SOLUTIONS TO GEOMETRY,TOPOLOGY,PHYSICS BY MIKIO NAKAHARA, 2003.

ERNEST YEUNG

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Solutions for Geometry, Topology, and Physics. Mikio Nakahara. Institute of Physics Publishing. 2003. ISBN 0
7503 0606 8

1. Quantum Physics
1.1. Analytical mechanics.

1.1.1. Newtonian mechanics.

1.1.2. Lagrangian formalism. L independent of coordinate qk ; qk cyclic.

qk (t) → qk (t) + δqk (t)

Z tf
(1) S[q(t), q̇(t)] = L(q, q̇)dt (1.3)
ti

Z tf X 
∂L d ∂L
 X  ∂L tf
δS = δqk − + δk =0
ti ∂qk dt ∂ q̇k ∂ q̇k ti
k k

Note that
t
∂L  f
Z Z
d ∂L ∂L
− δqk + δqk = δ q̇k
dt ∂ q̇k ∂ q̇k ti ∂ q̇k
∂L
with pk = ∂ q̇k .

(2) =⇒ δqk (ti )pk (ti ) = δqk (tf )pk (tf )

since ti , tf arbitrary, δqk (t)pk (t) independent of t and hence conserved.

Date: zima 2012.

1
1.1.3. Hamiltonian formalism. Exercise 1.1. A = A(q, p), B(q, p) defined on phase space of H = H(q, p)
[A, c1 B1 + c2 B2 ] = ∂qk A∂pk (c1 B1 + c2 B2 ) − ∂pk A∂qk (c1 B1 + c2 B2 ) =
= c1 ∂qk A∂pk B1 − c1 ∂pk A∂qk B1 + c2 ∂qk A∂pk B2 − c2 ∂pk A∂qk B2 =
= c1 [A, B1 ] + c2 [A, B2 ]

[A, B] = ∂qk A∂pk B − ∂pk A∂qk B = −(∂qk B∂pk A − ∂pk B∂qk A) = −[B, A]

[[A, B], C] = ∂qk (∂ql A∂pl B − ∂pl A∂ql B)∂pk C − ∂pk (∂ql A∂pl B − ∂pl A∂ql B)∂qk C =
= ∂q2k ql A∂pl B∂pk C − ∂q2k ql B∂pk C∂pl A+
+ ∂q2k pl B∂ql A∂pk C − ∂q2k pl A∂ql B∂pk C+
+ ∂p2k pl A∂qk C∂ql B − ∂p2k pl B∂qk C∂ql A+
+ ∂q2l pk B∂qk C∂pl A − ∂q2l pk A∂qk C∂pl B
=⇒ [[A, B], C] + [[C, A], B] + [[B, C], A] = 0
  X  dA ∂H 
dA X dA dq dA dpk dA ∂H
(3) = + = − = [A, H] (1.23)
dt dqk dt dpk dt dqk ∂pk dpk ∂qk
k k

1.2. Canonical quantization.

1.2.1. Hilbert space, bras, and kets.
1.2.2. Axioms of canonical quantization. A3. Poisson bracket in classical mechanics is replaced by commutator.
(4) [A, b ≡A
b B] bBb−B bAb (1.31)
   
R n 1 ∂φ 2 1 2
Problems. Problem 1.1. H = d x 2 ∂t + 2 (∇φ) + V (φ)

If φ time independent, H[φ] = H1 [φ] + H2 [φ]

Z
1
H1 [φ] ≡ dn x(∇x)2
2
Z
H2 [φ] ≡ dn xV (φ)

(1) φ(x) → φ(λx)

(∇φ)2 = ∂j φ∂ j φ = λ−2 ∂i φ∂ i φ = λ−2 (∇φ)2
∂ ∂y i ∂ ∂
= =λ i
∂xi ∂xi ∂y i ∂y
dn y = λn dn x
H1 [φ] → λn−2 H1 [φ]
(2)
H2 [φ] → λn H2 [φ]
=⇒ ∂λ H = (n − 2)H1 + nH2 = 0 or (2 − n)H1 − nH2 = 0
(3)
1.2.3. Heisenberg equation, Heisenberg picture and Schrödinger picture.
1.2.4. Wavefunction.
1.2.5. Harmonic oscillator.
1.3. Path integral quantization of a Bose particle.
1.3.1. Path integral quantization.
1.3.2. Imaginary time and partition function.
1.3.3. Time-ordered product and generating functional.
1.4. Harmonic oscillator.
2
1.4.1. Transition amplitude.
1.4.2. Partition function.
1.5. Path integral quantization of a Fermi particle.
1.6. Quantization of a scalar field.
1.7. Quantization of a Dirac field.
1.8. Gauge theories.
1.8.1. Abelian gauge theories.
(5) ∇·B =0 (1.241a)
∂B
(6) +∇×E =0 (1.241b)
∂t
(7) ∇·E =ρ (1.241c)
∂E
(8) − ∇ × B = −j (1.241d)
∂t

Aµ = (−φ, A)

B =∇×A
∂A
E= − ∇φ (1.242)
∂t
Exercise 1.11.
∇ · B = 0 = ∂i Bi = ∂i (∇ × A)i = ∂i ijk ∂j Ak = ijk ∂i ∂j Ak =
= ∂1 ∂2 A3 − ∂1 ∂3 A2 + ∂2 ∂3 A1 − ∂2 ∂1 A3 + ∂3 ∂1 A2 − ∂3 ∂2 A1 = ∂1 F23 + ∂2 F31 + ∂3 F12 = 0
Watch out for convention.
 
∂
∂µ = ,∇
∂t

∂B
+ ∇ × E = ∂0 ijk ∂j Ak + ijk ∂j Ek = ijk ∂0 ∂j Ak + ijk ∂j (∂0 Ak − ∂k φ) = ikj ∂0 ∂k Aj + ijk ∂j ∂0 Ak + ijk ∂j ∂k A0 =
∂t
= ikj ∂0 ∂k Aj + ijk ∂j ∂0 Ak + ikj ∂j ∂k A0 =
Fix i.
=⇒= ∂0 ∂k Aj − ∂0 ∂j Ak + ∂j ∂0 Ak − ∂k ∂0 Aj + ∂j ∂k A0 − ∂k ∂j A0
Exercise 1.12.

L = (Dµ φ)† (Dµ φ) + m2 φ† φ

φ0 = e−ieα(x) φ
(φ0 )† = φ† eieα(x)
A0µ = Aµ − ∂µ α(x) (1.257)
Now easily
φ† eieα(x) e−ieα(x) φ = φ† φ
Dµ = ∂µ − ieAµ
Dµ φ = ∂µ φ − ieAµ φ
∂µ (e−ieα φ) − ie(Aµ − ∂µ α)e−ieα φ = −e∂µ αφe−ieα + e−ieα ∂µ φ − ieAµ e−ieα φ + ie∂µ αe−ieα φ = e−ieα(x) (Dµ φ)
Dµ φ = ∂ µ φ − ieAµ φ
(Dµ φ)† = ∂ µ φ† + ieAµ φ†
(Dµ φ)† → ∂ µ (φ† eieα ) + ie(Aµ − ∂ µ α)φ† eieα = ∂ µ φ† eieα + φ† (ie∂ µ α)eieα + ieAµ φ† eieα − ie∂ µ αφ† eieα = (Dµ φ)† eieα
Clearly L is invariant.
3
1.8.2. Non-Abelian gauge theories.
1.8.3. Higgs fields.
1.9. Magnetic monopoles.
1.10. Instantons.
1.10.1. Introduction.
1.10.2. The (anti-)self-dual solution.

