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Ecology of Food and Nutrition

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The impact of television food

advertisements on dietary behaviour of
Bahraini housewives
a
Abdulrahman Obaid Musaiger
a
Nutrition Unit , Ministry of Health, Directorate of Public Health ,
Manama, Bahrain
Published online: 31 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: Abdulrahman Obaid Musaiger (1983) The impact of television food advertisements
on dietary behaviour of Bahraini housewives , Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 13:2, 109-114, DOI:
10.1080/03670244.1983.9990741

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 Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 1983, Vol. 13, pp. 109-114 © Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Inc., 1983
0367-0244/83/1302-0109 $18.50/0 Printed in the United Kingdom

THE IMPACT OF TELEVISION FOOD ADVERTISEMENTS

ON DIETARY BEHAVIOUR OF BAHRAINI HOUSEWIVES†
ABDULRAHMAN OBAID MUSAIGER
Nutrition Unit, Ministry of Health, Directorate of Public Health,
Manama, Bahrain
(Received June 17, 1982; in final form October 28, 1982)

Advertising is believed to be responsible for many changes in food habits. This paper aims to study the effect of
television food advertisements on dietary behaviour of Bahraini housewives.
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The housewives were interviewed twice in their homes, before and after exposure to certain food advertisements. A
sample of 1260 households was randomly drawn from Manama City (the capital of Bahrain), for the first interview.
Whereas a sub-sample of 310 households was randomly selected for the second interview.
The study showed that 42 percent and 47 percent of the housewives believed and moderately believed in food
advertisement claims, respectively. Three new food advertisements were viewed during the study period (Galactina
Baby Foods, C.P. Tea Bag and Fresh-up fruit drinks). Of the housewives, 41.6 percent used Fresh-up drinks, 25 percent
used Galactina Baby Foods and 1.6 percent used C.P. Tea Bag. Findings suggest that advertising plays an important role
in modifying dietary habits of Bahraini housewives.
KEY WORDS: food advertisements; television; baby foods; Bahrain.

