Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology

Bhopal 462003
Bhopal-

Report on

“Design-oriented
oriented energy approach for Hostel no.
10 with Automated Solar Panel”

Prepared by
o Anoop Prajapati (1311160 20)
o Sourabh Suman (131116027)
o Nitik Kumar (131116056)
o Aashima
shima Patel (131116097)
(Final year, B.Tech
ME Department)
Guided by:
Associate Professor
Dr. K.R. Aharwal
Mechanical Engineering Department, MANIT, Bhopal
 Declaration:
Date:-
We the students of B.Tech ME Department 8th
semester pronounce that the venture on “Solar Panel Design for
Hostel no.10 energy consumption per day” is put together by
us on our unique calculation of data observed at Hostel no. 10. The
data and information gave by us in the report is legitimate to the
best of our insight. This project has been performed under the
supervision of Dr. KR Aharwal, Associate Professor MANIT,
Bhopal.

Prepared by
o Anoop Prajapati (1311160 20)
o Sourabh Suman (131116027)
o Nitik Kumar (131116056)
o Aashima Patel (131116097)
(Final year, B.Tech
ME Department)

Guided by:
Associate Professor
Dr. K.R. Aharwal
Mechanical Engineering Department, MANIT, Bhopal
Acknowledgement:
We want to first express our gratitude towards Dr K.R.
Aharwal for guiding us to take part in this venture. His direction has
been all useful for us for his priceless proposals about venture
attainability and direction.
We additionally express gratitude toward
HOD, Mechanical Department, MANI, Bhopal for providing us the
opportunity to do this venture as semester project.
We are thankful to the Energy office for giving us
specialized help to board related works and furthermore the electronic
related works.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE NO.
1. Abstract 1
2. Introduction 2- 3
3. Literature Survey 4- 5
4. Solar Tracking and measuring device 5-6
5. Components used 7 - 25
6. Diagrams of Project 26 - 28
7. Design of Panel for Hostel no 10 28 - 33
8. Panels Specifications 34 - 35
9. Space Management for 36 - 37
Allocation of solar panels
10.Techniques to collect more sunlight 38 - 38
11.Cost analysis of Panel Installment 39 - 40
in hostel no 10
12.Payback Period Calculation 40 - 40
13.Programming used for Tracking mode 41 - 43
14.Applications, Advantage 43 - 44
15.Reference 44 - 44
 “An engineer with practical knowledge is not a complete engineer.
Practical knowledge is very important for an “engineer to develop and apply
engineering skills”. It gives me a great pleasure to have an opportunity to
acknowledge and to express gratitude to those who were associated with my
project at MANIT, Bhopal.”

Abstract
With fuel climbs making news, sun oriented vitality is the most looked
for after vitality source. Going solar can solve more than one problems,
right from cutting down on carbon emissions and dependence on fuels,
to solving the energy crisis. This project aims to make a simple solar
tracking and measuring device which aims to maximize the solar power
generation significantly by aligning itself synchronously with the
relative motion of the Sun across the sky and create a Solar Panel
Design for Hostel no.10 energy consumption per day.
 Page no. 1

Introduction
Gone are the days when you would look up at the Sun and curse yourself
for being out on a hot sunny day. Take pride; very soon you will be a
walking energy station with people asking you to help them charge their
batteries with your clothes!

This isn’t a scene out of a Sci-Fi movie. It is the simple

application of solar cells. They are the only way we can convert
sunlight into electricity directly and day by day they are getting better,
smaller and cheaper. Nothing can dare challenge the sun when it comes
to radiating energy. Every hour the energy available from the sun is
more than what human’s require for an entire year. Petrol, diesel and all
these fossil fuels are nothing but sun’s energy concentrated over years
and years. This makes them very efficient in terms of energy per unit of
the fuel. So why not tap it directly?
Solar energy isn’t something new. People have used sun to dry and
preserve things. Vedic literatures in India even state the use of flying
machines which were powered using the sun. Come 21st century, we
have come a long way in developing solar cells which are the devices
powering our future, converting sun’s energy into electricity.
Solar cells have come a long way from bulky 6% efficient
chunks to thin films with as much as 30% efficiency. They are selling
like hot cakes today given their necessity and utility. And the reason
being they are faithful good chaps unlike oil which will soon be more
precious to us than diamonds and the black monster: coal which has
polluted the air, hand in cuff with the other fossil fuels.
Page no. 2
We need to understand solar panels
so as to understand their applications. Today, we have monocrystalline,
polycrystalline and amorphous thin film panels. Mono-crystalline are so
far the most efficient, given that they have the maximum silicon in a
unit area so more current for the same number of photons.
They are made out of a single silicon crystal as a continuous lattice.
While for the polycrystalline panels, molten silicon is poured into
moulds and separate boundaries can be seen due to this. Lesser quantity
of silicon in a unit area means lesser efficiency of production of
electricity. Amorphous thin film panels are layers of silicon on a glass
surface and are the least expensive. Hence, they are used in applications
where you can do away with efficiency for lowering the costs.
Solar panels are really useful in broad daylight but we need energy
when the Sun isn’t shining above our rooftops. That’s why we need
solar chargers which will store energy in rechargeable batteries. This
project aims to make a solar charger using a voltage regulator IC so as
Page no. 3
to charge a Lead Acid Battery with the constant output voltage obtained
through this IC LM317( Details explained later). Today there are many
more options like a SOLAR CHARGER IC LT3652. This is an IC with
embedded MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) algorithm. MPPT
simply means the IC gets the maximum possible power from the solar
panel by sampling its output and applying the proper load resistance.
This small chip simplifies life given its ease of use and maximum
efficiency is always ensured.
Even 15% efficient solar panels installed across the world’s wastelands
can produce enough clean energy to sustain mankind for a year.
Yet new technology is continuously being developed though solar
energy generation is still in its infancy. The concept of SOLAR
FARMING is new and catching up fast in investors. India is a tropical
country and can soon become the Saudi Arabia of solar energy. With
Concentrated Photo Voltaic (CPV: which increase efficiency by
concentrating large amount of sunlight on the solar cells using mirrors)
coming up in India, we are definitely headed towards a cleaner future.