2. Mathematical Preliminaries
2.1. Maps.

2.1.1. Definitions. Exercise 2.1.

D = [−π/2, π/2], R = [−1.1] f (x) = sin (x) is bijective on D to R
Exercise 2.2.
f : x → x2 , g :→ exp x

f ◦ g(x) = exp(2x) g ◦ f (x) = exp x2

Exercise 2.3. Consider f (x) = f (y)
gf (x) = x = gf (y) = y =⇒ x = y
f injective.
∀ x ∈ X, x = g ◦ f (x) = g(f (x)) = g(y) since f : X → Y. so ∃ y ∈ Y, s.t. g(y) = x
g surjective.
Exercise 2.4.
a−1 : E n → E n R−1 (x) = RT xR−1 R(x) = RT Rx = 1x = x
a−1 (x) = x − a RR−1 (x) = RRT x = 1x = x
a−1 a(x) = (x + a) − a = x (RT R)ij = Rik
T
Rkj = Rki Rkj = δij
aa−1 (x) = (x − a) + a = x (RRT )ij = Rik Rkj
T T
= Rik Rjk = Rki T
Rkj = δij
20120306 check above.

(R, a)(x) = Rx + a
(R, a)−1 (x) = RT (x − a)
(Ra)−1 Ra(x) = RT (Rx + a − a) = x
(Ra)(Ra)−1 (x) = R(RT (x − a)) + a = x

2.1.2. Equivalence relation and equivalence class. Exercise 2.5. m ∼ m since m2 = 2

m

m ∼ n. Then n ∼ m since remainder of n by 2 is the same as the remainder of m divided by 2.

m ∼ n, n ∼ p. m ∼ p since remainder of m by 2 is the same as the remainder of m by 2 which is the same as the
remainder of p by 2.
Exercise 2.6. H= {τ ∈ C|Imτ ≥ 0}
a b
SL(2, Z) ≡ { |a, b, c, d ∈ Z, ad − bc = 1}
c d
 
0 a b
τ ∼ τ if ∃ A = ∈ SL(2, Z) s.t. τ 0 = aτ +b
cτ +d
c d
Note that     
ab τ aτ + b
=
cd 1 cτ + d
    
1 τ τ
τ ∼ τ since =
1 1 1
4
  
d −b
If τ ∼ τ 0 s.t. τ 0 = aτ +b
cτ +d . Consider
−c a
τ 0 ∼ τ since
 
aτ +b

d −b
  0  0
τ dτ − b

dτ − b 0 d −b adτ − bcτ
cτ +d
= = = =τ
−c a −cτ 0 + a −cτ 0 + a
 
1 aτ +b
−c cτ +d + a ad − bc

Given τ ∼ τ 0 , τ 0 ∼ τ 00
     0
a b τ τ
=
c d 1 1
      00    
e f a b τ τ ae + cf be + df τ
=⇒ = =
g h c d 1 1 ag + ch bg + dh 1
   0   00 
e f τ τ
=
g h 1 1

(ae + cf )(bg − dh) − (ag + ch)(be + df ) = abeg + adeh + bcf g + cdf h − abeg − adf g − bceh − cdf h = 1
Example 2.6.
g ∼ g 0 if ∃ h ∈ H s.t. g 0 = gh
[g] = {gh|h ∈ H} ≡ gH (left) coset.
quotient space ≡ G/H
if H normal subgroup of G, ghg −1 ∈ H, ∀ g ∈ G, h ∈ H, then G/H quotient group.
Since
(g 0 )−1 hg 0 = h00 ∈ H =⇒ hg 0 = g 0 h00

=⇒ ghg 0 h0 = gg 0 h00 h0 = gg 0 h000

[g][g 0 ] = [gg 0 ] well-defined.

Note [e], [g]−1 = [g −1 ]

Exercise 2.7. a, b ∈ G conjugate to each other, a ' b, if ∃ g ∈ G s.t. b = gag −1 a ' a since a = eae−1 = a
If a ' b, g −1 bg = a and g −1 ∈ G, so b ' a.
If a ' b and b ' c, then c = hbh−1 , so c = hgag −1 h−1 and (hg)−1 = g −1 h−1 .

2.2. Vector spaces.

2.2.1. Vectors and vector spaces.

2.2.2. Linear maps, images and kernels.

Theorem 1 (2.1). If linear f : V → W ,
dimV = dim(kerf ) + dim(imf )
Proof. kerf , imf vector spaces.

Let basis of kerf be {g1 . . . gr }

basis of imf be {h01 . . . h0s }
∀ i (1 ≤ i ≤ s), hi ∈ V s.t. f (hi ) = h0i

Consider {g1 . . . gr , h1 . . . hs }

Let arbitrary v ∈ V
f (v) ∈ imf , so f (v) = ci h0i = ci f (hi )
by linearity f (v − ci hi ) = 0,
so v − ci hi ∈ kerf
so ∀ arbitrary v ∈ V , v linear combination of {g1 . . . gr , h1 . . . hs } 

Exercise 2.8.
5
 (1) If x1 , x2 ∈ kerf , then for x1 + x2
by linearity of f , f (x1 + x2 ) = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) = 0 + 0 = 0 =⇒ x1 + x2 ∈ kerf
f (cx1 ) = cf (x1 ) = 0 =⇒ cx1 ∈ kerf
Under closure of addition and multiplication, kerf is a vector space.

If w1 , w2 ∈ imf ,
w1 = f (x1 )
for some x1 , x2 ∈ V
w2 = f (x2 )
w1 + w2 = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) = f (x1 + x2 ) ∈ imf since f linear and since x1 + x2 ∈ V

cw1 = cf (x1 ) = f (cx1 ) ∈ imf since cx1 ∈ V

(2) If f : V → V isomorphism, f bijective. f (0) = 0 always for a linear map. Consider x ∈ kerf . So f (x) = 0.
f (x) = f (0), so x = 0.
Since f linear, if f (x) = f (y), f (x) − f (y) = f (x − y) = 0. Since kerf = 0, x − y = 0 so x = y. f bijective
so f an isomorphism.
2.2.3. Dual vector space.
f (v) = fi αi (v j ej ) = fi v j αi (ej ) = fi v i (2.12)
∗
Use notation h, i : V × V → K

f :V →W
g:W →K
g ∈ W∗
g ◦ f : V → K (Note g ◦ f on V , key observation)
g◦f ≡h∈V∗
h(v) ≡ g(f (v)) v ∈ V (2.13)
Given g ∈ W , f : V → W induces map h ∈ V ∗
∗

f : W∗ → V ∗
∗

f ∗ : g 7→ h = f ∗ (g) = g ◦ f h is the pullback of g by f ∗

Exercise 2.9.
Given fi = Aik ek ,
αj fi = Aik αj ek = Aij
β j Aji = β j αi fj = αi =⇒ αi = β j Aji
2.2.4. Inner product and adjoint. isomorphism g : V → V ∗ , g ∈ GL(m, K)
g : v j → gij v j (2.14)
g(v1 , v2 ) ≡ hgv1 , v2 i
g(v1 , v2 ) = v1i gji v2j (2.16)
∗
W = W (n, R), {fα } basis G : W → W

Given f : V → W
adjoint of f , fe
G(w, f v) = g(v, few) (2.17)
where v ∈ V , w ∈ W
wα Gαβ f βi v i = v i gij fejα wα (2.18)
Gαβ f βi = gij fejα
fe = g −1 f t Gt (2.19)
Exercise 2.10. (cf. wikipedia, “Rank”) Consider a m × n matrix A with column rank A (maximum number of
linearly independent column vectors of A).

dim. of column space of A = r. Then let c1 . . . cr basis.

