INTRODUCTION

Automation or automatic control, is the use of various control systems for

operating equipment such as machinery, processes in factories, boilers and heat
treating ovens, switching on telephone networks, steering and stabilization of
ships, aircraft and other applications with minimal or reduced human
intervention. Some processes have been completely automated.

The biggest benefit of automation is that it saves labor; however, it is also used to
save energy and materials and to improve quality, accuracy and precision.

The term automation, inspired by the earlier word automatic (coming from
automaton), was not widely used before 1947, when General Motors established
an automation department.[1] It was during this time that industry was rapidly
adopting feedback controllers, which were introduced in the 1930s.[2]

Automation has been achieved by various means including mechanical, hydraulic,

pneumatic, electrical, electronic devices and computers, usually in combination.
Complicated systems, such as modern factories, airplanes and ships typically use
all these combined techniques.
Types of automation

Main article: Control system

Discrete control (on/off)

One of the simplest types of control is on-off control. An example is the

thermostats used on household appliances. Electromechanical thermostats used
in HVAC may only have provision for on/off control of heating or cooling systems.
Electronic controllers may add multiple stages of heating and variable fan speed
control.

Sequence control, in which a programmed sequence of discrete operations is

performed, often based on system logic that involves system states. An elevator
control system is an example of sequence control.

Continuous control

The advanced type of automation that revolutionized manufacturing, aircraft,

communications and other industries, is feedback control, which is usually
continuous and involves taking measurements using a sensor and making
calculated adjustments to keep the measured variable within a set range.
Moreover, it can be understood as the relation of two variables, one for the "x"
axis and a second for the "y" axis. If the value of "y" increases, then the value on
the "x" axis will also increase, and vice versa.[3]

Open and closed loop

All the elements constituting the measurement and control of a single variable
are called a control loop. Control that uses a measured signal, feeds the signal
back and compares it to a set point, calculates and sends a return signal to make a
correction, is called closed loop control. If the controller does not incorporate
feedback to make a correction then it is open loop.

Loop control is normally accomplished with a controller. The theoretical basis of

open and closed loop automation is control theory.

Sequential control and logical sequence or system state control

State Abstraction
This state diagram shows how UML can be used for designing a door system that
can only be opened and closed

Sequential control may be either to a fixed sequence or to a logical one that will
perform different actions depending on various system states. An example of an
adjustable but otherwise fixed sequence is a timer on a lawn sprinkler.
States refer to the various conditions that can occur in a use or sequence scenario
of the system. An example is an elevator, which uses logic based on the system
state to perform certain actions in response to its state and operator input. For
example, if the operator presses the floor n button, the system will respond
depending on whether the elevator is stopped or moving, going up or down, or if
the door is open or closed, and other conditions.[4]

An early development of sequential control was relay logic, by which electrical

relays engage electrical contacts which either start or interrupt power to a device.
Relays were first used in telegraph networks before being developed for
controlling other devices, such as when starting and stopping industrial-sized
electric motors or opening and closing solenoid valves. Using relays for control
purposes allowed event-driven control, where actions could be triggered out of
sequence, in response to external events. These were more flexible in their
response than the rigid single-sequence cam timers. More complicated examples
involved maintaining safe sequences for devices such as swing bridge controls,
where a lock bolt needed to be disengaged before the bridge could be moved,
and the lock bolt could not be released until the safety gates had already been
closed.

The total number of relays, cam timers and drum sequencers can number into the
hundreds or even thousands in some factories. Early programming techniques
and languages were needed to make such systems manageable, one of the first
being ladder logic, where diagrams of the interconnected relays resembled the
rungs of a ladder. Special computers called programmable logic controllers were
later designed to replace these collections of hardware with a single, more easily
re-programmed unit.
In a typical hard wired motor start and stop circuit (called a control circuit) a
motor is started by pushing a "Start" or "Run" button that activates a pair of
electrical relays. The "lock-in" relay locks in contacts that keep the control circuit
energized when the push button is released. (The start button is a normally open
contact and the stop button is normally closed contact.) Another relay energizes a
switch that powers the device that throws the motor starter switch (three sets of
contacts for three phase industrial power) in the main power circuit. Large
motors use high voltage and experience high in-rush current, making speed
important in making and breaking contact. This can be dangerous for personnel
and property with manual switches. The "lock in" contacts in the start circuit and
the main power contacts for the motor are held engaged by their respective
electromagnets until a "stop" or "off" button is pressed, which de-energizes the
lock in relay.[5]

Commonly interlocks are added to a control circuit. Suppose that the motor in the
example is powering machinery that has a critical need for lubrication. In this case
an interlock could be added to insure that the oil pump is running before the
motor starts. Timers, limit switches and electric eyes are other common elements
in control circuits.

Solenoid valves are widely used on compressed air or hydraulic fluid for powering
actuators on mechanical components. While motors are used to supply
continuous rotary motion, actuators are typically a better choice for
intermittently creating a limited range of movement for a mechanical component,
such as moving various mechanical arms, opening or closing valves, raising heavy
press rolls, applying pressure to presses.

Computer control
Computers can perform both sequential control and feedback control, and
typically a single computer will do both in an industrial application.
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are a type of special purpose
microprocessor that replaced many hardware components such as timers and
drum sequencers used in relay logic type systems. General purpose process
control computers have increasingly replaced stand alone controllers, with a
single computer able to perform the operations of hundreds of controllers.
Process control computers can process data from a network of PLCs, instruments
and controllers in order to implement typical (such as PID) control of many
individual variables or, in some cases, to implement complex control algorithms
using multiple inputs and mathematical manipulations. They can also analyze
data and create real time graphical displays for operators and run reports for
operators, engineers and management.

Control of an automated teller machine (ATM) is an example of an interactive

process in which a computer will perform a logic derived response to a user
selection based on information retrieved from a networked database. The ATM
process has similarities with other online transaction processes. The different
logical responses are called scenarios. Such processes are typically designed with
the aid of use cases and flowcharts, which guide the writing of the software code.
Advantages and disadvantages

The main advantages of automation are:

◾Increased throughput or productivity.

◾Improved quality or increased predictability of quality.