Literature Survey:
Reducing dependence on fossil fuels and cutting down on our carbon
emissions is one of the most important aspects of solar energy. Another
crucial point is it can make any country, especially tropical ones like
India, self-sufficient in energy. With ambitious project like the National
Solar missions aiming at producing 20GW (India’s energy consumption
2012: 100GW out of which 1GW was Solar energy) by 2020 is a big
step toward progress. Rural areas are now lit up with solar lamps. Solar
parks are also an emerging trend with Charanka Solar Park, Gujarat
Page no. 4
producing 20MW of energy. Government is also taking initiatives to
encourage people to make use of the sun by subsidizing electricity bills
for consumers using the solar panels. So if you make more energy than
you use, you will end up in a profit without even burning a calorie!
Going Solar is exciting but some challenges also need to be addressed.
Space constraints, weather constraints and expensive technology
involved do hinder the process. But with increase in production and
development of technology, prices will fall, demands increase and we
will be living in a cleaner, safer environment, making the energy we
need. Renewable sources of energy alone can ensure sustainable
development. Economic growth can also be ensured by energy reaching
to each and every household in turn increasing the productivity of
industries and standard of living of people. It is a bright future we have
ahead of us; the only thing is we need to focus the glare rather than
evading it.
The current market leader in efficient solar energy modules is Sun
Power, whose solar panels have a conversion ratio of 19.3%, with
Sanyo having the most efficient modules at 20.4%. However, a whole
range of other companies (Holo Sun, Gamma Solar, Nano Horizons) are
emerging which are also offering new innovations in photovoltaic
modules, with a conversion ratio of around 18%. These new innovations
include power generation on the front and back sides and increased
outputs; however, most of these companies have not yet produced
working systems from their design plans, and are mostly still actively
improving the technology.

SOLAR TRACKING AND MEASURING DEVICE

Solar tracking is a device that orients a payloads towards the sun.
Sunlight has two components the direct beam that carries about 90% of
solar energy, and the diffuse sun light carries the reminder. As the
Page no. 5
majority of solar energy carries by the direct beam. It is important to
find a direction of the direct beam. So our device can find the direction
of the solar energy which has maximum intensity and we will be able to
collect more and more energy at a particular time.
 On the other hand, we are able to measure
intensity of the sun light. We have made an integrated system which is
also able to measure current and the voltage so that we are able to
predict the voltage gain by our battery in a very short period of time.

Sun tracking principles-

The sun tacking device solar panel consists of two LDRS, solar panel,
stepper motor and ATMEGA16 micro controller.
Two light dependent resistors are arranged on the
edges of the solar panel light dependent resistors which produce low
resistance when light falls on them. We have connected the stepper
motor in the direction of the sun so that panel can be arranged in such a
way that the light on two LDRs which have high intensity i.e. low
resistance compared to the other. The stepper motor rotates the panel at
certain angle. When the intensity of the light falling on the right LDR is
more, panel slowly moves towards right and vice -versa. If the intensity
of the light becomes constant, then there will be no rotation.

Measurement Principles
We have used current sensor to measure current induced in our battery
and voltage sensor to measure voltage gain in our battery.
Page no. 6
We know that the output voltage and
current is in DC. So we can easily measure the solar power by using the
measuring device. Liquid crystal display is used to show the value of
current and voltage of solar panel. 5 volt supply has to be given to the
micro controller and crystal display so in this we are converting DC
voltage to AC voltage or for a constant 5volt supply we can use the
battery which can be chargeable from the solar power induced in our
system.

