ISGTI 2018

7-8April2018, IIT Delhi, India

Soil Treatment with Lime for Fine Clayey Soils: an Economical Solution for
Subgrade, Sub Base, Base & Capping Layers

Denayer Christophe, M.Sc, MBA

Carmeuse Europe - Boulevard de Lauzelle 65, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
e-mail: christophe.denayer@carmeuse.com

Tebaldi Gabriele, Ph.D., P.E.

University of Parma, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and ArchitectureRoad & Transport Section, Parco Area delleScienze,
181/A, 43100 Parma, Italy,
e-mail : gtebaldi@unipr.it

Amit Kumar, B. Tech Metallurgical and Materials Eng.

Carmeuse Middle East & Asia, Po Box no 371748,Building no 6WA, office no 116, Dubai Airport free zone, Dubai, UAE
e-mail: amit.kumar@carmeuse.com

Larisa Cristina Soporan, M.Sc.

Carmeuse Holding – 127A Carierei Street, Brasov, Romania
e-mail :larisa.soporan@carmeuse.ro

ABSTRACT: Clayey soils have a poor rating as subgrade for road construction due to the tendency to swell by
absorbing water and to shrink by drying out. However, when lime is mixed into the clayey soil, the soil is not only dried
out, but also modified by flocculation. At this stage, the plasticity index of the soil is highly reduced, and the soil
becomes friable and granular, making it easier to work and compact. Gradual hardening of the mixture, thanks to bonds
formed by pozzolanic reactions between clay and lime will increase the bearing capacity. Compacted clayey soils result
in flexible, permanent structural layers for subgrade, sub base, base & capping layers. Soil treatment with lime is a
proven method to build durable basement materials on the base of fine clayey soils, for all type of roads, highways,
railways, airports …
Keywords:soil treatment, soil stabilization, lime, clayey earthworks, capping layer

1. Introduction analysis, and is in function of the required performances.

Soil treatment with lime is a technique where fine soils
are mixed in-situ, in order to obtain flexible, permanent
structural layers like subgrade, sub bases, bases and
capping layers for all types of roads, highways and
railways construction and also un-paved country road and
temporary service roads.
Lime addition into fine soils creates different effects. The
first effect, soil drying, is a rapid decrease in soil
moisture content due to the chemical reaction between
water and quicklime (calcium oxide) into a moist soil by
the formation of calcium hydroxide. The second effect,
soil modification, include the reduction in soil plasticity,
increase in optimum moisture content, decrease in
maximum dry density, improved compactability,
reduction of the soil’s capacity to swell and shrink, and
improved strength and stability after compaction. These
effects generally take place within 1 to 48 hours. The
third and last effect, soil stabilization, is due to the clay
flocculation made by the physical-chemical reaction
among clay components and calcium - induced by the pH
increase – changing soil particles size and making a
heterogeneous size distribution.
The quantity of lime addition - expressed as a percentage
of dry soil – is determined in laboratory after soil
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Soil treatment with lime produces long-term strength and
as well as a permanent reduction in shrinking, swelling,
and soil plasticity, resulting in durable, flexible basement
materials.
2. Assessment of Suitability for Lime Stabilization
2.1 Soil classification
Not all types of fine soils are suitable for soil
stabilization. AASHTO M 145 or ASTM D3282
classifies soils in different classes, based on particle size
distribution, liquid limit and plasticity index.
Soil stabilization with lime is suitable in very cohesive
soils with a “fair to poor” subgrade rating like soils of
class A2-6, A2-7, A6 and A7. In addition, class A5 is
suitable, having a plasticity index above 8%.
2.2 Limited Quantity of Organic Materials
Different test-methods can be used to determine the
organic content of in situ soils. The method prescribed in
AFNORNF 94-055 - used in Italy&France - evaluating
organic substances by oxidation using potassium
dichromate. Soil treatment with lime is suitable as results
are below 2% of organic content. The limit of 2% can be
exceeded –it differs from country to country – in general
4% being the maximum acceptable amount - as long as
the requirements of resistance are satisfied. Ca(OH)2
Soils with organic materials exceeding the limits are
difficult to stabilize or may require uneconomical
quantities of lime.