◾Improved robustness (consistency), of processes or product.

◾Increased consistency of output.

◾Reduced direct human labor costs and expenses.

The following methods are often employed to improve productivity, quality, or

robustness.

◾Install automation in operations to reduce cycle time.

◾Install automation where a high degree of accuracy is required.

◾Replacing human operators in tasks that involve hard physical or monotonous

work.[19]

◾Replacing humans in tasks done in dangerous environments (i.e. fire, space,

volcanoes, nuclear facilities, underwater, etc.)

◾Performing tasks that are beyond human capabilities of size, weight, speed,
endurance, etc.

◾Economic improvement: Automation may improve in economy of enterprises,

society or most of humanity. For example, when an enterprise invests in
automation, technology recovers its investment; or when a state or country
increases its income due to automation like Germany or Japan in the 20th
Century.

◾Reduces operation time and work handling time significantly.

◾Frees up workers to take on other roles.

◾Provides higher level jobs in the development, deployment, maintenance and

running of the automated processes.

The main disadvantages of automation are:

◾Security Threats/Vulnerability: An automated system may have a limited level of

intelligence, and is therefore more susceptible to committing errors outside of its
immediate scope of knowledge (e.g., it is typically unable to apply the rules of
simple logic to general propositions).

◾Unpredictable/excessive development costs: The research and development

cost of automating a process may exceed the cost saved by the automation itself.

◾High initial cost: The automation of a new product or plant typically requires a
very large initial investment in comparison with the unit cost of the product,
although the cost of automation may be spread among many products and over
time.

In manufacturing, the purpose of automation has shifted to issues broader than

productivity, cost, and time.
Lights out manufacturing

Main article: Lights out (manufacturing)

Lights out manufacturing is when a production system is 100% or near to 100%

automated (not hiring any workers). In order to eliminate the need for labor costs
all together.

Health and environment

The costs of automation to the environment are different depending on the

technology, product or engine automated. There are automated engines that
consume more energy resources from the Earth in comparison with previous
engines and those that do the opposite[clarification needed] too.[citation
needed] Hazardous operations, such as oil refining, the manufacturing of
industrial chemicals, and all forms of metal working, were always early
contenders for automation.[dubious ][citation needed]
Convertibility and turnaround time

Another major shift in automation is the increased demand for flexibility and
convertibility in manufacturing processes. Manufacturers are increasingly
demanding the ability to easily switch from manufacturing Product A to
manufacturing Product B without having to completely rebuild the production
lines. Flexibility and distributed processes have led to the introduction of
Automated Guided Vehicles with Natural Features Navigation.

Digital electronics helped too. Former analogue-based instrumentation was

replaced by digital equivalents which can be more accurate and flexible, and offer
greater scope for more sophisticated configuration, parametrization and
operation. This was accompanied by the fieldbus revolution which provided a
networked (i.e. a single cable) means of communicating between control systems
and field level instrumentation, eliminating hard-wiring.

Discrete manufacturing plants adopted these technologies fast. The more

conservative process industries with their longer plant life cycles have been
slower to adopt and analogue-based measurement and control still dominates.
The growing use of Industrial Ethernet on the factory floor is pushing these trends
still further, enabling manufacturing plants to be integrated more tightly within
the enterprise, via the internet if necessary. Global competition has also
increased demand for Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems.
Automation tools

Engineers can now have numerical control over automated devices. The result
has been a rapidly expanding range of applications and human activities.
Computer-aided technologies (or CAx) now serve as the basis for mathematical
and organizational tools used to create complex systems. Notable examples of
CAx include Computer-aided design (CAD software) and Computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM software). The improved design, analysis, and manufacture
of products enabled by CAx has been beneficial for industry.[20]

Information technology, together with industrial machinery and processes, can

assist in the design, implementation, and monitoring of control systems. One
example of an industrial control system is a programmable logic controller (PLC).
PLCs are specialized hardened computers which are frequently used to
synchronize the flow of inputs from (physical) sensors and events with the flow of
outputs to actuators and events.[21]

An automated online assistant on a website, with an avatar for enhanced human–

computer interaction.

Human-machine interfaces (HMI) or computer human interfaces (CHI), formerly

known as man-machine interfaces, are usually employed to communicate with
PLCs and other computers. Service personnel who monitor and control through
HMIs can be called by different names. In industrial process and manufacturing
environments, they are called operators or something similar. In boiler houses
and central utilities departments they are called stationary engineers.[22]
Different types of automation tools exist:
◾ANN - Artificial neural network

◾DCS - Distributed Control System

◾HMI - Human Machine Interface

◾SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

◾PLC - Programmable Logic Controller

◾Instrumentation

◾Motion control

◾Robotics

When it comes to Factory Automation, Host Simulation Software (HSS) is a

commonly used testing tool that is used to test the equipment software. HSS is
used to test equipment performance with respect to Factory Automation
standards (timeouts, response time, processing time).[23]

Limitations to automation
◾Current technology is unable to automate all the desired tasks.

◾Many operations using automation have large amounts of invested capital and
produce high volumes of product, making malfunctions extremely costly and
potentially hazardous. Therefore, some personnel are needed to insure that the
entire system functions properly and that safety and product quality are
maintained.
◾As a process becomes increasingly automated, there is less and less labor to be
saved or quality improvement to be gained. This is an example of both
diminishing returns and the logistic function.

◾As more and more processes become automated, there are fewer remaining
non-automated processes. This is an example of exhaustion of opportunities.
New technological paradigms may however set new limits that surpass the
previous limits.

Current limitations

Many roles for humans in industrial processes presently lie beyond the scope of
automation. Human-level pattern recognition, language comprehension, and
language production ability are well beyond the capabilities of modern
mechanical and computer systems (but see Watson (computer)). Tasks requiring
subjective assessment or synthesis of complex sensory data, such as scents and
sounds, as well as high-level tasks such as strategic planning, currently require
human expertise. In many cases, the use of humans is more cost-effective than
mechanical approaches even where automation of industrial tasks is possible.
Overcoming these obstacles is a theorized path to post-scarcity economics.
When to Automate?