Hardware Components
1. Solar Panel:
A solar cell is a device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into
electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Sometimes the term solar cell is
reserved for devices intended specifically to capture energy from
sunlight such as solar panels and solar cells, while the term photovoltaic
cell is used when the light source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are
used to make solar panels, solar modules, and photovoltaic arrays.
Photovoltaic is the field of technology and research related to the
application of solar cells in producing electricity for practical use. An
alternative charger circuit is also provided to charge the mobile by
house hold general purpose 230V in the absence of the sun light. The
solar panel can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system
to generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential
applications. Each module is rated by its dc output power under
standard test conditions (STC), and typically ranges from 100 to 320
watts.
Page no. 7

1.1 History:
The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek φῶς (phōs) meaning
"light", and "voltaic", meaning electric, from the name of the Italian
physicist Volta, after whom a unit of electro-motive force, the volt, is
named. The term "photo-voltaic" has been in use in English since 1849.
The photovoltaic effect was first recognized in 1839 by French
physicist A. E. Becquerel. However, it was not until 1883 that the first
solar cell was built, by Charles Fritts, who coated the semiconductor
selenium with an extremely thin layer of gold to form the junctions. The
device was only around 1% efficient. Subsequently Russian physicist
Aleksandra Stoletov built the first solar cell based on the outer
photoelectric effect (discovered by Heinrich Hertz earlier in 1887).
Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect in 1905 for which he
received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. Russell Ohl patented the
modern junction semiconductor solar cell in 1946, which was
discovered while working on the series of advances that would lead to
the transistor. The highly efficient solar cell was first developed by
Chapin, Fuller and Pearson in 1954 using a diffused silicon p-n
junction. In the past four decades, remarkable progress has been made,
with Megawatt solar power generating plants having now been built.
A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged
interconnected assembly of solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell.
The solar panel is used as a component in a larger photovoltaic system
to offer electricity for commercial and residential applications. Because
a single solar panel can only produce a limited amount of power, many
installations contain several panels. This is known as a photovoltaic
Page no. 8
array. A photovoltaic installation typically includes an array of solar
panels, an inverter, batteries and interconnection wiring.
Solar cells are often electrically connected and encapsulated as a
module. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the front
(sun up) side, allowing light to pass while protecting the
Semiconductor wafers from the elements (rain, hail, etc.). Solar cells
are also usually connected in series in modules, creating an additive
voltage. Connecting cells in parallel will yield a higher current.
Modules are then interconnected, in series or parallel, or both, to create
an array with the desired peak DC voltage and current.
The power output of a solar array is measured in watts or kilowatts. In
order to calculate the typical energy needs of the application, a
measurement in watt-hours, kilowatt-hours or kilowatt-hours per day is
often used. A common rule of thumb is that average power is equal to
20% of peak power, so that each peak kilowatt of solar array output
power corresponds to energy production of 4.8 kWh per day (24 hours x
1 kW x 20% = 4.8 kWh).
To make practical use of the solar-generated energy, the electricity is
most often fed into the electricity grid using inverters (grid-connected
photovoltaic systems); in stand-alone systems, batteries are used to
store the energy that is not needed immediately.
Solar cells can also be applied to other electronics devices to make it
self-power sustainable in the sun. There are solar cell phone chargers,
solar bike light and solar camping lanterns that people can adopt for
daily use.

Page no. 9

1.2 Simple explanation:

  Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by
semiconducting materials, such as silicon.
 Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their
atoms, allowing them to flow through the material to produce
electricity. Due to the special composition of solar cells, the
electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction.
 An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount
of direct current (DC) electricity.

1.3 Photo Generation of charge carrier:

When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen:
1. the photon can pass straight through the silicon — this (generally)
happens for lower energy photons,
2. the photon can reflect off the surface,
3. The photon can be absorbed by the silicon, if the photon energy is
higher than the silicon band gap value. This generates an electron-hole

Page no. 10
pair and sometimes heat, depending on the band structure.
 When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in
the crystal lattice. Usually this electron is in the valence band, and is
tightly bound in covalent bonds between neighbouring atoms, and
hence unable to move far. The energy given to it by the photon
"excites" it into the conduction band, where it is free to move around
within the semiconductor. The covalent bond that the electron was
previously a part of now has one fewer electron — this is known as a
hole. The presence of a missing covalent bond allows the bonded
electrons of neighbouring atoms to move into the "hole," leaving
another hole behind, and in this way a hole can move through the
lattice. Thus, it can be said that photons absorbed in the semiconductor
create mobile electron-hole pairs.
A photon need only have greater energy than that of the band gap in
order to excite an electron from the valence band into the conduction
band. However, the solar frequency spectrum approximates a black
body spectrum at ~6000 K, and as such, much of the solar radiation
reaching the Earth is composed of photons with energies greater than
the band gap of silicon. These higher energy photons will be absorbed
by the solar cell, but the difference in energy between these photons and
the silicon band gap is converted into heat (via lattice vibrations —
called phonons) rather than into usable electrical energy.

If a piece of p-type silicon is placed in intimate contact with a piece of

n-type silicon, then a diffusion of electrons occurs from the region of
high electron concentration (the n-type side of the junction) into the
region of low electron concentration (p-type side of the junction). When
the electrons diffuse across the p-n junction, they recombine with holes
Page no. 11
on the p-type side. The diffusion of carriers does not happen
indefinitely, however, because charges build up on either side of the
junction and create an electric field. The electric field creates a diode
that promotes charge flow, known as drift current, that opposes and
eventually balances out the diffusion of electron and holes. This region
where electrons and holes have diffused across the junction is called the
depletion region because it no longer contains any mobile charge
carriers. It is also known as the space charge region.