2.3 Limited Content of Sulphur Salts

This is recommended for areas where sulphate
contamination in soils is known. Lime addition is still
feasible, however only in case of limited content of
sulphur salts (sulphates and sulphides).
The total content of sulphur salts, can be evaluated
according UNI 8520 part 11. Results must be lower than
0,25%. Some soils with a content of sulphates between
0,25% and 1% can be accepted only after a detailed soil
study in laboratory. The soils with sulphate content
higher than 1% should be replaced by soils with lower
sulphur salts or local suitable quarry materials.
High sulphate concentrations can cause deleterious
reactions, similar as sulphate attack in concrete, that can
lead to loss of stability and heave.
3. Immediate Lime Consumption
3.1 Lime-Soil Interactions
Clay at his natural moisture content forms a colloidal
solution. A colloid is a substance at a fine-grained
dispersed state between a homogeneous solution and a
heterogeneous suspension. This “micro-heterogeneous”
state consists in two phases: a microscopic dimensioned
substance (diameter between 10-9 m to 10-6 m) dispersed
in a continuous phase.
Table-1 Dimensions of particles in solution
Fig. 1: colloidal solution of clayey soil (top) and
clay-flocculation due to Ca2+(below)
At this stage, the plasticity index is highly reduced and
the soil becomes friable and granular, making it easier to
work and compact. Due to increased pH of soil-mixture,
alumina and silica present in clay-particles are
solubilized. After compaction, pozzolanic reactions are
starting, between calcium ions, hydroxide ions, soluble
silicates and alumina, resulting in gradual hardening, by
the creation of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and
calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH). Those reactions are
similar as the hydration process of Portland cement:
(2)
(3)
3.2 Lime Specifications
Building limes for soil treatment are classified according
EN 459-1 with CE-marking for the products within the
European Union. Only limes of category CL 90 and CL
80 are suitable for soil treatment.

< 10-9 m 10-9 - 10-6 m > 10-6 m Table-2Chemical requirements for lime for soil treatment
Homogeneous Colloidal Heterogeneous (according EN 459-1)
solution solution suspension Av.
Constit. CaO
MgO CO2 SO3 lime
% +MgO
(*)
By adding quick lime (calcium oxide) into the soil at
CL 90 ≥ 90 ≤5 ≤4 ≤2 ≥ 80
natural moisture content, soil will dry out due to the
reaction between calcium oxide and water, resulting in CL 80 ≥ 80 ≤5 ≤7 ≤2 ≥ 65
calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime). This is an exothermic (*)Av. lime: available lime. These are minimum
reaction: requirements, because the designer may request higher
values, to optimize the lime consumption for the projects
(1) (see paragraph 4).

In case of quicklime, some additional requirements have

Calcium hydroxide, in the presence of water, will be split to be performed on particle size distribution and
into Ca2+ and OH- ions, which are increasing the pH of reactivity according EN 14227-11.
the solution. In these conditions, Ca2+ ions will fix the
clay particles around them creating macro-particles which
Table-3Physical requirements, concerning particle size
are very stable. This process is called clay flocculation.
distribution for quick lime

Passing on Sieve
[%]
[mm]
5 100
2 ≥ 95
0,2 ≥ 70
0,09 ≥ 50

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Paper title

Table 4 and table 5 gives information about USA-

Concerning reactivity, quick lime shall attain a requirements in function of the application, and classes
temperature of 60 °C within 25 minutes. for designers according European standards.