The first thing that should be done when considering automation is to review the
tactical issues. That is, what are you actually trying to accomplish by automating?
Although special circumstances may offer a number of reasons to automate, the
five primary reasons that dominate corporate tactical thinking are: reduce cost,
improve quality, reduce inventory, improve response time, and improve
ergonomics.

Each of these is summarized below:

Reduce Cost

When considering industrial automation as a cost reduction, management

traditionally focuses on direct labor. Reducing direct labor is the most obvious
method of reducing costs; however, we must be careful when analyzing this
scenario. The important thing to remember is that eliminating direct labor results
in a cost reduction only when the actual headcount is lower than what would be
required to produce the same volume manually. When industrial automation
does create an actual headcount reduction, that labor savings is usually specified
as the entire cost reduction and other cost benefits are often overlooked.

One frequently overlooked cost saving is the reduction of indirect labor since
automation will generally reduce the amount of material handling and orientation
time required with manual operations. Reduction of in-process inventory is
another significant cost savings that occurs when automation replaces batch
operations. Finished goods inventory can often be reduced as well. Another cost
benefit of automation is scrap reduction since an automated line will inspect for
parts present and will often integrate functional testing. In addition, defective
piece parts are rejected by automated stations. Finally, when there is an
automated line instead of individual workstations, the cost for training can be
effectively reduced when it is necessary to add personnel.

Improve Quality

There are a number of ways that automation will improve the quality of your
products. Two methods that were previously mentioned are the inspection of
parts present and the use of in-process testing. Any proper industrial automation
will verify the presence and position of a part after it has been placed into the
assembly. Often the equipment will incorporate in-process testing to verify that
the product is correct before sending it to the next operation. Another quality
improvement is the elimination of piece part rejects. A defective or out-of-
tolerance part will usually not pass through the tooling required to automatically
feed and load it. This sorting of rejects will improve the quality of the finished
goods, but it will also put pressure on the upstream operations to control the
piece part quality.

industrial automation is often used to improve quality since machines can

accomplish tasks that are difficult to do manually. For example, automation is
frequently used to gauge and match components to achieve a more accurate fit
than the primary processes will allow. When automation is used to test products,
the parameters must be quantified and the products are accepted or rejected
according to those parameters. This eliminates the subjective decision-making
and potential for operator error, which is present when testing is done manually.
In addition, it is relatively simple to maintain and document test results when
utilizing automatic testers. The tester database can be utilized for SPC and Pareto
Analysis in order to control root causes of failure.

Reduce Inventory

industrial automation reduces inventory in the exactly the same manner as Lean
Manufacturing. Since product flows from station to station instead of sitting in
bulk at each operation, the work-in-process inventory is dramatically reduced. In
addition, the finished goods inventory can be reduced as automation allows you
to make products when they are needed or Just In Time.

Improve Response Time

Response Time is related to manufacturing cycle time, which is the time from
receipt of an order to shipment of the product. When manufacturing in batch
through a number of manual operations, most of that time is spent with the
products sitting in "buckets" waiting for value added work to be performed.
Again, in a manner similar to Lean Manufacturing, automation will improve the
response time as products flow from operation to operation. In addition, sub-
assemblies can be integrated into the automation line in order to eliminate
individual workstations. With the technology available today, flexible automation
can further improve response time by processing small lot sizes or incorporating
programmable changeovers.
Another way that industrial automation can improve response time is by handling
"surge" orders. When the automation project is developed, it should be planned
to handle peak capacity. For example, if the equipment can produce the forecast
annual quantity in two shifts, five days a week, a "surge" order can be run on third
shift or on the weekend. Without the automation, people would have to be
added and trained in order to handle the peak volumes.

Improve Ergonomics

The impact of ergonomics is continually increasing when considering industrial

automation. As people become aware of the problems associated with
cumulative trauma disorders, vibration syndrome, fatigue, and so forth, they also
become aware of the need to mechanize the operations that are causing these
problems. Automation projects are often initiated when an operation is observed
as "carpal tunnel waiting to happen." In most cases, the productivity gained by
eliminating the difficult or repetitive operation will justify the expense of
automation.
What to Automate?

“When to Automate” outlines the primary benefits of industrial automation, but

what analysis should be done to indicate that an automation project makes sense
in your plant? First, concentrate on the high-volume products. If you only have a
few people involved in your annual production, it probably is not worth the effort
to investigate automation. Second, look at products with a long product life
cycle. If a product is going to be around for less than five years, and your
automation project will take two years to implement, it is probably not worth the
effort unless the equipment is reconfigurable. Other issues that indicate a
potential for automation are excess material handling, operator dependent
quality, and operations that are repetitive or difficult to do manually.

When the potential for industrial automation is first recognized, there is a natural
tendency to try to automate everything produced in order to increase volumes.
This tendency has been the failure of many potentially sound automation
projects. Exactly what products to include in the automation have to be analyzed
carefully. The following are "rules of thumb" as to what you should consider
running on your automation line and what you should leave as manual
operations.

As a rule, consider the following for industrial automation:

Families of Parts - Parts that have the same or similar features.

Group Technologies - Parts that have the same or very similar processes during
manufacture.
"80/20 Rule" - Parts which contribute to 80% of your volume and encompass only
20% of your part numbers.

Flow Lines - Parts that have already been organized into a manufacturing line
incorporating a continuous flow from operation to operation.

Repeatable Operations - Parts that have a manufacturing process which is

continually repeated.

As a rule, avoid the following when considering industrial automation:

"Cats & Dogs" - Parts which have different features or processes than the majority
of your volume.

Parts that are Difficult to Feed - Parts which;

will nest or tangle,

will overlap or shingle,

are flexible,

are delicate or fragile,

are sticky or magnetic,

are abrasive,

are too large or too small,

or, are too light.

Parts that are Difficult to Orient - Parts which;

are oriented by non-geometric features,

are oriented by internal features,

or, are oriented by external features which differ by less than ten percent.

Parts that are Difficult to Insert - Parts which;

are not stable after insertion,

are difficult to align,

or, require multi-directional insertion.

Operations that are Difficult to Duplicate - Operations where an operator can

accomplish the task much easier or quicker than a machine.