Place ci ’s as column vectors to form m × r matrix C = [c1 . . . cr ]
6
∃ r × m matrix R s.t. A = CR. rij i = 1...r
j = 1...m
A = CR, so ∀ row vector of A is a linear combination of row vectors of R, so row space of A contained in row
space of R.

row rank A ≤ row rank R.

R has r rows, aij = cik rkj j = 1 . . . n. row rank R ≤ r = column rank A

row rank A ≤ column rank A
row rank AT ≤ column rank AT =⇒ row rank A = column rank A or rank (A) = rank (AT )

Likewise for N f M by following the same arguments.

Exercise 2.11.
(a) g(v1 , v2 ) = v 1i gij v2j

g(v2 , v1 ) = v 2i gij v1j = v2i g ij v 1j = v 1j gji v2i = g(v1 , v2 )

g(v, few) = v i gij fejk wk = G(w, f v) = wα Gαβ fβγ v γ = wα Gαβ f βγ v γ = Gkβ f βi v i wk
=⇒ gij fejk = Gkβ f = f † G†
βi iβ βk

=⇒ fe = g −1 f † G†
(b)
2.2.5. Tensors. tensor T of type (p, q) maps p dual vectors and q vectors to R

p
O q
O
(9) T : V∗ V →R

Exercise 2.12. f : V → W , so f (v) ∈ W .

f (v) = w
Then tensor identified with dual vector of W ∗ . Since f : V , Then (1, 1).
2.3. Topological spaces.

2.3.1. Definitions. Exercise 2.13.

τR = {(a, b)|a, b ∈ {R, ±∞}}
T∞
n=1 (a, b + n1 ) = (a, b]. Then {b} ∈ τR , ∀ b ∈ R.

So then ∀ subset Y ⊂ X is open. Discrete topology.

2.3.2. Continuous maps. Exercise 2.14. If f : R → R then (−, +) 7→ [0, 2 ]

f (x) = x2

2.3.3. Neighborhoods and Hausdorff spaces. Exercise 2.15. Let X = {John, Paul, Ringo, George}.

U0 = ∅ [
U1 U2 = U2
U1 = {John}
U1 U2 = U1
U2 = {John, Paul}
U3 = X
Consider John and Ringo. Only neighborhood with open set is X for Ringo. Then XUJohn 6= ∅
Exercise 2.16. ∀ a, b, consider 3a−b a+b

b+a 3b−a

2 , 2 , 2 , 2
7
2.3.4. Closed set.
2.3.5. Compactness.
2.3.6. Connectedness.
2.4. Homeomorphisms and topological invariants.
2.4.1. Homeomorphisms.

2.4.2. Topological invariants. Exercise 2.18. f : S 1 → E

f (x, y) = (ax, by) f f −1 = f −1 f = 1 bijective and cont.

x y
f −1 (x, y) = ,
a b
2.4.3. Homotopy type.
2.4.4. Euler characteristic: an example.

3. Homology Groups
3.1. Abelian groups.
3.1.1. Elementary group theory. e.g. f : Z → Z2 = {0, 1}
f (2n) = 0
f (2n + 1) = 1
homomorphism f (2m + 1 + 2n) = f (2(m + n) + 1) = 1 = 1 + 0 = f (2m + 1) + f (2n)
kZ ≡ {kn|n ∈ Z}, k ∈ N subgroup of Z, Z2 = {0, 1} not a subgroup.

Let H subgroup of G, ∀ x, y ∈ G, x ∼ y if x − y ∈ H
group operation in G/H naturally induced: [x] + [y] = [x + y]
G/H group since H always a normal subgroup of G.
aH = Ha ∀ a ∈ G
if aH = Ha ∀ a ∈ G, normal indeed.
aH = a + x − y = x − y + a = Ha (since G abelian)

If H = G, 0 − x ∈ G, ∀ x ∈ G, G/G = {0}
If H = {0}, G/H = G since x − y = 0 iff x = y

Ex. 3.1. Let us work out the quotient group Z/kZ.

km − kn = k(m − n) ∈ kZ [km] = [kn]

∀ j, 1 ≤ j ≤ k − 1, (km + j) − (kn + j) = k(m − n) ∈ kZ. [km + j] = [kn + j]

∀ j, l, 0 ≤ j, l ≤ k −1, j 6= l, (km+j)−(kn+l) = k(m−n)+(j −l) ∈
/ kZ. Never belong to the same equivalence class.

=⇒ Z.kZ = {[0], . . . , [k − 1]}.

Define isomorphism ϕ : Z/kZ → Zk , then Z/kZ ' Zk

ϕ([j]) = j
Lemma 1 (3.1). Let f : G1 → G2 homomorphism. Then
(a) ker f = {x|x ∈ G1 , f (x) =} subgroup of G. Note: ker f normal subgroup of G1 ,
f (gxg −1 ) = f (g)f (x)f (g −1 ) = 1 ∀ g ∈ G, x ∈ ker f =⇒ ker f normal subgroup
(b) imf = {x|x ∈ f (G1 ) ⊂ G2 } subgroup of G2
Proof. (a) Let x, y ∈ ker f
xy ∈ ker f since f (xy) = f (x)f (y) = 1 · 1 = 1
Note 1 ∈ ker f since f (1) = f (1 · 1) = f (1)f (1) =⇒ f (1) = 1
x−1 ∈ ker f since f (x−1 · x) = f (x−1 )f (x) = f (x−1 )1 = f (1) = 1 f (x−1 ) = 1
8
 (b) Let y1 = f (x1 ) y1 , y2 ∈ im(f )
y2 = f (x2 ) x1 , x2 ∈ G1
y1 y2 = f (x1 )f (x2 ) = f (x1 x2 ) x1 x2 ∈ G1 y1 y2 ∈ imf
1 ∈ imf since f (1) = 1 (or f (x1 ) = f (x1 · 1) = f (x1 )f (1); so f (1) = 1 and 1 ∈ imf )
1 = f (xx−1 ) = f (x)f (x−1 ) = yf (x−1 ) =⇒ f (x−1 ) = y −1 and y −1 ∈ imf since x−1 ∈ G

Theorem 2 (3.1). (Fundamental Thm. of homomorphism)
G1 / ker f ' imf
Proof. By Lemma 3.1, both sides are groups. 

x0 = x + h
Define. ϕ : G1 / ker f → imf . ϕ well-defined since ∀ x0 ∈ [x], ∃ h ∈ ker f s.t.
f (x0 ) = f (x)f (h) = f (x)
ϕ([x]) = f (x)

ϕ([x] + [u]) = ϕ([x + y]) = f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) = ϕ([x]) + ϕ([y])

