deforestation and land use change.
evidence that in 22 out of 32 selected tracks (69%), sea- A joint analysis of vertical cross section of both jets
sonal precipitation along forest-covered regions of South allowed us to identify another atmospheric midtropospheric
America either remains statistically constant or increases easterly wind jet at 600–700 hPa, linking the tropical
with distance, and decreases in 10 out of 32 tracks (31%). Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans across the Andes of north-
In terms of distance, regression results indicate that ern South America.

Table 2. Dependence of Average Seasonal Precipitation on Land (P, Millimeters per Month) With Distance From the Ocean (x,
Kilometers) Along Pathways of South American Aerial Rivers East of the Andes, ln P 5 a1 bx
Pathway a b R2 H0 : b 5 0 BiPAM Distance (km)

NM1 4.920 2.85E-05 0.0238 Reject Yes 6596


NM2 5.072 2.52E-05 0.0297 Reject Yes 4619
NM3 4.748 1.49E-04 0.4108 Reject Yes 2536
AJ1 5.789 2.29E-05 0.0062 Do not reject Yes 3007
AJ2 6.672 25.55E-04 0.8113 Reject No 7738
AJ3 4.949 27.72E-05 0.0726 Reject No 5555
JA1 5.882 26.76E-05 0.0119 Do not reject Yes 2234
JA2 6.593 27.72E-04 0.6858 Reject No 7279
JA3 0.954 7.29E-04 0.6058 Reject Yes 5086
SO1 4.691 6.59E-04 0.8240 Reject Yes 1851
SO2 5.904 24.30E04 0.7831 Reject No 7200
SO3 4.181 2.82E-04 0.4045 Reject Yes 3822

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

Figure 10. (left) (a) Pathways of atmospheric rivers during November to March along the topography
and (b) the land cover map of South America of Eva et al. [2004]. (right) Spatial distribution of the
November to March average precipitation and convective available potential energy (CAPE), along path-
ways (c) NM1, (d) NM2, and (e) NM3. The two plots underneath the main figures show land cover and
topography cross sections along each pathway.

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

Figure 11. (left) (a) Pathways of atmospheric rivers during April to June along the topography and (b)
the land cover map of South America of Eva et al. [2004]. (right) Spatial distribution of the April to June
average precipitation and convective available potential energy (CAPE), along pathways (c) AJ1, (d)
AJ2, and (e) AJ3. The two plots underneath the main figures show land cover and topography cross sec-
tions along each pathway.

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

Figure 12. (left) (a) Pathways of atmospheric rivers during July to August along the topography and
(b) the land cover map of South America of Eva et al. [2004]. (right) Spatial distribution of the July to
August average precipitation and convective available potential energy (CAPE), along pathways (c)
JA1, (d) JA2, and (e) JA3. The two plots underneath the main figures show land cover and topography
cross sections along each pathway.

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

Figure 13. (left) (a) Pathways of atmospheric rivers during September to October along the topography
and (b) the land cover map of South America of Eva et al. [2004]. (right) Spatial distribution of the Sep-
tember to October average precipitation and convective available potential energy (CAPE), along path-
ways (c) SO1, (d) SO2, and (e) SO3. The two plots underneath the main figures show land cover and
topography cross sections along each pathway.

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Figure 14. Delimitation of the land regions to test the biotic pump theory along the identified AR path-
ways, for November to March (first row), April to June (second row), July to August (third row), and
September to October (fourth row).

[57] Main pathways of AR east of the Andes were identi- terms of distance, regression results indicate that BiPAM’s
fied for the most relevant hydro-climatic seasons of tropical prediction holds for 64% of the studied tracks. Those pre-
South America and Amazonia, using diverse atmospheric cipitation pathways that does not conform to BiPAM’s pre-
variables associated with the transport and storage of mois- dictions in South America can be explained by the effects
ture from the ERA-Interim reanalysis. All the identified AR of topography and the presence of land cover types differ-
pathways depart from the tropical North Atlantic and travel ent from forests. We, therefore, conclude that our results
inland all the way to the northern Andes. Main pathways validate the biotic pump theory if tested in the proper set-
identified along the South American ARs include the afore- tings of forests over flat terrains. The combined effects of
mentioned northern AR traveling from the tropical North the biotic pump along with physiography and land cover
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean off Colombia across the different from forests constitute highly relevant topics for
Andes, which involves the aforementioned easterly midtro- further investigation.
pospheric jet, and is notorious during all seasons but [59] Continental precipitation in tropical South America
November to March. During April to October, the main AR does not only rely on its oceanic sources and on the transport
pathways make part of a big gyre over South America of moisture by the winds, but also on strong land surface-
departing from the tropical North Atlantic all the way to the atmosphere feedbacks, which manifest themselves in the
Andes and then veering to the southeast flanking the eastern fundamental role of local evapotranspiration on precipitation
Andes, one branch reaching northern Argentina, and another recycling [Spracklen et al., 2012], but also in the functioning
one leaves the continent over southeastern Brazil. of the BiPAM mechanism [Makarieva et al., 2013c].
[58] We used the identified AR to test BiPAM’s predic- [60] The conventional wisdom states that the distribution
tions on TRMM rainfall at seasonal time scales. Our results of South American rainfall in those regions/seasons that
evidenced that in 8 out of 12 studied AR, the spatial distri- conform to the BiPAM mechanism could be explained by a
bution of seasonal precipitation along the entire pathways combination of precipitation recycling and mesoscale cir-
conforms to BiPAM’s prediction, amid important effects culations driven by land surface heterogeneities. Neverthe-
imposed by topography, orography, and different land less, it was not our aim to investigate the physical
cover types. A more detailed analysis of BiPAM’s predic- mechanisms explaining the space-time distribution of rain-
tions over forest-covered lands of South America evidences fall in tropical South America. Our study aimed at submit-
that in 22 out of 32 selected tracks (69%), seasonal precipi- ting the BiPAM theory to an observational test, as a
tation remains statistically constant or increase with contribution in the line of reasoning put forward by the Edi-
distance, and decreases in 10 out of 32 tracks (31%). In tor’s comment at the end of the study of Makarieva et al.