Low Labor Content Operations - Operations where automation would not gain
anything in the manufacturing process.

Please keep in mind that these are simply "rules of thumb." The industrial
automation being developed with the technology of today allows for a lot more
flexibility than was available in the past. It is now relatively easy to mix
automation with manual operations and the result will still be a continuous flow
line. Therefore, parts or processes that do not lend themselves to automation
can often be included in the line by utilizing an operator at that station. As with
any significant manufacturing change, automation alternatives, and their
respective benefits should be evaluated carefully before making the final
decision.
METHODS FOR
AUTOMATION IN
FOOTWEAR
INDUSTRY
1. CAD/CAM
CAD/CAM in the footwear industry is the use of computers and graphics software
for designing and grading of shoe upper patterns and, for manufacturing of
cutting dies, shoe lasts and sole moulds. CAD/CAM software is a PC-based system,
which is made up of program modules. Today, there are 2D and 3D versions of
CAD/CAM systems in the shoe industry.

Computer aided design was introduced in the shoe industry in the 1970s. Initially
it was used primarily for pattern grading. It enabled manufacturers to perform
complex grading relatively easily and quickly. CAD systems today have been
developed with a much wider range of functions. Logos, textures and other
decorations can be incorporated into product designs of both the uppers and
soles to help reinforce branding on all areas of the model. It automates routine
procedures, increasing speed and consistency whilst reducing the possibility of
mistakes. CAD data can now be used effectively for a wide variety of activities
across footwear manufacturing business. CAD/CAM generates data at the design
stage, which can be used right through the planning and manufacturing stages.

Latest improvements in the CAD/CAM technology are:

◾Graphic capabilities and interconnectivity have improved enormously,

◾Software developments have progressively made systems more intuitive and

easier to use,

◾With 2D sketch and paint modules, a serviceable sketch can be produced and
then colour and texture can be added.
◾3D systems enable the last and design to be viewed from any perspective and
several angles even simultaneously.

With CAD/CAM software, footwear manufacturers can cut their time to market
dramatically and so increase market share and profitability. In addition, the
power and flexibility of the software can overcome restrictions to the designer’s
creativity imposed by traditional methods.

Sole design

CAD/CAM software can be used to generate machining data for shoe sole models
and moulds Shoe sole mould makers are able to strengthen their capabilities of
mould design and production techniques to meet the market demands for shorter
product life cycle, quality improvement and handling versatile pattern design.
This helps especially sports shoe producers to manufacture products rapidly and
to introduce them earlier than their competitors.

3D CAD/CAM is the core technology for shoe sole mould in the footwear industry
and develops towards specialization.

Benefits of CAD/CAM in the mould manufacturing are:

◾Total modeling for rapid generation of design concepts and variations,

◾Reverse engineering from existing models or parts,

◾Easy design modification and morphing capability,

◾Completely accurate designs regardless of complexity,

◾Group grading of soles and uppers,

◾Advanced decorating techniques,

◾Realistic onscreen visualization,

◾Rapid generation of molds from product designs.

2.CONVEYOR SYSTEM
A conveyor system is a common piece of mechanical handling equipment that
moves materials from one location to another. Conveyors are especially useful in
applications involving the transportation of heavy or bulky materials. Conveyor
systems allow quick and efficient transportation for a wide variety of materials,
which make them very popular in the material handling and packaging industries.
Many kinds of conveying systems are available, and are used according to the
various needs of different industries. There are chain conveyors (floor and
overhead) as well. Chain conveyors consist of enclosed tracks, I-Beam, towline,
power & free, and hand pushed trolleys.

Contents
 1 Industries that use conveyor systems
 2 Care and maintenance of conveyor systems
 3 Types of conveyor systems
o 3.1 Pneumatic conveyor systems
o 3.2 Vibrating conveyor systems
o 3.3 Flexible conveyor systems
o 3.4 Vertical conveyor systems and spiral conveyors
o 3.5 Heavy duty roller conveyors
 4 See also
 5 References

Industries that use conveyor systems

A lineshaft roller conveyor conveys boxed produce at a distribution center

A Conveyor belt at a newspaper print plantRoller conveyor for carton

transportation

Conveyor systems are used widespread across a range of industries due to the
numerous benefits they provide.

 Conveyors are able to safely transport materials from one level to another,
which when done by human labor would be strenuous and expensive.
 They can be installed almost anywhere, and are much safer than using a
forklift or other machine to move materials.
 They can move loads of all shapes, sizes and weights. Also, many have
advanced safety features that help prevent accidents.
 There are a variety of options available for running conveying systems,
including the hydraulic, mechanical and fully automated systems, which are
equipped to fit individual needs.

Conveyor systems are commonly used in many industries, including the

automotive, agricultural, computer, electronic, food processing[4], aerospace,
pharmaceutical, chemical, bottling and canning, print finishing and packaging.
Although a wide variety of materials can be conveyed, some of the most common
include food items such as beans and nuts, bottles and cans, automotive
components, scrap metal, pills and powders, wood and furniture and grain and
animal feed. Many factors are important in the accurate selection of a conveyor
system. It is important to know how the conveyor system will be used beforehand.
Some individual areas that are helpful to consider are the required conveyor
operations, such as transportation, accumulation and sorting, the material sizes,
weights and shapes and where the loading and pickup points need to be.

Care and maintenance of conveyor systems

A conveyor system is often the lifeline to a company’s ability to effectively move
its product in a timely fashion. The steps that a company can take to ensure that it
performs at peak capacity include regular inspections, close monitoring of motors
and reducers, keeping key parts in stock, and proper training of personnel.

Increasing the service life of your conveyor system involves: choosing the right
conveyor type, the right system design and paying attention to regular maintenance
practices.

A conveyor system that is designed properly will last a long time with proper
maintenance. Here are six of the biggest problems to watch for in overhead type
conveyor systems including I-beam monorails, enclosed track conveyors and
power and free conveyors.