ϕ 1-to-1: if ϕ([x]) = ϕ([y]), then f (x) = f (y) or f (x) − f (y) = f (x − y) = 0. x − y ∈ ker f so [x] = [y]
ϕ onto: if y ∈ imf , ∃ x ∈ G1 s.t. f (x) = y = ϕ([x])
3.1.2. Finitely generated Abelian groups and free Abelian groups.
Lemma 2 (3.2). Let G be free Abelian group of rank r,
G = {n1 x1 +· · ·+nr xr |ni ∈ Z, 1 ≤ i ≤ r, n1 x1 +· · ·+nr xr = 0 only if n1 = · · · = nr = 0} ≡ free Abelian group of rank r
Let subgroup H. Choose p generators x1 . . . xp of r generators of G so generate H.
H ' k1 Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ kp Z and H rank p
Proof.
f : Z ⊕ ··· ⊕ Z → G
| {z }
m
f (n1 . . . nm ) = n1 x1 + · · · + nm xm (surjective homomorphism)
From Thm. 3.1. Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z / ker f ' G
| {z }
m

ker f subgroup of Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z, so Lemma 3.2, ker f ' k1 ZZ ⊕ · · · ⊕ kp Z

| {z }
m

G ' Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z / ker f ' Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z /(k1 Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ kp Z) ' Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z ⊕Zk1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Zkp

| {z } | {z } | {z }
m m m−p

3.2. Simplexes and simplicial complexes.
r+1


3.2.1. Simplexes. number of q-faces in r-simplex is q+1

r + 1 p0 . . . pr pts., choose pi0 . . . piq pts.

3.2.2. Simplicial complexes and polyhedra. Example 3.5. Fig. 3.5(b) not a triangulation of a cylinder.

σ2 = hp0 p1 p2 i
σ20 = hp2 p3 p0 i
σ2 σ20 6= ∅ S
σ2 σ20 = hp0 i hp2 i σ2 σ20 is not an actual face.
3.3. Homology groups of simplicial complexes.
3.3.1. Oriented simplexes.
9
3.3.2. Chain group, Cycle group and boundary group.
Definition 1 (3.2). r-chain group Cr (K) of simplicial complex K is free Abelian group generated by oriented
r-simplexes of K element of Cr (K) is r-chain.
Let Ir r- simplexes in K, σr,i (1 ≤ i ≤ Ir )
Ir
X
(10) c= ci σr,i ci ∈ Z, coefficients of c (3.15)
i=1

X
c= ci σr,i
c + c0 = + c0i )σr,i
P
addition of 2 r-chains i i (ci (3.16)
X
0
c = c0i σr,i
i
P
inverse −c = i (−ci )σr,i

(11) Cr (K) ' Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z (3.17) free Abelian group of rank Ir

| {z }
Ir

0-simplex has no boundary: ∂0 p0 = 0 (3.18)

Fig. 3.7(a) oriented 1 simplex.

∂1 (p0 p1 ) + ∂1 (p1 p2 ) = p1 − p0 + p2 − p1 = p2 − p0 = ∂1 (p2 p0 )
Fig. 3.7(b) triangle.
∂1 (p0 p1 ) + ∂1 (p1 p2 ) + ∂1 (p2 p0 ) = p1 − p0 + p2 − p1 + p0 − p2 = 0
Let σr (p0 . . . pr ) oriented r-simplex.
r
X
(12) ∂r σr ≡ (−1)i (p0 p1 . . . pbi . . . pr ) (3.20)
i=0

K ≡ n-dim. simplicial complex.

chain complex C(K).

i inclusion map i : 0 ,→ Cn (K)
i n ∂ 2 ∂n−1
1 0 ∂ ∂ ∂
(13) 0→
− Cn (K) −→ Cn−1 (K) −−−→ . . . −→ C1 (K) −→ C0 (K) −→ 0 (3.23)
Definition 2 (3.3). If c ∈ Cr (K), ∂r c = 0, c r-cycle.

Zr (K) = {c|∂r c = 0} = ker ∂r ≡ r − cycle group

if r = 0, ∂0 c = 0, Z0 (K) = C0 (K)
Definition 3 (3.4). If ∃ d ∈ Cr+1 (K), c = ∂r+1 d (3.25), c r-boundary

Br (K) = im∂r+1 ≡ r − boundary group Bn (K) = 0

Theorem 3 (3.3).
(14) Br (K) ⊂ Zr (K) (⊂ Cr (K)) (3.27)
Proof.
∀ c ∈ Br (K), ∃ d ∈ cr+1 (K) s.t. c = ∂r+1 d ∂r c = ∂r ∂r+1 d = 0 (Lemma 3.3, ∂ 2 d = 0) c ∈ Zr (K)

10
3.3.3. Homology groups. Exercise 3.1. K = {p0 , p1 }. Ir = I0 = 2 0−simplexes. c = c1 p0 + c2 p1 0−chains.

c0 (K) ' Z ⊕ Z
∂0 c = 0 ∀ c ∈ C0 (K) C0 (K) = Zr (K)
B0 (K) = im∂1 = 0
=⇒ H0 (K) = Z ⊕ Z
if r 6= 0, Zr (K) = 0 since there are no other simplexes than 0−simplexes. Hr (K) = 0
(
Z ⊕ Z (r = 0)
(15) =⇒ Hr (K) = (3.34)
{0} (r 6= 0)

Ex. 3.7. k = {p0 , p1 , (p0 p1 )}

C0 (K) = {ip0 + jp1 |i, j ∈ Z}

C1 (K) = {k(p0 p1 )|k ∈ Z
B1 (K) = 0, since (p0 p1 ) not a boundary of any simplex in K i.e. ∃ d ∈ K s.t. ∂2 d = (p0 p1 ), since @ 2-simplex
H1 (K) = Z1 (K)/B1 (K) = Z1 (K)
If z = m(p0 p1) ∈ Z1 (K),
∂1 z = m(p1 − p0 ) = 0 =⇒ m = 0 Z1 (K) = 0

(16) H1 (K) = 0 (3.35)

Z0 (K) = C0 (K)

Define surjective (onto) homomorphism. f : Z0 (K) → Z

f (ip0 + jp1 ) = i + j

ker f = f −1 (0) = B0 (K)

∂1 (k(p0 p1 )) = kp1 − kp0 and f (kp1 − kp0 ) = 0
Thm. 3.1. Z0 (K)/ ker f ' imf = Z.
(17) H0 (K) = Z0 (K)/B0 (K) ' Z (3.30)
Ex. 3.8. Triangulation of S 1 (triangulation of circle)
K = {p0 , p1 , p2 , (p0 p1 ), (p1 p2 ), (p2 p0 )}
B1 (K) = 0 (no 2-simplices in K) H1 (K) = Z1 (K)/B1 (K) = Z1 (K)
∂1 z = ∂1 (i(p0 p1 ) + j(p1 p2 ) + k(p2 p0 )) = i(p1 − p0 + j(p2 − p1 ) + k(p0 − p2 ) = (k − i)p0 + (i − j)p1 + (j − k)p2 = 0
=⇒ i = j = k
Z1 (K) = {i((p0 p1 ) + (p1 p2 ) + (p2 p0 ))|i ∈ Z} ' Z =⇒ H1 (K) = Z1 (K) ' Z (3.37)

Z0 (K) = C0 (K)
B0 (K) = {∂1 [l(p0 p1 ) + m(p1 p2 ) + n(p2 p0 )]|l, m, n ∈ Z} = {(n − l)p0 + (l − m)p1 + (m − n)p2 |l, m, n ∈ Z}