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POVEDA ET AL.: PRECIPITATION ALONG SOUTH AMERICAN JETS AND AERIAL RIVERS

Table 3. Dependence of Average Seasonal Precipitation (P, Millimeters per Month) on Distance From the Ocean (x, Kilometers) Along
Forest-Covered Pathways of South American Aerial Rivers East of the Andes, ln P 5 a1 bx
Pathway a b R2 H0 : b 5 0 BiPAM Distance (km)

NM1-AB 5.55 29.61E-05 0.311 Reject No 2871


NM1-CD 4.73 9.01E-05 0.079 Do not reject Yes 465
NM2-AB 4.76 3.27E-04 0.678 Reject Yes 2224
NM2-BC 6.03 22.97E-04 0.666 Reject No 1122
NM2-CD 5.21 23.35E-05 0.022 Do not reject Yes 1272
NM3-AB 5.75 6.09E-05 0.411 Reject Yes 2536
AJ1-AB 5.75 6.09E-05 0.068 Reject Yes 2336
AJ1-CD 211.60 6.05E-03 0.983 Reject Yes 199
AJ2-AB 5.63 1.43E-04 0.475 Reject Yes 2365
AJ2-BC 7.33 25.91E-04 0.868 Reject No 2569
AJ2-DE 2.97 21.86E-05 0.001 Do not reject Yes 1101
AJ2-EF 21.14 5.29E-04 0.285 Reject Yes 1481
AJ3-AB 4.74 2.23E-04 0.134 Reject Yes 1275
AJ3-BC 6.42 26.70E-04 0.774 Reject No 1995
AJ3-CD 1.53 6.71E-04 0.816 Reject Yes 2284
JA1-AB 5.72 2.19E-04 0.166 Reject Yes 1662
JA1-CD 22.76 4.15E-03 0.545 Do not reject Yes 157
JA2-AB 5.10 5.46E-04 0.809 Reject Yes 1720
JA2-BC 7.52 28.52E-04 0.815 Reject No 3149
JA2-CD 5.79 29.67E-04 0.216 Reject No 996
JA2-DE 212.93 2.23E-03 0.904 Reject Yes 1415
JA3-AB 4.54 26.59E-03 0.970 Reject No 550
JA3-BC 20.01 9.75E-04 0.835 Reject Yes 3502
JA3-CD 22.36 1.57E-03 0.918 Reject Yes 797
SO1-AB 4.88 1.77E-04 0.230 Reject Yes 907
SO1-BC 4.00 1.23E-03 0.730 Reject Yes 578
SO1-CD 10.95 23.12E-03 0.952 Reject No 165
SO1-DE 4.88 5.25E-04 0.822 Reject Yes 172
SO2-AB 5.42 21.16E-04 0.172 Reject No 3954
SO2-BC 5.41 23.77E-04 0.300 Reject No 2502
SO3-AB 4.51 5.84E-05 0.010 Do not reject Yes 2113
SO3-BC 2.52 8.05E-04 0.705 Reject Yes 1431
SO3-AC 4.25 2.54E-04 0.357 Reject Yes 3544

[2013b], but also in the line of conclusions of Jasechko et al. Amador, J. A. (2009), The Intra-Americas Sea low-level jet: Overview and
[2013] that terrestrial water fluxes are dominated by biologi- future research, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1146, 153–188, doi:10.1196/
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cal fluxes (transpiration) rather than physical fluxes (evapo- Amador, J. A., and V. O. Maga~ na (1999), Dynamics of the low level jet
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COLCIENCIAS. We thank valuable comments and insights from Peter low-level flows flanking the Andes and their interannual variability,
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