Poor take-up adjustment: This is a simple adjustment on most systems yet it is

often overlooked. The chain take-up device ensures that the chain is pulled tight as
it leaves the drive unit. As wear occurs and the chain lengthens, the take-up
extends under the force of its springs. As they extend, the spring force becomes
less and the take-up has less effect. Simply compress the take-up springs and your
problem goes away. Failure to do this can result in chain surging, jamming, and
extreme wear on the track and chain. Take-up adjustment is also important for any
conveyor using belts as a means to power rollers, or belts themselves being the
mover. With poor-take up on belt-driven rollers, the belt may twist into the drive
unit and cause damage, or at the least a noticeable decrease or complete loss of
performance may occur. In the case of belt conveyors, a poor take-up may cause
drive unit damage or may let the belt slip off of the side of the chassis.

Lack of lubrication: Chain bearings require lubrication in order to reduce friction.

The chain pull that the drive experiences can double if the bearings are not
lubricated. This can cause the system to overload by either its mechanical or
electrical overload protection. On conveyors that go through hot ovens, lubricators
can be left on constantly or set to turn on every few cycles.

Contamination: Paint, powder, acid or alkaline fluids, abrasives, glass bead, steel
shot, etc. can all lead to rapid deterioration of track and chain. Ask any bearing
company about the leading cause of bearing failure and they will point to
contamination. Once a foreign substance lands on the raceway of a bearing or on
the track, pitting of the surface will occur, and once the surface is compromised,
wear will accelerate. Building shrouds around your conveyors can help prevent the
ingress of contaminants. Or, pressurize the contained area using a simple fan and
duct arrangement. Contamination can also apply to belts (causing slippage, or in
the case of some materials premature wear), and of the motors themselves. Since
the motors can generate a considerable amount of heat, keeping the surface clean is
an almost-free maintenance procedure that can keep heat from getting trapped by
dust and grime, which may lead to motor burnout.

Product Handling: In conveyor systems that may be suited for a wide variety of
products, such as those in distribution centers, it is important that each new product
be deemed acceptable for conveying before being run through the materials
handling equipment. Boxes that are too small, too large, too heavy, too light, or too
awkwardly shaped may not convey, or may cause many problems including jams,
excess wear on conveying equipment, motor overloads, belt breakage, or other
damage, and may also consume extra man-hours in terms of picking up cases that
slipped between rollers, or damaged product that was not meant for materials
handling. If a product such as this manages to make it through most of the system,
the sortation system will most likely be the affected, causing jams and failing to
properly place items where they are assigned. It should also be noted that any and
all cartons handled on any conveyor should be in good shape or spills, jams,
downtime, and possible accidents and injuries may result.

Drive Train: Notwithstanding the above, involving take-up adjustment, other parts
of the drive train should be kept in proper shape. Broken O-rings on a Lineshaft,
pneumatic parts in disrepair, and motor reducers should also be inspected. Loss of
power to even one or a few rollers on a conveyor can mean the difference between
effective and timely delivery, and repetitive nuances that can continually cost
downtime.

Bad Belt Tracking or Timing: In a system that uses precisely controlled belts,
such as a sorter system, regular inspections should be made that all belts are
traveling at the proper speeds at all times. While usually a computer controls this
with Pulse Position Indicators, any belt not controlled must be monitored to ensure
accuracy and reduce the likelihood of problems. Timing is also important for any
equipment that is instructed to precisely meter out items, such as a merge where
one box pulls from all lines at one time. If one were to be mistimed, product would
collide and disrupt operation. Timing is also important wherever a conveyor must
"keep track" of where a box is, or improper operation will result.

Since a conveyor system is a critical link in a company’s ability to move its

products in a timely fashion, any disruption of its operation can be costly. Most
“downtime” can be avoided by taking steps to ensure a system operates at peak
performance, including regular inspections, close monitoring of motors and
reducers, keeping key parts in stock, and proper training of personnel.

Types of conveyor systems

Belt driven roller conveyor for cartons and totes.Flexible conveyor

Pneumatic conveyor systems

Every pneumatic system makes use of pipes or ducts called transportation lines
that carry mixture of materials and a stream of air. These materials are such as dry
pulverized or free flowing or light powdery materials like cement, fly ash etc.
These materials can be transported conveniently to various destinations by means
of a stream of high velocity air through pipe lines. Products are moved through
various tubes via air pressure, allowing for extra vertical versatility. Pneumatic
conveyors are either carrier systems or dilute-phase systems; carrier systems
simply push items from one entry point to one exit point, such as the money-
exchanging tubes used at a bank drive-through window. Dilute-phase systems use
push-pull pressure to guide materials through various entry and/or exit points.
Three basic systems that are used to generate high velocity air stream:

1. Suction or vacuum systems, utilizing a vacuum created in the pipeline to

draw the material with the surrounding air.The system operated at a low
pressure, which is practically 0.4–0.5 atm below atmosphere, and is utilized
mainly in conveying light free flowing materials.
2. Pressure-type systems, in which a positive pressure is used to push material
from one point to the next. The system is ideal for conveying material from
one loading point to a number of unloading points. It operates at a pressure
of 6 atm and upwards.
 3. Combination systems, in which a suction system is used to convey material
from a number of loading points and a pressure system is employed to
deliver it to a number of unloading points.

Vibrating conveyor systems

A Vibrating Conveyor is a machine with a solid conveying surface which is turned
up on the side to form a trough. They are used extensively in food grade
applications where sanitation, washdown, and low maintenance are essential.
Vibrating conveyors are also suitable for harsh, very hot, dirty, or corrosive
environments. They can be used to convey newly cast metal parts which may reach
upwards of 1,500 °F (820 °C). Due to the fixed nature of the conveying pans
vibrating conveyors can also perform tasks such as sorting, screening, classifying
and orienting parts. Vibrating conveyors have been built to convey material at
angles exceeding 45° from horizontal using special pan shapes. Flat pans will
convey most materials at a 5° Incline from horizontal line.

