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LETTERS
Relationship between nucleosome positioning and
DNA methylation
Ramakrishna K. Chodavarapu1*, Suhua Feng1,2*, Yana V. Bernatavichute1,3, Pao-Yang Chen1, Hume Stroud1,
Yanchun Yu4, Jonathan A. Hetzel1, Frank Kuo1, Jin Kim1, Shawn J. Cokus1, David Casero1, Maria Bernal5,
Peter Huijser6, Amander T. Clark1,7, Ute Krämer5{, Sabeeha S. Merchant3,8, Xiaoyu Zhang4, Steven E. Jacobsen1,2,3
& Matteo Pellegrini1,3
Nucleosomes compact and regulate access to DNA in the nucleus, antibody against unmodified histone H3 (Fig. 1b and Supplementary
and are composed of approximately 147 bases of DNA wrapped Fig. 1). These observations indicate that nucleosomes are more den-
around a histone octamer1,2. Here we report a genome-wide sely packed in pericentromeric regions that are transcriptionally
nucleosome positioning analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana using silent, are rich in transposons and contain heavily methylated
massively parallel sequencing of mononucleosomes. By combin- DNA, than in the euchromatic arms3.
ing this data with profiles of DNA methylation at single base reso- By examining the relationship between reads that map to opposite
lution, we identified 10-base periodicities in the DNA methylation strands of DNA, we observed a peak of reads on the reverse strand
status of nucleosome-bound DNA and found that nucleosomal that occurred approximately 145–170 bases downstream of the reads
DNA was more highly methylated than flanking DNA. These on the forward strand (Supplementary Fig. 2a). This broad peak in
results indicate that nucleosome positioning influences DNA the general vicinity of the accepted size of a nucleosome indicates that
methylation patterning throughout the genome and that DNA many nucleosomes are well positioned, leading to the repeated
methyltransferases preferentially target nucleosome-bound sequencing of both the forward and reverse complement of the cor-
DNA. We also observed similar trends in human nucleosomal responding nucleosome regions. Similarly, when we plotted the cor-
DNA, indicating that the relationships between nucleosomes relation between positive strand reads with other positive strand
and DNA methyltransferases are conserved. Finally, as has been reads we saw a progressively decreasing correlation from the start
observed in animals, nucleosomes were highly enriched on exons, of the nucleosome (Fig. 1c and Supplementary Fig. 2b), with smaller
and preferentially positioned at intron–exon and exon–intron peaks spaced at 174 and 355 base pairs from the starting position of
boundaries. RNA polymerase II (Pol II) was also enriched on exons the reference reads indicating some preference for regular spacing of
relative to introns, consistent with the hypothesis that nucleosome nucleosomes genome-wide. Assuming that nucleosomes are
positioning regulates Pol II processivity. DNA methylation is also wrapped around 147 base pairs of DNA, the average length of the
enriched on exons, consistent with the targeting of DNA methyla- linkers of regularly spaced nucleosomes is about 30 base pairs.
tion to nucleosomes, and suggesting a role for DNA methylation in Consistent with the higher content of nucleosomes in pericentro-
exon definition. meric heterochromatin regions, we found that the peaks at 174 and
To investigate the position of nucleosomes in Arabidopsis thaliana, we 355 were more pronounced in these regions than in the euchromatic
sequenced micrococcal nuclease (MNase)-digested nucleosomal DNA arms (Fig. 1c), indicating that pericentromeric nucleosomes have a
using an Illumina GAII sequencer to achieve a roughly 68-fold coverage higher tendency to be in regularly spaced arrays. These results are
of nucleosomes (see Supplementary Methods). The data are displayed in consistent with earlier evidence for more regular spacing of nucleo-
a modified UCSC genome browser (http://epigenomics.mcdb.ucla.edu/ somes in Drosophila heterochromatin4.
Nuc-Seq/) along with nucleosome density tracks that allow easy visu- Similar to findings in animal and fungal high-throughput nucleo-
alization of nucleosome positions throughout the genome (Fig. 1a). some sequencing studies5–8, we found 10-base periodicities in WW
To obtain a chromosomal view of nucleosome content, we plotted (W 5 A or T) dinucleotides, and SS (S 5 G or C) dinucleotides that
reads in bins of 100 kilobases tiling the chromosomes. As a control for were 5 bases out of phase with the WW dinucleotides (Fig. 1d and
biases in mapping and sequencing we also sequenced a library of Supplementary Figs 3–5). WW dinucleotides are favoured at sites where
randomly sheared Arabidopsis genomic DNA. We then normalized the minor groove faces the histone core, whereas SS dinucleotides are
the nucleosome counts by the number of uniquely mapping genomic favoured at sites where the minor groove faces away from the histone
DNA counts within each bin along the chromosomes. Nucleosome core9,10. The out of phase peaks in the frequencies of these dinucleotides
content was relatively uniform throughout the euchromatic regions leads to optimal bending of DNA, as A/T nucleotides cause a negative
of chromosomes, but showed significant enrichment in pericentro- base roll and G/C nucleotides cause a positive base roll9,10.