1.4 Charge carrier separation:

There are two main modes for charge carrier separation in a solar cell:
1. Drift of carriers, driven by an
electrostatic field established across
the device
2. Diffusion of carriers from
zones of high carrier concentration
to zones of low carrier concentration
(following a gradient of
electrochemical potential). In the p-
n junction solar cells the dominant
mode of charge is by diffusion.
However, in thin films (such as
amorphous silicon) the main
mechanism to move the charge is
the electric field and therefore the
drift of carriers. The p-n junction
Main articles : semiconductor and p-
n junction. The most commonly
known solar cell is configured as a
large-area p-n junction made from
silicon. As a simplification, one can
Page no. 12
imagine bringing a layer of n-type
silicon into direct contact with a
layer of p-type silicon. In practice,
p-n junctions of silicon solar cells
are not made in this way, but rather
by diffusing an n type dopant into
one side of a p-type wafer (or vice
versa).
3.

1.5 Theory:
Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate
electricity through the photovoltaic effect (this is the photo-electric
effect). The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be
the top layer (superstrate) or the back layer (substrate). The majority of
modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or a thin-film cell
based on cadmium telluride or silicon. Crystalline silicon, which is
commonly used in the wafer form in photovoltaic (PV) modules, is
derived from silicon, a commonly used semi-conductor. With a pencil,
try this example to know the two types of energy. Put the pencil at the
edge of the desk and push it off to the floor. The moving pencil uses
kinetic energy. Now, pick up the pencil and put it back on the desk. You
used your own energy to lift and move the pencil. Moving it higher than
the floor adds energy to it. As it rests on the desk, the pencil has
potential energy. The higher it is, the further it could fall. That means
the pencil has more potential energy.

Page no. 13
Fig: Solar panel 12V,5W
In order to use the cells in practical applications, they must be :
Connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system
Protected from mechanical damage during manufacture, transport,
installation and use (in particular against hail impact, wind and snow
loads). This is especially important for wafer-based silicon cells which
are brittle.
Protected from moisture, which corrodes metal contacts and
interconnects, (and for thin-film cells the transparent conductive oxide
layer) thus decreasing performance and lifetime. Most modules are
usually rigid, but there are some flexible modules available, based on
thin-film cells.
Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output
voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired amount of current source
capability. Diodes are included to avoid overheating of cells in case of
partial shading. Since cell heating reduces the operating efficiency it is
desirable to minimize the heating. Very few modules incorporate any
design features to decrease temperature; however installers try to
Page no. 14
provide good ventilation behind the module.
New designs of module include concentrator modules in which the light
is concentrated by an array of lenses or mirrors onto an array of small
cells. This allows the use of cells with a very high-cost per unit area in a
cost-competitive way.
Depending on construction, the photovoltaic can cover a range of
frequencies of light and can produce electricity from them, but
sometimes cannot cover the entire solar spectrum (specifically,
ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of incident
sunlight energy is wasted when used for solar panels, although they can
give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light.
Another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength
ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to the appropriate
wavelength ranges. This is projected to raise efficiency by 50%. Also,
the use of infrared photovoltaic cells can increase the efficiencies,
producing power at night. To make sure we have plenty of energy in
the future, it's up to all of us to use energy wisely.
We must all conserve energy and use it efficiently. It's also up to those
who will create the new energy technologies of the future.
All energy sources have an impact on the environment. Concerns about
the greenhouse effect and global warming, air pollution, and energy
security have led to increasing interest and more development in
renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, wave power
and hydrogen but we'll need to continue to use fossil fuels and nuclear
energy until new, cleaner technologies can replace them. One of you
who is reading this might be another Albert Einstein or Marie Curie and
find a new source of energy. Until then, it's up to all of us.
Page no. 15
The future is ours, but we need energy to get there. Energy causes
things to happen around us. Look out the window.
During the day, the sun gives out light and heat energy. At night, street
lamps use electrical energy to light our way. When a car drives by, it is
being powered by gasoline, a type of stored energy. The food we eat
contains energy. We use that energy to work and play.

ATMEGA16 MICRO CONTROLLER-

The ATmega16is a low-power, high-performance advance RISC8-bit
microcontroller with 32K bytes of in-system programmable Flash
memory. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional non-volatile memory
programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system
programmable flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega16is a
powerful microcontroller, which provides a highly flexible and cost-
effective solution to many, embedded control applications. The
ATmega16provides the following standard features:32K bytes of Flash,
1024 byte of EEPROM & 2KB INTERNAL S RAM,32 I/O pins. It
operates between 4.5 to 5 volt. So it is perfect for our device.
KEY PARAMETER VALUE
Flash (KB) 16
Pin count 44
CPU 8-bit AVR
Max i/o pins 32

Page no. 16
MICRO CONTROLLER
A microcontroller is a single chip that contains the processor, non-
volatile memory for the program, volatile memory for input and output,
a clock and an I/O control unit also called a computer on a chip, billions
of microcontroller units are embedded each year in a myriad of products
from toys to appliances to automobiles. For example, a single vehicle
can use 70 or more microcontrollers. The following picture describes a
general block diagram of microcontroller.