Flexible conveyor systems

The flexible conveyor is based on a conveyor beam in aluminum or stainless steel,
with low friction slide rails guiding a plastic multi-flexing chain. Products to be
conveyed travel directly on the conveyor, or on pallets/carriers. These conveyors
can be worked around obstacles and keep production lines flowing. They are made
at varying levels and can work in multiple environments. They are used in food
packaging, case packing, and pharmaceutical industries but also in retail stores
such as Wal-Mart and Kmart.[5]

Vertical conveyor systems and spiral conveyors

Vertical Spiral Conveyor

Vertical conveyor - also commonly referred to as freight lifts and material lifts -
are conveyor systems used to raise or lower materials to different levels of a
facility during the handling process. Examples of these conveyors applied in the
industrial assembly process include transporting materials to different floors.
While similar in look to freight elevators, vertical conveyors are not equipped to
transport people, only materials.

Vertical lift conveyors contain two adjacent, parallel conveyors for simultaneous
upward movement of adjacent surfaces of the parallel conveyors. One of the
conveyors normally has spaced apart flits for transporting bulk food items. The
dual conveyors rotate in opposite directions, but are operated from one gear box to
insure equal belt speed. One of the conveyors is pivotally hinged to the other
conveyor for swinging the pivotally attached conveyor away from the remaining
conveyor for access to the facing surfaces of the parallel conveyors.[6] Vertical lift
conveyors can be manually or automatically loaded and controlled.[7] Almost all
vertical conveyors can be systematically integrated with horizontal conveyors,
since both of these conveyor systems work in tandem to create a cohesive material
handling assembly line.

In similarity to vertical conveyors, spiral conveyors raise and lower materials to

different levels of a facility. In contrast, spiral conveyors are able to transport
material loads in a continuous flow. Industries that require a higher output of
materials - food and beverage, retail case packaging, pharmaceuticals - typically
incorporate these conveyors into their systems over standard vertical conveyors
due to their ability to facilitate high throughput. Most spiral conveyors also have a
lower angle of incline or decline (11 degrees or less) to prevent sliding and
tumbling during operation.
Vertical conveyor with forks

Just like spiral conveyors also a vertical conveyor that use forks are able to
transport material loads in a continuous flow. With these forks the load can be
taken from one horizontal conveyor and put down on another horizontal conveyor
on a different level. By adding more forks more products can be lifted at the same
time. Conventional vertical conveyors have the restriction that the input and output
of material loads must have the same direction. By using forks many combinations
of different input- and outputlevels in different directions are possible. A vertical
conveyor with forks can even be used as a vertical sorter. Compared to a spiral
conveyor a vertical conveyor - with or without forks - takes up less space.

Heavy duty roller conveyors

Heavy Duty roller conveyors are used for moving items that are at least 500 lbs.
This type of conveyor makes the handling of such heavy equipment/products easier
and more time effective. Many of the heavy duty roller conveyors can move as fast
as 75 feet/minute.

Other types of heavy duty roller conveyors are gravity roller conveyor, chain
driven live roller conveyor, pallet accumulation conveyor, multi-strand chain
conveyor, and chain & roller transfers.

Gravity roller conveyors are extremely easy to use and are used in many different
types of industries such as automotive and retail.

Chain driven live roller conveyors are used for single or bi-directional material
handling. Large heavy loads are moved by chain driven live roller conveyors.

Pallet accumulation conveyors are powered through a mechanical clutch. This is

used instead of individually powered and controlled sections of conveyors.

Multi-strand chain conveyors are used for double pitch roller chains. Products that
cannot be moved on traditional roller conveyors can be moved by a multi-strand
chain conveyor.

Chain & roller conveyors are short runs of two or more strands of double pitch
chain conveyor built into a chain driven line roller conveyor. These pop up under
the load and move the load off of the conveyor.
SPECIAL FEATURE:
 a. The conveyor provides systematic production process.
 b. Improves skill,quality, and production and save time.
 c. Minimum space required to avoid over crowdon production floor.
 d. Minimum maintenance.
 e. Better lighting and air pipe distribution system on Y bars.
3.ROBOTICS
“Smart robotics for high added value footwear industry”
Automation in Shoe Assembly

Automated lasting cell

Automated gluing cell

 CAD system for robot gluing

Finishing cell

CAD system for defining polishing trajectories

Footwear production features (I)
•European Footwear Industry figures
–26,600 enterprises, €26.2 billion in turnover
–Direct employment 388,000 people
–Lost around 4% of its workforce per year over the last eight years
–Production index in 2008: 50% of 2000
–70% of the value added is produced by SMEs
 Footwear production features (II)

•Reasons for lack of automation:

–The high number of products variants
–Complex manufacturing process
–Complex assembly process
–Manual quality control and packaging
•Consequence: Extensive labour demand
 End-users needs

•Flexibility
•Quality
•Production process
•Efficiency
•Working conditions
 •Reduction of cost

ROBOFOOT Approach
•Different programming approaches
–CAD and sensor based programming
–Manual guidance devices for Programming by demonstration
•Manipulation
–Manipulation strategies and devices for non-rigid parts
•Sensor based control strategies
•Footwear Manufacturing
•Last redesigning
•Roughing, gluing, finishing operations
•Quality assurance
•Packaging

ROBOFOOT Consortium
4.MACHINERY
In the aforesaid departments different types of operations are carried out
for which different type of footwear manufacturing machines are required.
Their detail is as under:-

1. DESIGNING AND PATTERN CUTTING DEPARTMENT.

In this department Footwear designs are developed and later on their

patterns are prepared and graded. Shoe designing is basically done by hand
but in the modern era this is done with the help of computers. This is called
CASD (computer aided shoe designing)

For manual Pattern cutting following machines are required:-

a) Pantograph (for pattern grading)

b) Metal sheet pattern cutting device.
c) Pattern shearing device.
d) Pattern’s edge binding machine.

For computer aided shoe designing following equipments are required:-

a) Computer set with desirable configuration.

b) Footwear designing and pattern grading software.
c) Digitizer.
 Manual 3D Digitisers

d) Pattern cutting Plotter.

Cutting Plotter (for Footwear Patternmaking)

Vinyl Cutting Plotter

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e) Scanner, printer and photo copier

2. UPPER CLICKING DEPARTMENT.

In this department the upper, lining & fabric components are clicked either
by hand or with the help of machines.

For this purpose following machines are required:-

a) Mechanical clicking press.

b) Hydraulic swing arm clicking press.
ATOM Swing Arm Cutting M/C

SWING BEAM CUTTING

MACHINE

c) Hydraulic rotating head clicking press.