Exercise 3.2. Let K = {p0 , p1 , p2 , p3 , (p0 p1 ), (p1 p2 ), (p2 p3 ), (p3 p0 )}

B1 (K) = 0 (KC2 (K) = ∅)
H1 (K) = Z1 (K)
∂1 (i(p0 p1 ) + j(p1 p2 ) + k(p2 p0 ) + l(p3 p0 )) = (l − i)p0 + (i − j)p1 + (j − k)p2 + (k − l)p3
∂1 c = 0 if i = l = j = k, Z1 (K) ' Z. H1 (K) ' Z

11
 Z0 (K) = C0 (K) (∂0 pi = 0)

Define surjective homomorphism f : C0 (K) 7→ Z

f (ip0 + jp1 + kp2 + lp3 ) = i + j + k + l
a=l−i
b=i−j
B0 (K) = {ap0 + bp1 + cp2 + dp3 |d = −(a + b + c)}
c=j−k
d = k − l = −(a + b + c)
=⇒ B0 (K) = ker f
H0 (K) = Z0 (K)/B0 (K) = C0 (K)/ ker f ' imf = Z
Exercise 3.3. B2 (K) = 0 KC2 (K) = ∅
∂2 c2 = ∂2 (i(p0 p1 p2 ) + j(p0 p1 p3 ) + k(p0 p2 p3 ) + l(p1 p2 p3 )) =
= (i + l)(p1 p2 ) + (−i + k)(p0 p2 ) + (i + j)(p0 p1 ) + (−j + −k)(p0 p3 ) + (j − l)(p1 p3 ) + (k + l)(p2 p3 ) = 0
=⇒ i = k = −l = −j =⇒ Z2 (K) ' Z so H2 (K) ' Z

∂1 c1 = ∂1 (a(p0 p1 ) + b(p0 p2 ) + c(p0 p3 ) + d(p1 p2 ) + e(p1 p3 ) + f (p2 p3 )) =

= (−a − b − c)p0 + (a − d − e)p1 + (b + d − f )p2 + (c + e + f )p3 = 0
By linear algebra,
 
  a  
−1 −1 −1 b
  1 −1 −1 a=d+e
1
 −1 −1  c 
   = 0 =⇒  1 1 1 1 
 =⇒ b = −d + f
 1 1 −1 
d
  1 1 −1
1 1 1  e  1 1 1 c = −e − f
f
If
a=i+j
b = −i + k
c = −j − k
d=i+l
e=j−l
f =k+l
Then B1 (K) = Z1 (K). Then Z1 (K)/B1 (K) = 0 by algebra. H1 (K) = 0

Let f : Z0 (K) → Z
f (ip0 + jp1 + kp2 + lp3 ) = i + j + k + l
ker f = B0 (K) since if
i = −(a + b + c)
j =a−d−e
k =b+d−f
l =c+e+f
then i + j + k + l = 0
Z0 (K)/ ker f ' imf = Z =⇒ H0 ' Z

3.3.4. Computation of H0 (K).

Theorem 4 (3.5). Let K be connected simplicial complex. Then
(18) H0 (K) ' Z (3.43)
12
3.3.5. More homology computations. Example 3.10. Fig. 3.8. triangulation of Möbius strip.
B2 (K) = 0 ∂2 z = 0 each (p0 p2 ), (p1 p4 ), (p2 p3 ), (p4 p5 ), (p3 p1 ), (p5 p0 ) appear only once. Z2 (K) = 0
(19) H2 (K) = 0 (3.44)
H1 (K) = Z1 (K)/B1 (K). ker ∂1 consists of closed loops. (closes on itself so ∂1 c1 = 0)

Note z ∼ z 0 if z − z 0 = ∂2 c2 ∈ B1 (K)
easily verify, H1 (K) generated by just [z]. H1 (K) = {i[z]|i ∈ Z} ' Z (3.45)

Example 3.11. projective plane RP 2

Example H2 (K) from a slightly different view pt. Add all 2-simplexes in K with same coefficient
10
X
z≡ mσ2,i , m∈Z
i=1
Observe that each 1-simplex of K is a common face of exactly 2 2-simplices.
(20) ∂2 z = 2m(p3 p5 ) + 2m(p5 p4 ) + 2m(p4 p3 ) (3.47)
Z2 (K) = 0 since ∂2 z = 0 if m = 0
Note, any 1-cycle homologous to a multiple of z = (p3 p5 ) + (p5 p4 ) + (p4 p3 )
even multiples of z is a boundary of 2-chain by Eq. 3.4.7.
(21) H1 (K) = {[z]|[z] + [z] ∼ [0]} ' Z2 (3.48)
This example shows that a homology group is not necessarily free Abelian.

Example 3.12. surface of the torus has no boundary, but it’s not a boundary of some 3-chain.
Thus, H2 (T 2 ) freely generated by 1 generator, surface itself, H2 (T 2 ) ' Z
closed loops a, a0 homologous since a0 − a = ∂d bounds shaded area Fig. 3.10 (could think of a running backwards)
See Figure 3.12, triangulation of the Klein bottle (clear from there).
inner 1 simplices cancel out to leave only outer 1-simplexes (1 side of the “square”)
X
z= mσ2,i
∂2 z = −2ma
a = (p0 p1 ) + (p1 p2 ) + (p2 p0 )
∂2 z = 0 if m = 0
(22) H2 (K) = Z2 (K) ' 0 (3.50)
b = (p0 p3 ) + (p3 p4 ) + (p4 p0 )

1-cycle c1 = ia + ib
∂1 c1 = 0 closed
Now ∂2 z = +2ma so
2ma ∼ 0
Thus, H1 (K) generated by 2 cycles a, b s.t. a + a = 0 (remember a is “glued backwards”)
(23) H1 (K) = {i[a] + j[b]|i, j ∈ Z} ' Z2 ⊕ Z (3.51)
3.4. General properties of homology groups.
3.4.1. Connectedness and homology groups.
SN
Theorem 5 (3.6). Let K = k=1 Ki , Ki Kj 6= ∅. Ki connected components.
Then
MN
Hr (K) = Hr (Ki )
i=1
LN
Proof. Cr (K) = i=1 Cr (Ki ) (rearrange cycles)
since Zr (Ki ) ⊃ Br (Ki ), Hr (Ki ) well-defined. 
13
3.4.2. Structure of homology groups.
Definition 4 (3.6). Let K simplicial complex.
(24) br (K) ≡ dim Hr (K; R) (ith Betti number) (3.56)
Theorem 6 (3.7). (The Euler-Poincarè theorem) Let K n−dim. simplicial complex, Ir number of r-simplexes in
K.
n
X n
X
(25) χ(K) ≡ (−1)r Ir = (−1)r br (K) (3.57)
i=0 r=0

Problem 3.1.
Let S 2 with h handles and q holes = X
\
C3 (X) X = ∅ so B2 (X) = 0 Z2 (X) ' Z (1 surface ) H2 (X) ' Z b2 (X) = 1

h handles. Think of T 2 .
q holes. For orientable case, the first hole does not change the homology, i.e.
X
∂c1 = 0 but for d = mσ2 , ∂d = c1 c1 = 0
σ2 ∈C2 (X)

H1 (X) = Z2h+q−1

The sphere is connected (and note compact). H0 (X) = Z

Problem 3.2.
Each cross cap hole contributes to H1 (X) a 1 cycle zq s.t. 2zq ∼ 0. Thus,