meric heterochromatin regions, (Fig. 1b, Supplementary Fig. 1). To To study the relationship of DNA methylation with nucleosome
confirm these results, we performed chromatin immunoprecipita- positions, we used our single-nucleotide resolution whole-genome
tion followed by massively parallel sequencing (ChIP-Seq) using an bisulphite-sequencing data3. Arabidopsis cytosines are methylated by
1
Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA. 2Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University
of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA. 3Molecular Biology Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA. 4Department of
Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA. 5University of Heidelberg, BIOQUANT 23, R. 645, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
6
Department of Molecular Plant Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany. 7Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and
Stem Cell Research, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA. 8Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los
Angeles, California 90095, USA. {Present address: Department of Plant Physiology, University of Bochum, Universitaetsstrasse 150, D-44801 Bochum, Germany.
*These authors contributed equally to this work.
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NATURE | Vol 466 | 15 July 2010 LETTERS
1.6
general explanation: that nucleosomes are to some extent dictating
1.4 access to the DNA and therefore setting the register of methylation
for all DNA methyltransferases. Nucleosomal preferences could also
partially explain the sequence preferences that we observed prev-
1.2
iously for CHG and CHH methylation3. Highly methylated cytosines
Arm tended to be followed immediately by A/T but not C, consistent with
1.0
our finding that DNA methylation is out of phase with CC dinucleo-
tides (Supplementary Fig. 6).
0.8 Centromere
All On a larger scale, we also observed that levels of all three types of
DNA methylation were higher in nucleosome-spanning DNA than in
–1,500 −1,000 −500 0 500 1,000 1,500 flanking DNA, indicating that nucleosome-bound DNA is enriched
Distance from nucleosome read on same strand (bases) for DNA methylation (Fig. 2 and Supplementary Fig. 8). This finding
d
supports the view that nucleosomes are preferentially targeted by
0.10 0.045 21.4
DNA methyltransferases. In the case of CMT3, it is predicted that
AA 21.2 this enzyme is recruited or activated by histone H3 lysine 9 dimethy-
lation, because a knockout of histone H3 lysine 9 methyltransferase
21.0 mimics a knock out of CMT3, and because the CMT3 chromodo-
CG Methylation
GC Fraction
main can bind to methylated histones14. However, our data show that
AA Fraction
20.8
0.09 GC 0.04 all types of methylation are enriched on nucleosome-bound DNA,
20.6 indicating that nucleosomes or histone modifications may assist in
the recruitment of all of the Arabidopsis DNA methyltransferases.
20.4 To test whether the patterns of DNA methylation on nucleosomal
20.2
DNA are also found in humans, we used previously published MNase
CG Meth. nucleosome sequencing data15 together with our single-nucleotide
0.08
0 50 100
0.035
150
20.0 resolution bisulphite sequencing data on the human embryonic stem
cell line HSF1 (see Supplementary Methods). We found that human
Figure 1 | Characterization of A. thaliana nucleosome data. nucleosome-bound DNA also showed a 10-base periodicity in its CG,
a, Representative UCSC Browser screenshot of a gene showing calculated CHG and CHH methylation status (Fig. 3). Furthermore, as in
nucleosome densities. b, Chromosomal view of nucleosome read counts and Arabidopsis, the overall level of methylation was higher on nucleo-
ChIP-seq read counts in 100-kb tiles along chromosome 1 shows
some-bound DNA than in flanking regions. This indicates that
nucleosome enrichment in pericentromeric regions. c, Autocorrelation of
positive stranded reads shows local peaks at positions 174 and 355 bases. nucleosome architecture has a role in shaping DNA methylation
d, AA and GC dinucleotide and CG methylation profiles show a 10-base patterning in the human genome, and is consistent with the recent
periodicity over nucleosome-bound DNA, with DNA methylation profiles in finding of stable anchoring of Dnmt3 DNA methyltransferases to
phase with WW dinucleotide profiles, and out of phase with SS dinucleotide mammalian chromatin16 and more generally with the conservation
profiles. of DNA methyltransferase function in plants and animals17. We also
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©2010 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved
LETTERS NATURE | Vol 466 | 15 July 2010
a 21.5 a
CG CG FFT 76.4 CG CG FFT
0.016 0.012
0.014
0.012 76.2 0.010
0.008
Power
21.0
Power
0.010
0.008 76.0 0.006
0.006 0.004
0.004
Methylation (%)
Methylation (%)
20.5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Period 75.6 Period
75.4
20.0 75.2
75.0
19.5 74.8
74.6
19.0 74.4
b 4.10 b 3.20
CHG 8
CHG FFT CHG
7
4.05 6 3.15
5
Power
4
4.00 3
2 3.10
1
Methylation (%)
0
Methylation (%)
3.95 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Period 3.05
3.90
3.00
3.85
CHG FFT
2.95 3
2.5
3.80
2
Power
2.90 1.5
3.75 1
0.5
2.85 0
3.70 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Period
c 1.20 c 1.46
CHH 1.8
CHH FFT CHH
1.6
1.4 1.44
1.18 1.2
Power
1.0
0.8
0.6 1.42
0.4
1.16 0.2
0
1.40
Methylation (%)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Methylation (%)
Period
1.14 1.38
1.36
1.12 CHH FFT
3.5
1.34 3.0
2.5
Power
1.10 2.0
1.32 1.5
1.0
0.5
1.08 1.30 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Period
Figure 2 | DNA methylation profiles of nucleosome-bound DNA in Figure 3 | DNA methylation profiles of nucleosome-bound DNA in humans.