PIC MICRO CONTROLLER-

Pic micro controller are a family of specialized microcontroller chips
produced by microchip technology in Arizona. They are electronic
circuit that can be programmed to carry out a vast range of task.

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR

Light Dependent Resistor is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. It
can also be referred to as a photoconductor. If light falling on the device
is of the high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor
give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band.
The resulting free electron conducts electricity, thereby lowering
resistance. Hence, Light Dependent Resistors is very useful in light
sensor circuits. LDR is very high-resistance, sometimes as high as

Page no. 17
10MΩ, when they are illuminated with light resistance drops

dramatically.
A Light Dependent Resistor is a resistor that changes in value according
to the light falling on it. A commonly used device, the ORP-12, has a
high resistance in the dark, and a low resistance in the light. Connecting
the LDR to the microcontroller is very straight forward, but some
software ‘calibrating’ is required. It should be remembered that the LDR
response is not linear, and so the readings will not change in exactly the
same way as with a potentiometer. In general there is a larger resistance
change at brighter light levels. This can be compensated for in the
software by using a smaller range at darker light levels.

Light Dependent Resistor

PHOTO DIODE
Photodiode is a light sensor which has a high speed and high sensitive
silicon PIN photodiode in a miniature flat plastic package. A photodiode

Page no. 18
is designed to be responsive to optical input. Due to its water clear
epoxy the device is sensitive to visible and infrared radiation. The large
active area combined with a flat case gives a high sensitivity at a wide
viewing angle. Photodiodes can be used in either zero bias or reverse
bias. In zero bias, light falling on the diode causes a voltage to develop
across the device, leading to a current in the forward bias direction. This
is called the photovoltaic effect, and is the basis for solar cells - in fact a
solar cell is just a large number of big, cheap photodiodes. Diodes
usually have extremely high resistance when reverse biased. This
resistance is reduced when light of an appropriate frequency shines on
the junction. Hence, a reverse biased diode can be used as a detector by
monitoring the current running through it. Circuits based on this effect
are more sensitive to light than ones based on the photovoltaic effect.

Different type of photo diodes

Page no. 19
Motor
Motor is use to drive the Solar Tracker to the best angle of exposure of
light. For this section, we are using stepper motor.

Stepper Motor
Features
 Linear speed control of stepper motor
 Control of acceleration, deceleration, max speed and number of
steps to move
 Driven by one timer interrupt
 Full - or half-stepping driving mode
 Supports all AVR devices with 16bit timer.

Introduction
This application note describes how to implement an exact linear speed
controller for stepper motors. The stepper motor is an electromagnetic
device that converts digital pulses into mechanical shaft rotation. Many
advantages are achieved using this kind of motors, such as higher
simplicity, since no brushes or contacts are present, low cost, high
reliability, high torque at low speeds, and high accuracy of motion.
Many systems with stepper motors need to control the
acceleration/deceleration when changing the speed. This application

Page no. 20
note presents a driver with a demo application, capable of controlling
acceleration as well as position and speed.

Stepper Motor

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

An LED is a very simple electronics component which lights up when
electricity flows through it. Since it is a diode, electricity can only flow
one way. There is usually a flat section on the side of the LED to mark

Page no. 21
its polarity: this side should be connected to ground. This side usually

also has a shorter leg. In order to prevent too much current flowing
through an LED and damaging it, it should be connected in series with a
resistor.

Light Emitting Diode

RESISTOR
A resistor is a component of a circuit that resists the flow of electrical
current. It has two terminals across which electricity must pass, and it is
designed to drop the voltage of the current as it flows from one terminal
to the other. Resistors are primarily used to create and maintain known
safe currents within electrical components. Resistance is measured in
ohms, after Ohm's law. This law states that electrical resistance is equal
to the drop in voltage across the terminals of the resistor divided by the
current being applied. A high ohm rating indicates a high resistance to
current. This rating can be written in a number of different ways - for
example, 81R represents 81 ohms, while 81K represents 81,000 ohms.
Page no. 22
Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of opposing the flow
of electric charge. This opposition is due to the collisions between
electrons that make up the materials. This physical property, or ability to
resist current, is known as resistance and is represented by the symbol R.
Resistance is expressed in ohms which is symbolized by the capital
Greek letter omega.

The resistance of any material is dictated by four factors:

 Material property-each material will oppose the flow of current

differently.
 Length-the longer the length, the more is the probability of
collisions and, hence, the larger the resistance.
 Cross-sectional area-the larger the area A, the easier it becomes for
electrons to flow and, hence, the lower the resistance.
 Temperature-typically, for metals, as temperature increases, the
resistance increases.