3.3 Immediate Lime Consumption Table-4AASHTO-DoT (USA) compressive strength

The test consists in measuring pH of a soil-lime mixture, specifications for soil-mixtures with lime in relation to
starting at 2% by mass addition of lime. Lime addition is the application (sub base, base) and climate conditions
increased in steps of 0,5%, until a value superior to 12,4
at 25°C is obtained. The minimum lime content, reaching 8 days 3 FT 7 FT 10 FT
the threshold of 12,4, is defined as the immediate lime Min. CS [N/mm2]
soaked cycles cycles Cycles
consumption.
The procedures are prescribed in ASTM D 6276 – Eades Sub base
and Grim pH test. The reason for high pH is linked to Rigid pavement/floor
satisfy immediate lime-soil reactions and still provide 0.35 0.35 0.62 0.82
slab/foundations
significant residual calcium to provide proper conditions
for the long-term pozzolanic reactions. Flexible pavement
0.42 0.42 0.69 0.90
(>25cm)
4. Lime Optimization Flexible pavement
0.48 0.48 0.69 0.97
During the soil analysis in the laboratory, additional (20-25cm)
Flexible pavement
information on the density of soil in function of the 0.62 0.62 0.90 1.10
moisture content and in relation to the quantity of lime (13-20cm)
added has to be measured, to ensure bearing capacity Base
performances on compacted soils in practice. 0.90 0.90 1.17 1.40
4.1 Maximum Dry Density & Optimum Moisture
Content Table-5compressive strength according EN 14227-11
Manufacture natural soil and soil-mixed specimens in
accordance with EN 13286-50 at standard Proctor Compressive Strength[MPa] Class
compaction. Determine first the maximum dry density
and optimum moisture content according EN 13286-2 for ≥ 0.2 Rc 0.2
5 soil specimens at different moisture content, followed ≥ 0.5 Rc 0.5
by 5 specimens with lime added to the soil, also at ≥ 1.0 Rc1.0
different moisture contents. By extrapolation, the Other declared value but not less than 0.2 MPa Rc DV
maximum dry density can be visualized in graph-form.

4.3 Mechanical Performance

Fig. 2: maximum dry density for natural soil, and soil
added with lime, at different moisture content
4.2 Compressive Strength on Proctor Specimens
Manufacture natural soil and soil-mixed specimens in
accordance with EN 13286-50 at standard Proctor
compaction. Determine compressive strength - after a
conditioning period of 28 days - that ensures adequate
field performance in a cyclic freezing and thawing and an
extended soaking environment.
The California bearing ratio (CBR) is a penetration test
for evaluation of the mechanical strength of road
subgrades and base courses. It was developed by the
California Department of Transportation.
The test is performed by measuring the pressure required
to penetrate a soil sample with a plunger of standard
surface area. The measured pressure is then divided by
the pressure required to achieve an equal penetration on a
standard crushed rock material. The CBR test is
described in EN 13286-47.
The harder the surface, the higher the CBR value. A
CBR of 5 equates to moist clay, while moist sand may
have a CBR of 10. High quality crushed rock has a CBR
over 80. The standard material for this test is crushed
Californian limestone which has a value of 100. It is not
excluded to achieve CBR-values higher than 100, on
samples of fine clayey soils, treated with lime.
It is acknowledged as a good practice, to measure CBR
after 11 days, this means after 7 days (air-conditioning),
followed by 4 days soaking. During the first 7 days,
specimens shall be prevented from drying out and
temperature shall be maintained at (20 2) °C. The
reason for this is related to pozzolanic reactions between
soil and lime that should be completed. After that period,