Arabidopsis. The weighted average percent DNA methylation was calculated The weighted average percent DNA methylation was calculated and plotted
and plotted at each distance from nucleosome start sites (0). a–c, CG at each distance from nucleosome start sites (0). a–c, CG methylation
methylation (a), CHG methylation (b) and CHH methylation (c) each show (a), CHG methylation (b) and CHH methylation (c) each show a 10-base
a 10-base periodicity over nucleosome-bound DNA (1–147 bases). Fast periodicity over nucleosome-bound DNA (1–147 bases). The FFTs
Fourier transforms (FFTs) can be used to deconstruct inherent frequencies calculated over the region of the nucleosome (insets) demonstrate this
in a complex signal. The FFTs calculated over the region of the nucleosome periodicity in CG (a), CHG (b), and CHH (c) contexts.
(insets) demonstrate this periodicity in CG (a), CHG (b) and CHH
(c) contexts. findings from several recent nucleosome positioning studies in other
organisms18–23. The number of nucleosomes per base pair in introns
analysed DNA methylation patterning on nucleosomes in different was only 63% of the level found in exons. Furthermore, we found a
regions of the Arabidopsis and human genomes, including genes, strong peak of nucleosome start sites at intron–exon junctions and at
promoters, pericentromeric regions and euchromatic arm regions exon–intron junctions (Fig. 4, Supplementary Fig. 18). The enrich-
(Supplementary Figs 9–17) and found that the 10-nucleotide peri- ment of nucleosomes in exons was not solely owing to higher G1C
odicity was found in all cases, indicating that the relationship content (Supplementary Fig. 19a–c), or because of consensus splice
between nucleosome positioning and DNA methylation is general. site sequences (Supplemental Fig. 19d–f), and was confirmed using
We observed that nucleosomes were much more abundant in independent chromatin immunoprecipitation methods (Sup-
exons than in introns (see Fig. 1a for an example), consistent with plementary Fig. 20). Longer exons contained a higher number of
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NATURE | Vol 466 | 15 July 2010 LETTERS
a Exons sized 170−240 bp Exons sized 315−350 bp hypothesis that Pol II is paused on exonic DNA (Fig. 4). One pos-
2.0 2.0
Nucleosome Nucleosome sibility is that Pol II stalling on exons could enhance accurate splicing
1.8
1.6
Pol II Pol II of upstream introns, thus reducing exon skipping and aiding in the
Relative signal
Relative signal
1.4
1.5 fidelity of exon definition20. This is consistent with the finding of Pol
1.2 II enrichment on human exons and indicates that Pol II enrichment
1.0
1.0
on exons might be a common eukaryotic feature20. Furthermore,
0.8 particular histone modifications have been recently shown to recruit
0.6 splicing regulators, providing additional possible mechanisms for the
0.4
−800 −400 0 400 800
0.5
−800 −400 0 400 800 regulation of splicing by nucleosome positioning25.
Exons sized 480−550 bp Exons sized 645−715 bp Because of the enhancement of DNA methylation over nucleosomal
2.0 2.4
Nucleosome 2.2 Nucleosome DNA, and the enrichment of nucleosomes on exons, a prediction is
1.8 Pol II 2.0 Pol II that DNA methylation should be enhanced on exons relative to
1.6 Relative signal
Relative signal
1.4
1.8 introns. Indeed, we found depletion of DNA methylation in introns
1.6
1.2 1.4 and enrichment in exons in a pattern that was similar to nucleosome
1.0 1.2 occupancy (Fig. 4b). This is consistent with recent findings of
1.0
0.8
0.8
enhanced exonic methylation in other plant species, as well as in the
0.6 0.6 Chlamydomonas, honeybee, Ciona and human genomes26,27. This sug-
0.4 0.4 gests the possibility that DNA methylation, which frequently exists in
−800 −400 0 400 800 −800 −400 0 400 800
Distance from the intron–exon boundary (bases) the transcribed regions of active genes26,28, could have a conserved role
in exon definition or splicing regulation. These findings also reinforce
b 40 2.0 3.5
Pol II the view that nucleosomal positions have an important role in shaping
3.0 the methylation landscape of eukaryotic genomes.