The amount of resistance offered by a resistor is determined by its

physical construction. A carbon composition resistor has resistive carbon
packed into a ceramic cylinder, while a carbon film resistor consists of a
similar ceramic tube, but has conductive carbon film wrapped around the
outside. Metal film or metal oxide resistors are made much the same
way, but with metal instead of carbon. A wire wound resistor, made with

Page no. 23
metal wire wrapped around clay, plastic, or fibre glass tubing, offers
resistance at higher power levels. Those used for applications that must
withstand high temperatures are typically made of materials such as
cermet’s, a ceramic-metal composite, or tantalum, a rare metal, so that
they can endure the heat.

Resistors are coated with paint or enamel, or covered in moulded plastic

to protect them. Because they are often too small to be written on, a
standardized color-coding system is used to identify them. The first three
colors represent ohm value, and a fourth indicates the tolerance, or how
close by percentage the resistor is to its ohm value. This is important for
two reasons: the nature of its construction is imprecise, and if used
above its maximum current, the value can change or the unit itself can
burn up. The circuit element used to model the current-resisting behavior
of a material is the resistor. For the purpose of constructing circuits,
resistors shown in Figure 4.22 are usually made from metallic alloys and
carbon compounds. The resistor is the simplest passive element.

Page no. 24
From top to bottom: W, W, and 1-W resistor

Page no. 25
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

BLOCK DAIGRAM-
Sun tracking solar panel –

Page no. 26
The block diagram for sun tracking is shown in the figure. Solar panel is
connected to the stepper motor. Solar panel consists of photovoltaic cells
arranged in an order. Light dependent resistors are the resistors whose
resisting values depend upon the intensity
intensity of the light. As the intensity of
light falling on the LDR increases, resistance value decreases. In dark,
LDR will have maximum resistance. LDR will output an analogue value
which should be converted to digital. This can be done using analogue to
digital converter.ATMEGA16 has analogue to digital converter
internally. Stepper motor rotates the panel in a stepwise angle. To drive
this motor a driver IC is used.

Circuit Diagram

Page no. 27
MEASURING SYSTEM –

Measuring system
The measuring system shown in figure. In this voltage and current
sensor is used in parallel way and Pic micro controller used in the series
and connected with the crystal display and power source. Here the 5 volt
power supply source used and source is chargeable using solar power.

Solar Panel Design for Hostel no.10

energy consumption per day.
Steps Involved:-
1. Find the energy consumption demand per day.
2. Sizing of PV Modules.
3. Battery Sizing

Page no. 28
DETERMINATION OF POWER CONSUMPTION
First step involved in designing of solar panel is to find out the consumption of
total energy per day of all loads that need to be supplied by the Solar PV Systems.

A. Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used.

Sum up all the watt hours needed for all appliances together to
get the total Watt-hours per day which must be delivered to the appliances
B. Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV
modules.
Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3 (the
energy lost in the system) to get the total Watt-hours per day which must be
provided by the panels.

MESS POWER CONSUMPTION (W.hr/day)

Serial Equipment name Quantity Rating Running time Total
no. (hours/ 24hours) Power
1. Bulb 26 60W 14/24 910
2. Bajaj Fan 35 500W (12*20/24, 6,229
3*13/24, 10*2/24)
3. Insect Killer Machine 4 20W 24/24 80
4. Water purifier 3 1550W 24/24 4,650
5. Tube light 1 28W 14/24 16.33
6. Two compact 32 18W 14/24 336
fluorescent Total =
Lamp 12,221.3
W.hr/day

There are 2 bathroom set in every floor. And there are 4 floors .So, for
total energy consumptions, it will be multiplied by 8.
Page no. 29
PER BATHROOM POWER CONSUMPTION (W.hr/day)
Serial Equipment Quantity Rating Running time Total Power
no. name (hours/ 24hours)
1. Tube light 6 28W 14/24 98
2. Led bulb 14 14W 14/24 115
(Wipro)
3. Exhaust fan 2 20W 18/24 30

Total = 243 W
Hence, Total power consumption = 243*8 = 1,944 W.hr/day

TV ROOM POWER CONSUMPTION (W.hr/day)

Serial Equipment Quantity Rating Running time Total Power
no. name (hours/ 24hours)
1. Fan 4 500W 3/24 250
2. TV 1 115W 3/24 15
3. Bulb 4 60w 2/24 20

Total = 285W.hr/day

Page no. 30
PER CORRIDOR (4*4=16)
8Serial Equipment Quantity Rating Running time Total Power
no. name (hours/ 24hours)
1. Two compact 75 18W 12/24 675
fluorescent
lamp
2. Large tubelight 16 28W 12/24 224
(bathroom
side)
Total = 899 W.hr/day
Hence, Total power consumption in corridor = 899*16 = 9,584W.hr/day

OTHER EQUIPMENTS USED IN ROOMS

Serial Equipments Rating Quantity Running time Total Power
no. (W) (hours/ 24hours) (W.hr/day)