HYDRAULIC TRAVELLING HEAD CUTTING PRESS
a) Clicking dies with provision of marking and perforation.

b) Straps / belts cutting machine.

c) Spiral cutting machine.
3. UPPER PREPRATION DEPARTMENT.

In this department clicked components are prepared before forwarding to

upper closing section.

For this purpose following machines are required:-

a) Bend knife Upper splitting machine.

LEATHER BANDKNIFE SPLITTING MACHINES
HIGH SPEED ELECTRONIC
BANDKNIFE SPLITTING
MACHINE
b) Edge skiving machine.

Upper skiving machine

1. Uniform skiving.
2. Easy to operate by clutch.
3. Provided with good quality bell
knife & feed rolled, grinding wheel.
LEATHER SKIVING MACHINES
c) Thermo edge folding machine.
AUTO-CEMENT EDGE FOLDING MACHINE
 d) Reinforcement tape applying machine.
Seam Spening& Tape Attaching Machine

4.

Upper wheel teamed up with lower wheel feed the material which
increases the cohesion between leather or clothes. This machine is useful
for appearance finishing of the heel vamp after sewing, and reinforcing
good appearance by pressing the glued heel vamp.

a) Straps folding machine.

b) Lamination machine.

c) Latex spraying machine.

d) Numbering machine.

e) Upper & lining stamping machine

 .

f) Hydraulic embossing machine

EMBOSSING MACHINE
g) Back part moulding machine. (hot & cold)

h) Hot cementing machine.

i) Fusing machine.

j) Hydraulic vamp crimping machine.

5. UPPER CLOSING DEPARTMENT.

In this department all the components of upper and lining are assembled
together with the help of different types of sewing machines.

For this purpose following machines are required:-

a) Flat bed single needle industrial sewing machine

b) Flat bed double needle industrial sewing machine

c) Post bed single needle industrial sewing machine.

d) Post bed double needle industrial sewing machine.

e) Cylinder bed industrial sewing machine.

f) Edge binding industrial sewing machine.
g) Zig – Zag industrial sewing machine.

h) Moccasin stitching machine.

 i) Moccasin pre-forming machine.

j) Punching and Eyeleting machine.

6.
a) Strobel machine.
b) Lining trimming machine.

c) Back seam pressing machine.

d) Thread burning device.
7. BOTTOM CLICKING AND PREPRATION DEPARTMENT.

In this department all the components of bottom are clicked and prepared
as per the job requirement such as Outer sole, Insole, and Stiffener, Toe
puff, belt and shank attachment.
For this purpose following machines are required:-

a) Mechanical clicking press.

b) Hydraulic rotating head clicking press.
c) Heavy duty skiving machine.
d) Insole edge trimming machine.
e) Shank attaching machine.
f) Stiffener moulding machine.
g) Sole leather splitting machine

8. LASTING DEPARTMENT.

In this department ready shoe uppers are conditioned, prepared and

mounting on the shoe lasts after the insole is attached.

For this purpose following machines are required:-

a) Pneumatic insole tacking machine.

b) Upper conditioning machine.
c) Toe puff mulling machine
Toe puff attaching machine – Pneumatic
 TOE UPPER STEAM SOFTENING MACHINE

d) Fore part pulling over & lasting machine.

TOE LASTING MACHINE
COMPUTERIZED PULLING OVER
CEMENT TOE LASTING MACHINE
e) Seat lasting machine.

HYDRAULIC AUTO HEEL SEAT

LASTING MACHINE

f) Side lasting machine.

THE HEEL SEAT AND SIDES LASTING MACHINE

g) Trimming machine for uppers.
h) Pounding-up machine.
 QF-206B Pounding machine of shoe making machine

i) Wrinkle chasing machine.

j) Heat setting machine.
HEATING CHAMBER

k) Ironing-cum-plating machine
l) Drying and setting machine.
 DRYING CHAMBER

m) Lasting Jacks.
n) Nail removing machine.

9. BOTTOM MAKING DEPARTMENT.

In this department outer sole is attached on the mounted upper after

roughing, buffing and heat reactivation. The sole is pressed with pneumatic
sole pressing machine.

For this purpose following machines are required:-

a) Upper roughing machine with dust collector.

GRINDING ROUGHEN M/C WITH DUST COLLECTOR
c) Bottom buffing and scouring machine with dust collector.
d) Pneumatic dusting cleaning machine with dust collector.
e) Adhesive applying machine.
f) Heat reactivation and setting machine.
g) Hydraulic / pneumatic sole pressing machine. (DOP)
SOLE ATTACHING MACHINE
h) Heat setting machine.
 i) Chiller.
CHILLING MACHINE
j) Chilling Machine,

k) Heel nailing machine.

HEEL NAILING MACHINE
k) Outsole stitching machine.
10. POLISHING AND FINISHING DEPARTMENT.

In this department after the sole attachment the shoe is dressed, cleaned,
coloured, polished and brushed gently before it is sent for final inspection.

For this purpose following machines are required:-

a) Combined finishing machine.

b) Edge colouring machine.

c) Spraying booth with compressor and spray gun.

Spray Booth
Spray booth with water circulation with outlet
exhaust.
d)
e)
Drying chamber

f) Polishing and brushing machine.

POLISHING MACHINE
g) Delasting machine.

LAST SLIPPING MACHINE

Stamping Machine
11. QUALITY CONTROL DEPARTMENT.

In this department most of the work is done manually therefore no

machine is required here except edge burning. For major work the finished
products are sent back to the concerned department to do the needful.

12. PACKING FORWARDING DEPARTMENT.

After final inspection the finished goods comes in this department for
packing and forwarding to the buyer as per his instructions. The shoes are
packed in shoe boxes and than packed in wooden cartoons which are
tightened with iron or plastic strips and clips. For this purpose few hand
tools are required.
QF-682 Shoes Machinery Heel Nailing Machinery
FUTURE OF AUTOMATION
Since the turn of the century, the global recession has affected most businesses,
including industrial automation. After four years of the new millennium, here are
my views on the directions in which the automation industry is moving.