H1 (X) = Zq2

Otherwise,
H2 (X) = Z
H0 (X) = Z

4. Homotopy Groups
5. Manifolds
5.1. Manifolds.

5.1.1. Heuristic introduction.

5.1.2. Definitions.

5.1.3. Examples. Exercise 5.1.

n+1
X
n n+1
S = {(x1 . . . xn+1 } ∈ R | x2i = 1} ⊂ Rn+1
i=1

Let N = (0 . . . 0, 1) x ∈ S n . Consider t(x − N ) + N = tx + (1 − t)N when xn+1 = 0

S = (0 . . . 0, −1)
txn+1 + (1 − t) = 0 or txn+1 + −1 + t = 0
 
1 1
=⇒ =t or
1 − xn+1 1 + xn+1
14
 π 1 : S n − N → Rn
 
x1 xn
π1 (x1 . . . xn+1 ) = ... ,0
1 − xn+1 1 − xn+1
π 2 : S n − S → Rn
 
x1 xn
π2 (x1 . . . xn+1 ) = ... ,0
1 + xn+1 1 + xn+1
xi
Note, for yi = 1−xn+1

1 − x2n+1 1 + xn+1 |y|2 − 1

y12 + · · · + yn2 = |y|2 = 2
= or xn+1 = 2
(1 − xn+1 ) 1 − xn+1 |y| + 1
2yi
xi = yi (1 − xn+1 ) =
1 + |y|2

π1−1 : Rn → S n − N
|y|2 − 1
 
−1 2y1 2yn
π1 (y1 . . . yn ) = ... ,
1 + |y|2 1 + |y|2 |y|2 + 1
1 − |y|2
 
−1 2y1 2yn
π2 (y1 . . . yn ) = ... ,
1 + |y|2 1 + |y|2 |y|2 + 1
π1 , π2 diff. injective, and (S n − N ) (S n − S) = S n
S

Consider (S n − N )(S n − S) = S n − N
S
S
 
y1 yn
π1 π2−1 (y1
. . . yn ) = ... 2,0
|y|2 |y|
 
−1 y1 yn
π2 π1 (y1 . . . yn ) = ... 2,0
|y|2 |y|
since, for example,
2yi
1+|y|2 yi
2 =
1 − 1−|y| |y|2
1+|y|2

π1 π2−1 bijective and C ∞ , π1 π2−1 diffeomorphism.

{(S n − N, π1 ), (S n − S, π2 )} C ∞ atlas or differentiable structure.

5.2. The calculus on manifolds.

5.2.1. Differentiable maps. Exercise 5.2. If f : M → N smooth,

0 0
Consider (Ua , ϕa ) ∈ A s.t. f (Ua0 ) ⊆ Vb0
(Vb0 , ψb0 ) ∈ B
Consider
ψb0 f (ϕ0a )−1 = ψb0 (ψβ−1 ψβ )f (ϕ−1 0 −1
α ϕα )(ϕa ) = (ψb0 ψβ−1 )(ψβ f ϕ−1 0 −1
α )(ϕα ϕa )

Uα Ua0 6= ∅ since x ∈ Uα , Ua0

Vβ Vb0 6= ∅ f (x) ∈ Vβ Vβ0
Then (ψb0 ψβ−1 ), (ϕα ϕ0a )−1 , C ∞ (def. of atlas) and (ψβ f ϕ−1
α ) C
∞
(given).
0 0 −1 ∞
So ψb f (ϕa ) C
15
5.2.2. Vectors. curve c : I → M
f :M →R

d
f (c(t))|t=0 (5.18)
dt
1 n −1
for p = c(0) ∈ (U, ϕ) = (U, x . . . x ), f c = f ϕ ϕc
∂(f ϕ−1 ) d(xµ (c))  ∂f dxµ (c(t))  ∂f dcµ 
  
d
f (c(t))|t=0 = (x) (t) = = (abuse of notation)
dt ∂xµ dt t=0 ∂xµ dt 
t=0 ∂xµ dt t=0

µ dxµ (ϕ(c(t))) 

Note that abuse of notation: dx dt (c(t)) t=0 ≡

dt 
 t=0
df (c(t)) 
dt  obtained by differential operator X to f
t=0
dxµ (c(t)) 
    
∂
X = Xµ X µ
= (5.20)
∂xµ dt 
t=0
  
df (c(t))  µ ∂f
=X = X[f ] (5.21)
dt  t=0 ∂xµ
Introduce equivalence class of curves in M .
curves c1 (t) ∼ c2 (t) if
(1) c1 (0) = c2 (0) = p 
µ
dxµ (c2 (t)) 
(2) dx (c 1 (t)) 
dt  = dt 
t=0 t=0
Identify tangent vector X with [c(t)].
Tp M , tangent space of M at p, all [c] at p ∈ M
Use Sec. 2.2’s theory of vector spaces to analyze Tp M

Recall curve c(t) : R → M ,

f :M →R
Now tangent vector at c(0) was, recall
∂f dxµ (c(t))  dxµ (c(t)) 
  
df (c(t))  ∂f
= =
dt t=0 ∂xµ dt 
t=0 dt 
t=0 ∂xµ

µ

Let X µ = dx dt (c(t)) 

t=0

df (c(t)) 
X[f ] ≡
dt t=0
∂
=⇒ X = xµ µ
∂x
So tangent vector X is spanned by ∂x∂ µ
Suppose aµ ∂x∂ µ = 0
∂
aµ µ xν = aµ δµν = aν = 0
∂x
So { ∂x∂ µ } linearly independent.
{ ∂x∂m } a basis.

(dϕ)p : Tx M → Rn
(cf. wikipedia) Consider short ϕ : U → Rn , p ∈ U , define map
d
(dϕ)p ([c(0)]) = (ϕ(c(0)))
dt
Consider c(0) = p = c(t) ∀ t s.t. c(t) ∈ U .
Surely ϕ(c(t)) = const. (for ϕ is a well-defined function)
d
dt ϕ(c(t)) = 0. For [c(0)] = [p], (dϕ)p ([p]) = 0 ∀ chart ϕ (dϕ)p injective.
Consider ai ei ∈ Rn 
d d i
ai = (ϕi (c(0))) ≡

x (c(t))
dt dt t=0
∞ −1 ∞ n
f : M → R ∈ C (M ) if f ϕ ∈ C . ∀ chart ϕ : U → R
16
 X : C ∞ (M ) → R
derivation at p is linear D : C ∞ (M ) → R ( or  ). These derivations form a vector space,
df (c(t)) 
X[f ] =
dt  t=0
tangent space Tp M .