1. Table lamp 12 17 7/24 60

2. Iron 750 7 10/(60*24) 37
3. Laptop 90 209 9/24 7,053
4. Speaker 4 17 1/24 3
5. Mobile 4 353 5/24 368
6. Heater 1000 12 1/24 500
7. Immersion 1500 33 10/(60*24) 344
Heater
Total = 8,365 W.hr/day

Page no. 31
MESS EQUIPMENT ENERGY CONSUMPTION
1. Roti making machine - 4-5 W * (5hr/day)
2. Weight Machine - 100 W* (18hr/day)
3. Motor Pump - 746 W* (13hr/day)
Total 480 W-hr/day
Total power consumption = ∑energy consumption (W-hr/day)
= ∑ (12,221.33 + 1944 + 285 + 9584
+ 480 + 8365 )
= 32,879 W ≈ 33 kW-hr/day

Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV

modules.
Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3 (the energy
lost in the system) to get
the total Watt-hours per day which must be provided by the panels.
So, total PV energy needed everyday = 33 * 1.3 = 42.9 kW-hr/day.
Definition of Watt Peak ( Wp )
Kilowatt peak stands for peak power. This value indicates the
yield control accomplished by a Solar module under full sunlight based
radiation (under set Standard Test Conditions). Sun based radiation of 1,000
watts for each square meter is used to characterize standard conditions. The
peak power is sometimes written as "P = 1 kWp" as opposed to "Ppeak = 1 kW".
In the context of domestic PV installations, the kilowatt (kW) is the most
common unit for peak power, sometimes stated as kWp.

SIZING OF PHOTO VOLTAIC MODULE

Diverse size of PV modules will create distinctive measure of force. To
calculate the power measuring of PV module, the peak watt (Wp) must be
needed to calculate.
Page no. 32
 (Wp) is used in solar life because of the changing mode of climate.
So, Panel generation factor comes into role. This uses to take different
values in different areas. The pinnacle watt (Wp) created relies on upon size
of the PV module and atmosphere of site area. We need to consider "board era
figure" which is distinctive in each site area. For India, the panel generation
factor is around 4.32. To determine the sizing of PV modules, calculate as
follows:-
2.1 Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules
Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules (from
total W-hr/day) by 4.32 to get the total Watt-peak rating needed for the PV
panels needed to operate the appliances.
2.2 Calculate the number of PV panels for the system
Divide the answer obtained in item 2.1 by the rated output Watt-peak of
the PV modules available to. Increase any fractional part of result to the next
highest full number and that will be the number of PV modules required.

Hence,
2.1 ) Total Wp of PV panel = 42.9 kW-hr/day / 4.32
capacity needed
≈ 9930.56 Wp
2.2 ) Number of PV panels of
= 9930.56/ 100
100W needed
≈ 100 modules
So, power needed = 42.9 kW-hr/day.
But solar collection in Bhopal annually is approx 5.61kWh/m^2.

Page no. 33
Mono Crystalline 100 Wp Solar panel Specifications
Maximum power (Wp) 100Wp
Maximum Voltage 17.6V
Maximum System Voltage 1000V
Maximum current (Imp) 5.68A
Open circuit Voltage (Voc) 21.8V
Short circuit current (Isc) 5.06A
Size 1250*808*35 mm^3
Weight 12.5kg

Poly Crystalline 100 Wp Solar Panel Specifications

Maximum power (Wp) 100Wp
Maximum Voltage 17V
Open circuit Voltage (Voc) 21V
Maximum current (Imp) 5.26A
Short circuit current (Isc) 5.63A
Size 1145x665x34 mm^3
Weight 8.6kg
Maximum System Voltage 600V

Page no. 34
Below displayed are the images of solar irradiation data which we have
collected from the Bhopal irradiation data available online.

Solar horizontally irradiation Data in our college

Page no. 35
Actually we have determined the free place in our hostel. We have gone
through the free place covered by the roof location. Below is the image
of calculated free space in our hostel.

Space Management for Location of

Solar panels
• Here, we have taken scale of 1 foot = 90cm
 Roof area calculations = (10*53*2 + 10*51 + 10*49
+ 12*10*2 + 5*7*2) square foot
 Corridor area = (6*10 + 47*3 + 5*9) square foot
 Mess roof area = (29*17 ) square foot
 TV room roof area = (17 * 12 ) square foot
 Hence, total area = 3313 square foot
 Now conversion to SI Unit = 3313 * 90 * 90 / 10^4 = 2683.53 m^2

On the other hand we also calculated the total

space covered by the total no of panels designed to find
out the locations of panels where they are to be installed.

Page no. 36
 Total area required for installment
of Solar Panel
• Mono crystalline captured space = 1250*808 mm^2
= 10,10,000 mm^2
= 1.01 m^2
Total area for mono crystalline panel = 100*1.01
= 101 m^2
• Poly crystalline captured space =1145*665 mm^2
= 0.76 mm ^2
Total area for poly crystalline panel = 100*0.76
= 76 m^2
 Space for installing mono and poly crystalline panels
= 1343.53 m^2 & 1675.01 m^2 respectively

Below discussed image says about how to collect more irradiation of

solar panel. If we use the mirrors in front of the solar panel, the reflected
light will strike with the mirror put over there and then some of the parts
will again go back to strike the panel after getting reflected from the
solar panel. We tested this phenomenon in the solar panel of 5W, the
current of 0.07A was observed to flow. After using the mirror, The
current flown was approximately doubled.