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 the test specimens shall undergo soaking for 4 days at aexothermic reaction caused with water and quicklime can
temperature of (20 2) °C. heat up the soil. Quicklime is excellent for drying wet
soils.
Table-6Californian Bearing Ratio according EN 14227- Hydrated lime, or hydrated lime, can be used for drying
11 clay, but it is not as effective as quicklime. Hydrated lime
particles are very fine, so that dust can be a problem,
CBR after 4 days soaking (or other longer rendering this type of application generally unsuitable for
Class
specified) populated areas. For populated areas, a coarser milled
≥ 15 CBR15 quicklime or lime slurry (mix of lime & water) can
≥ 20 and not less than the immediate bearing index CBR20 become an option.
≥ 30 and not less than the immediate bearing index CBR30
5.3 Mixing
≥40 and not less than the immediate bearing index CBR40
If quicklime is used, it is essential that all particles have
≥50 and not less than the immediate bearing index CBR50
hydrated and well-mixed into the soil. Additional water
Declared value (but not less than 15) CBRDV
may be required during final mixing (prior to
4.4 Volumetric swelling after 4 days soaking compaction) to bring the soil to 3 percent above optimum
Volumetric swelling, determined on fully soaked moisture content of the treated material.
(immersed) CBR specimens in accordance with EN
5.4 Compaction
13286-47 - using water that is continuously aerated - is
Initial compaction is usually performed as soon as
recommended to be below 1%. This information gives us
possible after mixing, using a sheep-foot type roller or a
an idea on how the quantity of lime in the mix-design is
vibratory pad-foot roller. After the section is shaped, final
sufficient to stabilize the clay-particles. In some
compaction can be accomplished using a smooth drum
situations, max. 2% can be allowed, and even higher.
roller or pneumatic roller compactor. The equipment
However, a complementary study should be made,
should be appropriate for the depth of the section being
according to experience at the place of use.
constructed.
In warm weather and when the soil is wet, it is advisable
5. Execution to carry out the compaction 2 to 4 hours after mixing, to
The construction steps involved in soil treatment for road give the unslaked lime ample time to bind with water and
in place mixing are similar for stabilization and evaporate. If risk of rain, the compaction of the soil
modification. Generally, stabilization requires more lime should be done before any water can again penetrate the
and job control than modification. Basic steps include treated layers.
1. preparation of soil,
2. spreading of lime, 5.5 Curing & Protection
3. eventually adding water and mixing, The surface of the subgrade, sub base or base should be
4. compacting to maximum (practical) density, and kept moist until loaded construction equipment can drive
5. curing prior to placing the next layer or wearing over it without rutting formation. Drying time is about 1
course. hour to 1 day, depending on outside temperatures and
quantity of lime, to achieve enough bearing capacity for
5.1 Preparation of the Soil temporary access construction haulage roads, or next
This operation is not always necessary. It may be carried layer of the basement.
out with a ripper, a harrow or a plough. Part of the aim of
ploughing is to remove larger stones or gravel (>10 cm) 6. Control on Site
present in the soil which might harm the mixing unit.
Additionally, it helps to modify the humidity of the soil 6.1 Quantity of Moisture Content in the Soil
by ventilating or moistening it. It is recommended - before starting the working day - to
measure the moisture content of the soil. This gives
5.2 Lime Spreading additional data to the contractor to determine his daily
Lime is supplied pneumatically to the spreader, either lime consumption.
directly from the silo vehicle or by using buffer silos. If moisture is above optimum moisture content, quick
Lime is dispersed using a spreader fitted with a weighing lime shall be used. If moisture content is below optimum
device. This operation should be carried out with a moisture content, hydrated lime, eventually by adding
maximum of precision and regularity. The type of lime additional water will be used.
dispersed, quick lime or hydrated lime, should be based
on multiple considerations, such as contractor experience, 6.2 Quantity of Lime Dispersed by Spreader
equipment availability, and soil moisture. It is recommended to execute every day a quality control
Quicklime, or calcium oxide, is a more concentrated form on the quantity of lime dispersed by the spreader. This
of lime than hydrated lime, containing 20 to 24 percent quantity of lime can easily be measured by a weigh-
more “available” lime oxide content. Thus, about 3 balance & using a metal plate of 0,5 m x 0,5 m, on which
percent quicklime is equivalent to 4 percent hydrated the lime falls by passing over by the spreader.
lime when conditions allow full hydration of the
quicklime with enough moisture. Quicklime has also a 6.3 Static Plate Load Test on Compacted Soil
greater bulk density, requiring smaller storage facilities. To control the quality of executed compaction, a static
The construction season may be extended because the plate load test is an easy and quick method to have an
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Paper title

idea about the bearing capacity of the compacted layer in Transport to landfill site 6.00
situ.
The plate load test – plate of approx. 200 cm² - is used to Tax landfill (1,7 T/m3 x 6€/T) 10.20
measure the deflection or deformation modulus (in USA: Purchase aggregates (2 T/m3 x 6€/T) 12.00
modulus of subgrade reaction) of compacted soil in situ.
The vertical load on the plate is applied in steps through a Transport aggregates to yard (7€/T x 2T) 14.00
hydraulic jack and a counterweight. The resulting surface Grading and Compacting aggregates 2.00
deflection or penetration of the plate is read after
stabilization at three points spread over 120° from a fixed TOTAL 46.20
frame. The average deflection is calculated and this
Soil Treatment with Lime
allows the determination of the deflection or deformation
modulus. €/m3
The requested performances depend on the application
(subgrade, sub base, base) and are in function of the Excavation of Soil 2.00
compaction of soil-lime mixtures. However, similar Transport Soil to Embankment 2.00
values as compacted quarry aggregates can be achieved
with lime treatment. An example of procedures Disposal of Soil in Embankment 0.50
concerning the static plate load test can be found in Purchase lime (3%x1,7T/m3 x 120€/T) 6.12
AASHTO T 222 and ASTM D 1196.
Mixing and Spreading 2.50
7. Economical Solution Grading and Compacting Soil 2.00