∂g ν dxµ (c(t)) dxµ (c(t)) ∂


df (c(t)) 
= (x ) = f
dt 
t=0 ∂xµ dt dt ∂xµ
g(xν ) = (f · ϕ−1 )(xν )

Consider p ∈ Ui Uj , x = ϕi (p)
y = ϕj (p)
∂ ∂
X = Xµ µ
=Yν ν
∂x ∂y
ν
ν µ ∂y
Y =X (5.23)
∂xµ
ω ∈ Tp∗ M
5.2.3. One-forms. cotangent vector or 1-form.
ω : Tp M → R
differential df ∈ Tp∗ M on V ∈ Tp M
∂f
hdf, V i = V [f ] = V µ ∈R (5.24)
∂xµ
arbitrary 1-form ω
ω = ωµ dxµ (5.26)
inner product defined
h , i : Tp∗ M × Tp M → R
∂
hω, V i = ωµ V µ hdxµ , i = ωµ V µ (5.27)
∂xν

For p ∈ Ui Uj , x = ϕi (p)
y = ϕj (p)

dy ν ∈ Tp∗ M so so
dy ν = ωµ dxµ
∂ ∂y ν ∂y ν
hdy ν , γ
i = δ µγ µ = = ωµ hdxµ , ∂xγ i = ωγ
∂x ∂x ∂xγ
∂y ν µ
=⇒ dy ν = dx
∂xµ
∂y ν ∂y ν
ω = ωµ dxµ = ψν dy ν = ψν µ dxµ or ωµ = ψν µ
∂x ∂x
q
5.2.4. Tensors. τr,p (M ) set of type (q, r) tensors at p ∈ M .
q
element of τr,p (M )
∂ ∂
T = T µ1 ...µqν1 ...νr µ1 . . . µq dxν1 . . . dxνr (5.29)
∂x ∂x
T : ⊗q Tp∗ M ⊗r Tp M → R

∂
Let Vi = Viµ (1 ≤ i ≤ r)
∂xµ
ωi = ωiµ dxµ (1 ≤ i ≤ q)
T (ω1 . . . ωq , V1 . . . Vr ) = T µ1 ...µqν1 ...νr ω1µ1 . . . ωqµq V1ν1 . . . Vrνr
17
 T (ω1 . . . ai ωi + bi ψi . . . ωq , V1 . . . Vr ) = T µ1 ...µqν1 ...νr ω1µ1 . . . (qi ωiµi + bi ψiµi ) . . . ωqµq , V1ν1 . . . Vrνr ) =
= ai T µ1 ...µqν1 ...νr ω1µ1 . . . ωiµi . . . ωqµq , V1ν1 . . . Vrνr + bi T µ1 ...µqν1 ...νr ω1µ1 . . . ψiµi . . . ωqµq , V1ν1 . . . Vrνr =
= ai T (ω1 . . . ωi . . . ωq , V1 . . . Vr ) + bi T (ω1 . . . ψi . . . ωq , V1 . . . Vr )
ν ν
T (ω1 . . . ωq , V1 . . . cj Vj + dj Wj . . . Vr ) = T µ1 ...µqν1 ...νr ω1µ1 . . . ωqµq V1ν1 . . . (cj Vj j + dj Wj j . . . Vr =
ν ν
= cj T µ1 ...µqν1 ...νr ω1µ1 . . . ωqµq V1ν1 . . . Vj j . . . Vr + dj T µ1 ...µqν1 ...νr ω1µ1 . . . ωqµq V1ν1 . . . Wj j . . . Vr =
= cj T (ω1 . . . ωq , V1 . . . Vj . . . Vr ) + dj T (ω1 . . . ωq , V1 . . . Wj . . . Vr )
5.2.5. Tensor fields. vector field - vector assigned smooth ∀ p ∈ M
i.e. V vector field if V [f ] ∈ F(M ) ∀ f ∈ F(M )

q
tensor field of type (q, r), τr,p (M ) ∀ p ∈ M
τ10 (M )
set of dual vector fields ≡ Ω1 (M )
τ00 (M )
= F(M )
5.2.6. Induced maps. smooth f : M → N

differential f∗ : Tp M → Tf (p) N
By def. of tangent vector as directional derivative along a curve,
if g ∈ F(N ), f g ∈ F(M )
vector V ∈ Tp M acts on gf to give number V [gf ]

define f∗ V ∈ Tf (p) N
(f∗ V )[g] = V [gf ] (5.31)

or for (U, ϕ) ⊂ M
(V, ψ) ⊂ N
(f∗ V )[gψ −1 (y)] ≡ V [gf ϕ−1 (x)] (5.32)
µ ∂
Let V = V ∂xµ , f∗ V = W α ∂y∂α
∂ ∂
Wα α
[gψ −1 (y)] = V µ µ [gf ϕ−1 (x)]
∂y ∂x
With y = ψ(f (p)),
take g = y α
∂y α
Wα = V µ (5.33)
∂xµ
f (p) = f ϕ−1 (x)
∂ ∂
Vµ [y α f ϕ−1 (x)] = V µ µ [y α ]
∂xµ ∂x
20121030

Consider smooth f : M → N
f∗ : Tp M → Tf (p) N
(U, ϕ) ⊂ M ϕ = xµ
(V, ψ) ⊂ N ψ = yν
∂
ψf ϕ−1 : ϕ(U ) ⊆ Rm → Rn X ∈ Tp M X = Xµ
∂xµ
ψf ϕ−1 ≡ f ν (xµ ) Y ∈ Tf (p) N ∂
Y =Yν ν
∂y
f∗ X ∈ Tf (p) N
∂
f∗ X = Y ν
∂y ν
18
 g ∈ F(N ) gψ −1 : ψ(N ) → R
g:N →R gψ −1 ≡ g(y ν )
gf : M → R
gf ∈ F(M )
(f∗ X)[g] ≡ X[gf ]
∂g ∂ ∂ ∂g ∂f ν
(f∗ X)[g] = Y ν ν
(y) = X µ µ [gf ] = X µ µ g(f ν (x)) = X µ ν (y) µ (x)
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x
∂f ν µ ∂y
ν
=⇒ Y ν = X µ = X
∂xµ ∂xµ
where
gf = gψ −1 ψf ϕ−1
gψ −1 ψf ϕ−1 : ϕ(U ) → R
gψ −1 ψf ϕ−1 = g(f ν (x))
Exercise 5.3.

∂
V =Vα
f :M → N p ∈ M,(U, ϕ) ⊂ M V ∈ Tp M ∂xα
Consider ∂
g :N → P q = f (p) ∈ N,(V, ψ) ⊂ N W ∈ Tq N W = Wβ β
∂y
gf :M → P r = g(q) ∈ P,(W, χ) ⊂ P X ∈ Tg(q) P
∂
X = Xγ γ
∂z
f∗ V ∈ Tf (p) N g∗ W ∈ Tg(q) P gf∗ V ∈ Tgf (p) P
f∗ V [h] = V [hf ] g∗ W [k] = W [kg] gf∗ V [l] = V [lgf ]
−1 −1 −1 −1
f∗ V [hψ (y)] = V [hf ϕ (x)] g∗ W [kχ (z)] = W [kgψ (y)] gf∗ V [lχ−1 (z)] = V [lgf ϕ−1 (x)]

=⇒ g∗ (f∗ V )[l] = f∗ V [lg] = V [lgf ] = gf∗ V [l]

In coordinates,
α α −1
∂ µ ∂y ∂ µ ∂(y f ϕ (x)) ∂
g∗ (f∗ V )[lχ−1 (z)] = f∗ V [lgψ −1 (y)] = W α [lgψ −1
(y)] = V [lgψ −1
(y)] = V [lgψ −1 (y)]
∂y α ∂xµ ∂y α ∂xµ ∂y α
∂
gf∗ V [lχ−1 (z)] = V [lgf ϕ−1 (x)] = V α α (lgf ϕ−1 (x))
∂x
∂ −1 ∂(y α f ϕ−1 (x)) ∂
=⇒ (lgf ϕ (x)) = [lgψ −1 (y)]
∂xµ ∂xµ ∂y α
Chain rule is reobtained.