INTRODUCTION Misleading advertising claims could take various

It is widely accepted that food advertising has an
influence on what we eat. Many new food items
and practices become popular and replace the old
ones; carbonated drinks instead of fresh drinks,
infant formula instead of breast milk and canned
foods instead of fresh foods. The advertising of
freezers, pressure cookers, mixers and many other
food utensils has also made a change in prepara-
tion of foods. Blizard (unpublished report) found
that there is a close positive association between
consumption of some food products and advertis-
ing media.
Advertising may induce many unsound food
habits by promoting unnecessary food items and
providing misleading information. Researchers
(Smith et al., 1972; Resnik and Stern, 1977)
showed that many food and health advertisements
were misleading and non-informative, respec-
tively.
† Data for this paper are taken from a thesis submitted by
Abdulrahman O. Musaiger in partial fulfillment of the require-
ments for Doctor of Public Health, specializing in Nutrition, at
the High Institute of Public Health, University of Alexandria,
Egypt.
109
forms. Cohen (1974) explained these forms,
where the claim could be false, or it could be partially true and
partially false, or the claim contains insufficient information, or
it may be true but the proof is false, or the claim may be "literally"
or "technically" true but creates a false implication.
The adverse effect of food advertising on food
consumption is clearly apparent in both developed
and developing countries. But the problem may be
more serious in many developing countries due to
poverty, illiteracy and lack or absence of regula-
tion on food advertisements, and thus may lead to
nutritional disorders. For example, advertising of
infant foods is one of the reasons given for discon-
tinuance of breast feeding in some Asian countries
(Valyasevi and Baker, 1980).
In many communities the advertising of food
products led some of the poor families to a false
belief that these products are superior to other
cheaper foods. This may divert their eating into
poor food habits (Popkin and Latham, 1973).
In Bahrain advertising has developed rapidly
because of many factors: First, establishment of
Bahrain Television Station (in 1974) and Bahrain
English Commercial radio broadcasting (in 1977);
second, industrialization, which lead to extensive
marketing activity; third, mass market which
includes a large number of consumers with differ-
 110 A. O. MUSAIGER
ent nationalities; fourth, the relatively high pur-
chasing power of people; fifth, evolution of adver-
tising techniques such as color, music and fun;
finally, innovation and wide varities of food pro-
ducts which make it difficult for consumers to
choose.
Television reaches almost all social groups in all
sectors in Bahrain. It occupies most of the leisure
time of people, particularly the housewives,
because of the lack of other recreational facilities.
Bahraini housewives are confined in homes more
than husbands or other members in families. Most
of them are unemployed and are responsible for
home management; so watching television is their
main recreation, hence they are more exposed to
television advertisements. The present paper aims
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to assess the role of television food advertisements
in dietary behaviour of housewives in Bahrain.
METHODOLOGY
The data were collected in 1978. The study was
carried out through determination of the house-
wives reactions and attitudes toward television
food advertisements before and after exposure to
certain advertisements.
First Questionnaire
The housewives were interviewed twice in their
homes by six Bahraini female social investigators.
The first interview was done before exposure to
certain advertisements. A sample of 1260 house-
holds was drawn from Manama City (nine percent
of the total households in Manama City according
to 1971 National Census [Ministry of Finance,
1972]), by a simple random method.
The housewives were asked about various
aspects of television food advertisements. The
questionnaire was designed to obtain information
on socioeconomic background of the housewives,
ownership of television set, hours of watching tele-
vision, favourite time of watching television, and
the reactions and attitudes of housewives toward
television food advertisements.
The second interview was done after four
months following the first one. The duration and
repetition of all food advertisements exposed to
the housewives through Bahrain Television Sta-
tion, during this period, were collected and analy-
sed. Use of specific foods were documented and
belief in the claim of certain baby food was mea-
sured.
It was found that 98.7 percent of the housewives
had one or more television sets in their homes; and
even those who had no television sets watched
television with their neighbours and/or relatives
for 1-2 hours daily. Generally, the housewives
were watching television for more than three hours
daily, and most of them favoured the evening for
watching television (the viewing time for adver-
tisements'). Therefore, it was assumed that the
housewives were exposed to television advertise-
ments.
Three new food advertisements were viewed on
Bahrain Television during study period. They
were Galctina Baby Foods, C.P. Tea Bags and
Fresh-up (fruit drink).
Second Questionnaire
A sub-sample of 25 percent of the total sample was
randomly chosen for second interview (315 house-
wives). The questionnaire included information
related to use of new foods advertised, reactions to
certain television food advertisement claim and
source of knowledge on new foods used.
Socioeconomic Index
The socioeconomic status of the group in this study
was classified into high, middle and low levels,
based on the following criteria: monthly household
income, educational level of housewife and hus-
band (considered separately) and household size.
Attitude Scores
The housewife response to given attitude state-
ments was judged on a 3-point scale ranging from
agree, do not know and disagree. Each of these
ranges is given an interval score of +1,0 and —1,
respectively, with positive numbers indicating
favourable attitudes and negative numbers indicat-
ing unfavourable attitudes.
RESULTS
The housewives' belief in television food adver-
tisement claims according to social class is shown in
Table I. There was a great variation in the pattern
of beliefs between the three social classes. In low
 FOOD ADVERTISEMENTS BAHRAIN 111

TABLE I
Bahraini housewives' belief in television food advertisement claims according to social class.

Belief

Believe Moderately Do not

Social class believe believe Total
No. % No. % No: % No.

Low 387 52.8 273 37.2 73 10.0 733 100.0

Middle 113 32.4 204 58.4 32 9.2 349 100.0
High 31 17.4 116 65.2 31 17.4 178 100.0
Total 531 42.1 593 47.1 136 10.8 1260 100.0

(X1 = 99.055, ps= 0.05).

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social class, 52.8 percent of the housewives
believed in food advertisement claims compared to
32.4 percent and 17.4 percent of the housewives in
middle and high social classes, respectively. The
difference was statistically significant (X2 =
99.055, p =£ 0.05).
Table II presents attitude scores of the house-
wives toward various aspects of television food
advertisements according to social class. The table
shows that high social jdass housewives had
unfavourable attitudes toward most of food adver-
tisement statements, whereas low and middle
social classes had positive attitudes. All the house-
wives from different social classes had agreed with
the statement, "The purpose of advertising is earn-
ing money." The attitude scores increased with
increase of social class levels; they were +0.22,
+0.37 and +0.49 for low, middle and high social
classes, respectively.
In contrast, all the housewives disagreed with
the statement, "Food advertisements make pur-
chase unuseful food." The attitude scores were
-0.54, -0.55 and -0.38 for low, middle and high
social classes respectively.

TABLE II
Attitude scores of Bahraini housewives' toward various aspects of television food advertisements
according to social class.