The rear-view mirror

Because of the relatively small production volumes and huge varieties of

applications, industrial automation typically utilizes new technologies developed
in other markets. Automation companies tend to customize products for specific
applications and requirements. So the innovation comes from targeted
applications, rather than any hot, new technology.

Over the past few decades, some innovations have indeed given industrial
automation new surges of growth: The programmable logic controller (PLC) –
developed by Dick Morley and others – was designed to replace relay-logic; it
generated growth in applications where custom logic was difficult to implement
and change. The PLC was a lot more reliable than relay-contacts, and much easier
to program and reprogram. Growth was rapid in automobile test-installations,
which had to be re-programmed often for new car models. The PLC has had a
long and productive life – some three decades – and (understandably) has now
become a commodity.

At about the same time that the PLC was developed, another surge of innovation
came through the use of computers for control systems. Mini-computers
replaced large central mainframes in central control rooms, and gave rise to
"distributed" control systems (DCS), pioneered by Honeywell with its TDC 2000.
But, these were not really "distributed" because they were still relatively large
clumps of computer hardware and cabinets filled with I/O connections.

The arrival of the PC brought low-cost PC-based hardware and software, which
provided DCS functionality with significantly reduced cost and complexity. There
was no fundamental technology innovation here—rather, these were innovative
extensions of technology developed for other mass markets, modified and
adapted for industrial automation requirements.

On the sensor side were indeed some significant innovations and developments
which generated good growth for specific companies. With better specifications
and good marketing, Rosemount's differential pressure flow-sensor quickly
displaced lesser products. And there were a host of other smaller technology
developments that caused pockets of growth for some companies. But few grew
beyond a few hundred million dollars in annual revenue.

Automation software has had its day, and can't go much further. No "inflection
point" here. In the future, software will embed within products and systems, with
no major independent innovation on the horizon. The plethora of manufacturing
software solutions and services will yield significant results, but all as part of other
systems.

So, in general, innovation and technology can and will reestablish growth in
industrial automation. But, there won't be any technology innovations that will
generate the next Cisco or Apple or Microsoft.

We cannot figure out future trends merely by extending past trends; it’s like
trying to drive by looking only at a rear-view mirror. The automation industry
does NOT extrapolate to smaller and cheaper PLCs, DCSs, and supervisory control
and data acquisition systems; those functions will simply be embedded in
hardware and software. Instead, future growth will come from totally new
directions.

New technology directions

Industrial automation can and will generate explosive growth with technology
related to new inflection points: nanotechnology and nanoscale assembly
systems; MEMS and nanotech sensors (tiny, low-power, low-cost sensors) which
can measure everything and anything; and the pervasive Internet, machine to
machine (M2M) networking.

Real-time systems will give way to complex adaptive systems and multi-
processing. The future belongs to nanotech, wireless everything, and complex
adaptive systems.

Major new software applications will be in wireless sensors and distributed peer-
to-peer networks – tiny operating systems in wireless sensor nodes, and the
software that allows nodes to communicate with each other as a larger complex
adaptive system. That is the wave of the future.

The fully-automated factory

Automated factories and processes are too expensive to be rebuilt for every
modification and design change – so they have to be highly configurable and
flexible. To successfully reconfigure an entire production line or process requires
direct access to most of its control elements – switches, valves, motors and drives
– down to a fine level of detail.

The vision of fully automated factories has already existed for some time now:
customers order online, with electronic transactions that negotiate batch size (in
some cases as low as one), price, size and color; intelligent robots and
sophisticated machines smoothly and rapidly fabricate a variety of customized
products on demand.

The promise of remote-controlled automation is finally making headway in

manufacturing settings and maintenance applications. The decades-old machine-
based vision of automation – powerful super-robots without people to tend them
– underestimated the importance of communications. But today, this is purely a
matter of networked intelligence which is now well developed and widely
available.

Communications support of a very high order is now available for automated

processes: lots of sensors, very fast networks, quality diagnostic software and
flexible interfaces – all with high levels of reliability and pervasive access to
hierarchical diagnosis and error-correction advisories through centralized
operations.

The large, centralized production plant is a thing of the past. The factory of the
future will be small, movable (to where the resources are, and where the
customers are). For example, there is really no need to transport raw materials
long distances to a plant, for processing, and then transport the resulting product
long distances to the consumer. In the old days, this was done because of the
localized know-how and investments in equipment, technology and personnel.
Today, those things are available globally.

Hard truths about globalization

The assumption has always been that the US and other industrialized nations will
keep leading in knowledge-intensive industries while developing nations focus on
lower skills and lower labor costs. That's now changed. The impact of the
wholesale entry of 2.5 billion people (China and India) into the global economy
will bring big new challenges and amazing opportunities.

Beyond just labor, many businesses (including major automation companies) are
also outsourcing knowledge work such as design and engineering services. This
trend has already become significant, causing joblessness not only for
manufacturing labor, but also for traditionally high-paying engineering positions.

Innovation is the true source of value, and that is in danger of being dissipated –
sacrificed to a short-term search for profit, the capitalistic quarterly profits
syndrome. Countries like Japan and Germany will tend to benefit from their
longer-term business perspectives. But, significant competition is coming from
many rapidly developing countries with expanding technology prowess. So,
marketing speed and business agility will be offsetting advantages.

The winning differences

In a global market, there are three keys that constitute the winning edge:
•Proprietary products: developed quickly and inexpensively (and perhaps
globally), with a continuous stream of upgrade and adaptation to maintain
leadership.

•High-value-added products: proprietary products and knowledge offered

through effective global service providers, tailored to specific customer needs.

•Global yet local services: the special needs and custom requirements of remote
customers must be handled locally, giving them the feeling of partnership and
proximity.

To implementing these directions demands management and leadership abilities

that are different from old, financially-driven models. In the global economy,
automation companies have little choice – they must find more ways and means
to expand globally. To do this they need to minimize domination of central
corporate cultures, and maximize responsiveness to local customer needs. Multi-
cultural countries, like the U.S., will have significant advantages in these
important business aspects.

In the new and different business environment of the 21st century, the
companies that can adapt, innovate and utilize global resources will generate
significant growth and success.