Nucleosome levels
30 1.5 2.0
Illumina library generation following manufacturer instructions. Libraries were
Pol II levels
16. Jeong, S. et al. Selective anchoring of DNA methyltransferases 3A and 3B to 29. Zhang, X. et al. Whole-genome analysis of histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation in
nucleosomes containing methylated DNA. Mol. Cell. Biol. 29, 5366–5376 (2009). Arabidopsis. PLoS Biol. 5, e129 (2007).
17. Law, J. A. & Jacobsen, S. E. Establishing, maintaining and modifying DNA
methylation patterns in plants and animals. Nature Rev. Genet. 11, 204–220 Supplementary Information is linked to the online version of the paper at
(2010). www.nature.com/nature.
18. Andersson, R., Enroth, S., Rada-Iglesias, A., Wadelius, C. & Komorowski, J.
Acknowledgements We thank members of our laboratories for input and
Nucleosomes are well positioned in exons and carry characteristic histone
guidance, and the Department of Energy, Institute for Genomics and Proteomics
modifications. Genome Res. 19, 1732–1741 (2009).
for support. R.K.C. is supported by NIH training grant GM07104. S.F. is a Howard
19. Tilgner, H. et al. Nucleosome positioning as a determinant of exon recognition.
Hughes Medical Institute Fellow of the Life Sciences Research Foundation. P.-Y.C.
Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 16, 996–1001 (2009).
is funded by Eli & Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine & Stem Cell
20. Schwartz, S., Meshorer, E. & Ast, G. Chromatin organization marks exon-intron
Research at UCLA. M.B. was supported by an Alexander-von-Humboldt Fellowship
structure. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 16, 990–995 (2009).
and U.K. by a Heisenberg Fellowship. X.Z. was supported by a Faculty Research
21. Kolasinska-Zwierz, P. et al. Differential chromatin marking of introns and
Grant (JR-040) from the University of Georgia. Research was supported by an
expressed exons by H3K36me3. Nature Genet. 41, 376–381 (2009).
Innovation Award from the Eli & Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine &
22. Spies, N., Nielsen, C. B., Padgett, R. A. & Burge, C. B. Biased chromatin signatures
Stem Cell Research at UCLA, NIH grants GM60398 and GM42143, and NSF Plant
around polyadenylation sites and exons. Mol. Cell 36, 245–254 (2009).
Genome Research Program #0701745. S.E.J. is an Investigator of the Howard
23. Ponts, N. et al. Nucleosome landscape and control of transcription in the human
Hughes Medical Institute.
malaria parasite. Genome Res. 20, 228–238 (2010).
24. Kaplan, N. et al. The DNA-encoded nucleosome organization of a eukaryotic Author Contributions S.E.J. and M.P. designed the research. S.F., Y.V.B., H.S., Y.Y.,
genome. Nature 458, 362–366 (2009). J.A.H., M.B., P.H., A.T.C., U.K., S.S.M. and X.Z. performed experiments. R.K.C.,
25. Luco, R. F. et al. Regulation of alternative splicing by histone modifications. Science P.-Y.C, F.K., J.K., S.J.C and D.C. analysed data. R.K.C., S. F., S.E.J. and M.P. wrote the
327, 996–1000 (2010). paper.
26. Feng, S. et al. Conservation and divergence of methylation patterning in plants and
animals. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 8689–8694 (2010). Author Information All sequencing files have been deposited in GEO under
27. Laurent, L. et al. Dynamic changes in the human methylome during differentiation. accession code GSE21673. Reprints and permissions information is available at
Genome Res. 20, 320–331 (2010). www.nature.com/reprints. The authors declare no competing financial interests.
28. Zemach, A., McDaniel, I. E., Silva, P. & Zilberman, D. Genome-wide evolutionary Readers are welcome to comment on the online version of this article at
analysis of eukaryotic DNA methylation. Science advance online publication www.nature.com/nature. Correspondence and requests for materials should be
doi:10.1126/science.1186366 (15 April 2010). addressed to S.E.J. (jacobsen@ucla.edu) or M.P. (matteop@mcdb.ucla.edu).
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