Page no. 37
 How to collect more sunlight on
panels

We have calculated the total installment cost of solar modules for the
total energy consumption of hostel no. 10 to compare it with the
ordinary method without tracking mode and to determine the payback
period.
It consisted of the cost of equipment used for the production of 43 kW of
energy produced by solar panels. It has also included service cost, labour
cost plus electrical peripheral cost. Total cost is found to be
5,61,250/-.

Page no. 38
 Total cost for installation of panels in
Hostel no. 10
Serial Equipment No of Rate Total cost
no. name items
1. Solar 100 3500- 3,75,000/-
modules 4000

2. Servo motor 100 600-900 75,000/-

(10
rpm)
3. Board 100 1,000 1,00,000/-
(including
all parts )

1.Total installation cost = Σ (3,75,000+ 75,000+

1,00,000)
= 550,000 /-
2.Service cost
Service cost(including labor , supervision etc.) = 4000/KW
Total Labor cost = 43*4000 /24 = 7,166.67/-

Page no. 39
3.Electrical peripheral cost
Electrical peripheral cost = 2000/KW
Total electrical peripheral cost = 2000*43/24 =
3,583.66/-
• Total cost for solar = (Total installation cost + Total
Labor cost
+ Peripheral cost)
= 5,50,500 + 7,166.67+3,583.66
= 5,61,250/-

PAYBACK TIME CALCULATION

 Calculated payback time is approx 3 months.
 Payback period is the length of time required for an
investment to recover its initial outlay in terms of profits or
savings.

Payback time = 561,250/(42.9*24*6)

= 90.85 day
≈ 3 months

Page no. 40
Programming used for Automated Tracking
of Solar Panel
#include <Servo.h>
//defining Servos
Servo servohori;
int servoh = 0;
int servohLimitHigh = 160;
int servohLimitLow = 20;

Servo servoverti;
int servov = 0;
int servovLimitHigh = 160;
int servovLimitLow = 20;
//Assigning LDRs
int ldrtopl = 2; //top left LDR green
int ldrtopr = 1; //top right LDR yellow
int ldrbotl = 3; // bottom left LDR blue
int ldrbotr = 0; // bottom right LDR orange

void setup ()
{
servohori.attach(10);
servohori.write(0);
servoverti.attach(9);
servoverti.write(0);
delay(500);
}

void loop( )
{
servoh = servohori.read();
servov = servoverti.read();
Page no. 41
//capturing analog values of each LDR
int topl = analogRead(ldrtopl);
int topr = analogRead(ldrtopr);
int botl = analogRead(ldrbotl);
int botr = analogRead(ldrbotr);
// calculating average
int avgtop = (topl + topr) / 2; //average of top LDRs
int avgbot = (botl + botr) / 2; //average of bottom LDRs
int avgleft = (topl + botl) / 2; //average of left LDRs
int avgright = (topr + botr) / 2; //average of right LDRs

if (avgtop < avgbot)

{
servoverti.write(servov +1);
if (servov > servovLimitHigh)
{
servov = servovLimitHigh;
}
delay(10);
}
else if (avgbot < avgtop)
{
servoverti.write(servov -1);
if (servov < servovLimitLow)
{
servov = servovLimitLow;
}
delay(10);
}
else
{
servoverti.write(servov);
}

Page no. 42
 if (avgleft > avgright)
{
servohori.write(servoh +1);
if (servoh > servohLimitHigh)
{
servoh = servohLimitHigh;
}
delay(10);
}
else if (avgright > avgleft)
{
servohori.write(servoh -1);
if (servoh < servohLimitLow)
{
servoh = servohLimitLow;
}
delay(10);
}
else
{
servohori.write(servoh);
}
delay(50);
}

Solar Tracker Applications

• These panel can be used to power the traffic lights and streetlights.
• It can be used in industries as more money can be saved by
rotating panel.

Page no. 43
Solar tracker advantage
• The solar energy can be reused and this also saves money.
• After achieving the payback lifetime period of our device, the
operational costs turn out to be almost bupkis.
• By using this we can collect more power at a particular time

References:-
• Wikipedia
• Electronic hub
• "First Breakthrough In Solar Photovoltaic Module Recycling,
Experts Say". European Photovoltaic Industry Association
• Solar-tracking.com
• http://www.ezysolare.com/
• http://www.dummies.com
• http://www.electronicshub.org
• http://www.gaisma.com/en/location/bhopal.html
• http://www.roboversity.com/
• https://www.engineersgarage.com
• https://www.engineersgarage.com
• http://robokits.co.in/motors/stepper-motors/stepper-motor-5v-
unipolar-arduino-compatible?gclid=CLe-
nKm739ICFVQWaAodh2cH8A&zenid=51ugf8a1kkngr43j12s4e9
g763

Page no. 44