Attitude scores

Social class

Statements Low Middle High Total

1. Foods advertised on television help children

choose their foods in a better way. +0.57 +0.30 -0.09 +0.40
2. Baby foods advertised on television encourage
mother to use them and abandon breast feeding. +0.40 +0.17 -0.18 +0.25
3. Food advertisement claims tell the truth.
+0.50 +0.21 -0.31 +0.30
4. Baby foods advertised on television are the
useful foods for babies.
+0.71 +0.46 -0.10 +0.52
5. Foods advertised on television are good and
useful.
+0.60 +0.47 -0.24 +0.40
6. Modern housewives are those who depend on
food advertisements for purchasing food.
+0.30 +0.06 -0.41 +0.13
7. Food advertisements make purchase
unuseful food.
-0.54 -0.55 -0.38 -0.54
8. The purpose of advertising is earning money.
+0.22 +0.37 +0.49 +0.30
 112 A. O. MUSAIGER

The analysis of duration and repetition of all
food advertisements viewed on Bahrain Television
Station, during the four-month period, showed
that out of 38 varieties of food advertisements run
during 389 minutes of television viewing, 30.3 per-
cent were for beverages (excluding tea and coffee),
19.8 percent for milk and milk products, 14 percent
for baby foods, 10 percent for candies and choco-
lates and 25.9 percent for other food advertise-
ments.
Tang (powdered fruit drinks) and Canada Dry
(carbonated beverage) occupied the highest
repetition during these four months (66 and 69
times, respectively). The duration of all food
advertisement items was 30 seconds, except for
Kraft cheese (45 seconds), Galactina Baby Foods
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increased with the increase of social class: 32.5
percent, 56.6 percent and 61.1 percent of low,
middle and high social classes used such foods,
respectively. Chi-square was statistically
significant (X2 = 19.56, p ^ 0.05).
Regarding Galactina Baby Foods, 25.7 percent
of the housewives used these products. The middle
social class were more likely to use such foods (38.2
percent) than the low (20.2 percent) and high (30.6
percent) social classes. The Chi-square statistic
was significant {X2 = 9.84, p ss 0.05) for differ-
ences between groups.
According to C.P. Tea Bags, there was a slight
increase in use with the increase in social class.
Generally a low percentage of the housewives used
this product (1.6 percent).

(60 seconds), Birds Eye frozen foods (45 seconds
and C.P. Tea Bags (60 seconds).
Data obtained from the second survey after ex-
posure to new food advertisements are summa-
rized in Tables III and IV. The housewives use of
new food advertised according to social class is
shown in Table III. About 41 percent of the
housewives used Fresh-up drinks. The percentage
To ensure whether the use of these foods was
due to exposure of television advertisements or
not, the housewives were asked about their source
of knowledge regarding new foods used. Most of
them said that they knew about these foods from
television advertisements (97.5 percent for Galac-
tina Baby Foods, 95.4 percent for Fresh-up drinks
and 60 percent for C.P. Tea Bags). Relatives,

TABLE III
The housewives' use of new food advertised according to social class.

Use

Use Not: use Total

Social class No. % No. % No. % Chi-square
FRESH-UP (FRUIT DRINKS)
Low 66 32.5 137 67.5 203 100.0
Middle 43 56.6 33 43.4 76 100.0
High 22 61.1 14 38.9 36 100.0
19.56 (p. 0.05)
Total 131 41.6 184 58.4 315 100.0
GALACTINA BABY FOODS
Low 41 20.2 162 79.8 203 100.0
Middle 29 38.2 47 61.8 76 100.0
High 11 30.6 25 69.4 36 100.0
9.84 (p. 0.05)
Total 81 25.7 234 74.3 315 100.0
C.P. TEA BAGS
Low 1 0.5 202 99.5 203 100.0
Middle 2 2.6 74 97.4 76 100.0
High 2 5.6 34 94.4 36 100.0
n.a.
Total 5 1.6 310 98.4 315 100.0

n.a.: not applicable.

 FOOD ADVERTISEMENTS BAHRAIN 113

TABLE IV
Opinion of housewives toward the claims at advertisements" for Farley's Baby Foods by a Bahrain
Television Station (during study period) according to social class.