7.1 Time Savings TOTAL 15.12

Soil treatment with lime is reducing the construction time
considerably compared to the traditional method, named
dig & dump. In the traditional method, soil has to be
excavated and transported – truck by truck - to a landfill,
as well as truck by truck of new aggregates has to be
placed on the embankment, and compacted as well.
Those operations are not only expensive (see paragraph
7.2.) but they are also time consuming.
7.2 Environmental Friendly Solution
The technique of soil treatment with lime is an
environmental friendly solution, because one truck
movement of lime (= delivery of 30 T of lime by silo
truck), is replacing 100 movements of trucks:
35 trucks to remove soil to landfill
35 trucks bringing new aggregates to the yard
The taxes for landfilling of excavated soils can be
avoided.
7.3 Important Cost Savings
The use of soil treatment in road construction is a very
economical solution, compared to the traditional method
where existing soil is removed and replaced by local
quarry aggregates.
In the example below, the following assumptions are
made in the benchmarking for cost calculations:
quarry at a distance of 20 km
disposal site for landfill at 20 km
300 m between excavation & embankment
landfill taxes at 6 €/T.
Table-7costs traditional method compared to soil
treatment (Western Europe reference prices 2017)
Replacement of Soil by Aggregates
€/m3
Excavation of Soil 2.00
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This type of cost calculation should be made for each
individual project or road construction. Savings of more
than 60% - compared to traditional method - are usual
and common.
8. Conclusions
The use of lime in soil treatment in road construction is a
proven method. The concept to mix clayey soils, resulting
in durable basement materials is recognized all over the
world.
This concept can also be used to mix soils and dirty
aggregates in a stationary mixing plant, to produce a
building material that can be compacted for road
construction or filling material.
References
AssociazioneLaboratori di Ingegneria e Geotecnica
(Italy), QuaderniTecnici A.L.I.G. n°3, October 2013
National Lime Association, Mixture Design and Testing
Procedures, for Lime Stabilized Soil, www.lime.org,
October 2006
National Lime Association, Lime Treated Soils save
Money & Time, www.lime.org, 2005
Dallas N. Little, F.A.M. Shafee Yusuf, Example problem
illustrating the application of the National Lime
Association Mixture Design and Testing Protocol
(MDTP), www.lime.org, September 2001
Dallas N. Little, Stabilization of pavement subgrades and
base courses with lime, Kendall/Hunt Publishing
Company, Dubuque, Iowa 52002, 1995
Fediex, section lime, Soil Treatment using Lime,
www.chauxflash.be
Service d’Etudes techniques des routes et autoroutes
SETRA - Guide Technique – Traitement des sols à la
chaux et/ou aux liantshydrauliques,
 RépubliqueFrançaise, Ministère de l’Ecologie du
Développement et de l’Aménagement, septembre 2007
AASHTO M 145 : Standard Specifications for
Classification of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures for
Highway Construction Purposes
ASTM D3282 : Standard Practice for Classification of
Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures for Highway
Construction Purposes
AFNOR NF 94-055 : Détermination de la
teneurpondéraleenmatièresorganiques d'un sol -
méthodechimique
UNI 8520 Parte 11 : Determinazione del contenuto in
Solfati
EN 459-1 : Building lime
EN 459-2 : Building lime – Test methods
EN14227-11 : Hydraulically bound mixtures -
Specifications - Part 11: Soil treated by lime
ASTM D6276 - 99a(2006)e1 : Standard Test Method for
Using pH to Estimate the Soil-Lime Proportion
Requirement for Soil Stabilization:
EN 13286-2 : Unbound and hydraulically bound mixtures
- Part 2: Test method for the determination of the
laboratory reference density and water content - Proctor
compaction
EN 13286-41 : Unbound and hydraulically bound
mixtures - Part 41: Test method for the determination of
the compressive strength of hydraulically bound
mixtures
EN 13286-47: Unbound and hydraulically bound
mixtures. Test method for the determination of
California bearing ratio, immediate bearing index and
linear swelling
EN 13286-50 : Unbound and hydraulically bound
mixtures - Part 50: Methods for making test specimens
using proctor equipment or vibrating table compaction
AASHTO T 222 and ASTM D 1196: Standard Method
of Test for Nonrepetitive Static Plate Load Test of Soils
and Flexible Pavement Components, for Use in
Evaluation and Design of Airport and Highway
Pavements

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