Opinion

True Partially true Not true Total

Social class No. % No. % No. % No. %

Low 198 97.5 5 2.5 203 100.0

Middle 49 64.5 27 35.5 76 100.0
High 14 38.9 21 58.3 1 2.8 36 100.0

Total 261 82.9 48 15.2 6 1.9 315 100.0

"Claim states: "Watch your child grow strong with Farley's" (In Arabic).
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friends and press were mentioned as source of
knowledge by the rest of the housewives.
Opinions by housewives concerning the claims by
Farley's Baby Foods in their advertisements on
Bahrain Television are shown in Table IV. Almost
all of the housewives in low social class believed
that the claim is true (97.5 percent), while the
percentages were 64.5 percent and 38.9 percent in
middle and high social classes, respectively.
DISCUSSION
Bahrain depends mainly on imported foods due to
the decline of agricultural and animal production.
The availability of a wide variety of foods, particu-
larly canned and frozen foods, in the market leads
to diversified food purchasing by householders.
Musaiger (1981) found that the great majority (95
percent) of Bahraini housewives used canned
foods in their diets. This situation, as well as an
absence of regulations concerning food marketing,
may encourage food companies to increase their
promotional and marketing activities.
This study was designed to examine whether or
not television food advertisements had an effect on
dietary behaviour of Bahraini housewives.
Although, the results suggest that television adver-
tisements have an influence on food habits of
Bahraini housewives, it is difficult to judge that the
adoption of new food products was only due to
television advertisements. Relatives, friends and
advertising in other media also play an important
role. Konard and Erickson (1971) believed that it
is impossible for researchers to simulate exactly
the psychological condition of the viewers.
Advertising is not the only factor affecting food
consumption. It interacts with many other aspects
of consumption. So the actual impact of advertis-
ing on food behaviour is difficult to assess without
considering all other interrelated factors such as
beliefs, attitudes, social prestige, psychological
factors, etc.
In Bahrain there is no specific nutrition educa-
tion programme; in addition to the relatively high
percentage (41 percent) of female illiteracy [Minis-
try of Finance, 1982], food advertisements may
play the primary role in influencing nutritional
knowledge of the housewives. Vermeersch and
Swenerton (1980) found that beliefs and inter-
pretations of nutrition claims in food advertise-
ment were associated with educational level of
consumers. Low educational level consumers
were more vulnerable to misinterpretation.
The present study showed that many of Bahraini
housewives believed or moderately believed in
food advertisement claims (Table I). However, it
is likely that they do not understand the actual
meaning of terms claimed in these advertisements,
as Musaiger (1975) found that most secon-
dary level female students in Bahrain
did not know the actual meaning of certain
nutrition terms such as vitamins, protein and
carbohydrates. They are ignorant about the nutri-
tional value of fruits, meat and vegetables. Similar
findings were reported by Vermeersch and
Swenerton (1979). They found that less than half
(44 percent) the subjects studied knew the correct
meaning of the nutrition related terms used in food
advertisements.
Many housewives agreed that baby food adver-
tised on television encourages the mother to use
 114 A. O. MUSAIGER
such foods and abandon breast feeding. The claim
that using infant formula is as good as breast milk,
in addition to the mother's concern about the
inadequacy of their breast milk, may make them
more interested in using infant formulae and giving
up breast feeding. In Jordan, Hijazi (1977)
reported that there is a dilemma of choice of milk
product for the parents who are exposed to adver-
tisements for different brands of milk. The best
brand to these parents is the most repeatedly
announced on the mass media, regardless of its
nutritive value, content or price.
Few housewives used C.P. Tea Bags, which may
be due to the fear of the new or unknown, particu-
larly when the old tea product is satisfactory. Addi-
tionally, the repetition of C.P. Tea Bags advertise-
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ments (during the study period) was less than the
other new foods advertised. Other reasons may
have been related to the technique used in present-
ing the advertisement on television, which failed to
stimulate the attention and awareness of the
housewives.
Galactina Baby Foods were used by many
housewives. In general, lower economic level
housewives were more ready to accept claims
about baby foods than other housewives. This is
shown clearly in Table IV. Musaiger (1980)
showed that Bahraini housewives recalled and pre-
ferred baby food advertisements more than any
other advertisements.
The findings of this study led to the conclusion
that advertising plays an important role in shaping
food attitudes and practices of Bahraini house-
wives. However, further studies are needed to
explore the role of the promotion of food products
in determining the dietary habits of consumers.
In Bahrain, an effective nutrition education
programme is recommended to provide the
people sound nutrition information; one of the most
effective means of nutrition education is using the
same technique of advertising.
Regulation and control of promotion and
marketing of infant foods are highly recommend to
protect mothers from misleading advertisement
claims.
Note:
Reference to specific food products in this article
should not be construed as criticism or endorse-
ment of these products.
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