f :M →N
f ∗ : Tf∗(p) N → Tp∗ M pull back hf ∗ ω, V i = hω, f∗ V i
ω ∈ Tf∗(p) N
V ∈ Tp M
0 ∗ 0
tensor of type (0, r) f : τr,f (p) (N ) → τr,p (M )

20121030
pullback

f :M →N X ∈ Tp M
f ∗ : Tf∗(p) N → Tp∗ M ∂
X = Xµ
∂xµ
∗
(U, ϕ) ⊂ M ϕ = xµ ω ∈ Tf (p) N
(V, ψ) ⊂ N ψ = yν ω = ωα dy α
19
 f ∗ ω ∈ Tp∗ M so
f ∗ ω = ψβ dxβ
∂ ∂
hf ∗ ω, Xi = hψβ dxβ , X µ µ
i = ψµ X µ = hω, f∗ Xi = hωα dy α , Y ν ν i =
∂x ∂y
ν ν
∂y ∂ ∂y
= hωα dy α , X µ µ ν i = ων X µ µ
∂x ∂y ∂x
∂y ν ∂y ν
ψµ = ων = ων
∂xµ ∂xµ
Exercise 5.4.
ω = ωα dy α ∈ Tf∗(p) N V ∈ Tp M
∂
f ∗ ω = ξµ dxµ ∈ Tp∗ M V =Vµ
∂xµ
∂
hf ∗ ω, V i = hξµ dxµ , V νi = ξµ V µ =
∂xν
∂ ∂y β ∂ ∂y β ∂y α
= hω, f∗ V i = hωα dy α , W β β i = hωα dy α , V µ µ β i = ωα V µ µ δ αβ = ωα V µ µ =
∂y dx ∂y ∂x ∂x
∂y α
=⇒ ξµ = ωα
∂xµ
Exercise 5.5.
(gf )∗ : Tgf
∗ ∗
(p) P → Tp M

h(gf )∗ χ, V i = hχ, (gf )∗ V i = hχ, g∗ f∗ V i = hg ∗ χ, f∗ V i = hf ∗ g ∗ χ, V i

=⇒ (gf )∗ = f ∗ g ∗
with
g ∗ : Tg(q)
∗
P → Tq∗ N f ∗ : Tf∗(p) N → Tp∗ M
hg ∗ ω, W i = hω, g∗ W i hf ∗ ν, V i = hν, f∗ V i

5.2.7. Submanifolds.
Definition 5 (5.3). (Immersion, submanifold, embedding)
Let smooth f : M → N
dimM ≤ dimN
(a) immersion f if f∗ : Tp M → Tf (p) N injection (1-to-1) i.e.
rankf∗ = dimM
(b) embedding f if f injection and immersion
f (M ) submanifold of N .
5.3. Flow and Lie derivatives. Let vector field X in M .
integral curve x(t) of X is a curve in M , tangent vector at x(t) is X|x
dxµ
= X µ (x(t))
dt
where xµ is µth component of ϕ(x(t)), X = X µ ∂x∂ µ
Note the abus of notation: x used to denote a pt. in M as well as its coordinates.
Let σ(t, x0 ) integral curve of X which passes a pt. x0 at t = 0.
d µ
(26) σ (t, x0 ) = X µ (σ(t, x0 )) (5.40a)
dt
(27) σ µ (0, x0 ) = xµ0 (5.40b) initial condition
σ : R × M → M . Flow generated by X ∈ X (M ) s.t.
σ(t, σ µ (s, x0 )) = σ(t + s, x0 )
20
 The previous was true because of the following. From uniqueness of ODEs.
d µ
σ (t, σ µ (s, x0 )) = X µ (σ(t, σ µ (s, x0 )))
dt
σ µ (0, σ(s, x0 )) = σ(s, x0 )
d µ d
σ (t + s, x0 ) = σ µ (t + s, x0 ) = X µ (σ(t + s, x0 ))
dt d(t + s)
σ(0 + s, x0 ) = σ(s, x0 )
Theorem 7 (5.1). ∀ x ∈ M , ∃ differentiable σ : R × M → M s.t.
(i) σ(0, x) = x
(ii) t 7→ σ(t, x) solution of (5.40a), (5.40b)
(iii) σ(t, σ µ (s, x)) = σ(t + s, x)
∂ ∂
Example 5.9. Let M = R2 , X((x, y)) = −y ∂x + x ∂y
∂f ∂f df (σ(t)) dxµ (c(t)) ∂f
X((x, y))[f ] = −y +x = =
∂x ∂y dt dt ∂xµ
dx
= −y d2 y y = Ac(t) = Bs(t) A=y
dt = −y =⇒ =⇒
dy dt2 x = −As(t) + Bc(t) B=x
=x
dt
x = x cos (t) − y sin (t)
y = x sin (t) + y cos (t)
Exercise 5.7.
∂ ∂
X=y +x
∂x ∂y
∂f ∂f dxµ ∂f
X[f ] = y +x =
∂x ∂y dt ∂xµ
dx
=y ẍ = x x = Aet + Be−t
dt
dy ÿ = y y = Aet − Be−t
=x
dt
5.3.1. One-parameter group of transformations. For fixed t ∈ R, flow σ(t, x) is a diffeomorphism from M to M ,
σt : M → M
σt made into a commutative group by
(i) σt (σs (X)) = σt+s (X) i.e. σt ◦ σs = σt+s
(ii) σ0 = 1
(iii) σ−t = (σt )−1
Under action σ , infinitesimal , from (5.40a), (5.40b)
σµ (x) = σ µ (, x) = xµ + X µ (x)
So vector field X is the infinitesimal generator of transformation σ
Given a vector field X, corresponding flow σ of referred to as exponentiation of X
σ µ (t, x) = exp (tX)xµ (5.43)
Since
 2  "  2 #
2 2

d t d  d t d
σ µ (t, x) = xµ + t σ µ (s, x) σ µ (s, x) + . . . σ µ (s, x)|s=0 =

+ + ··· = 1 + t +

ds s=0 2! ds  ds 2! ds
s=0
 
d µ
= exp t σ (s, x)|s=0 (5.44)
ds
Properties
(i) σ(0, x) = x = exp (0X)x (5.45a)
21
 (ii) dσ(t,x)
dt = X exp (tX)x = dt d
[exp (tX)x] (5.45b)
(iii) σ(t, σ(s, x)) = σ(t, exp (sX)x) = exp (tX) exp (sX)x = exp [(t + s)X]x = σ(t + s, x)
5.3.2. Lie derivatives. Let σ(t, x), τ (t, x) be 2 flows generated by vector fields X, Y
dσ µ (s, x)
= X µ (σ(s, x)) (5.46a)
ds
dτ µ (t, x)
= Y µ (τ (t, x)) (5.46b)
dt
evaluate change of Y along σ(s, x)
Compare Y at x and at x0 = σ (x) nearby
But components of Y at 2 pts. belong to different tangent spaces Tp M, Tσ (x) M
map Y |σ (x) to Tx M by
(σ− )∗ : Tσ(x) M → Tx M
Lie derivative of vector field Y along flow σ of X

1h i
(28) Lx Y = lim (σ− )∗ Y |σ(x) − Y |x (5.47)
→0 

(σ− )∗ : Tσ (x) M → Tx M

((σ− )∗ Y )[g] = Y [g(σ− )]
Exercise 5.8 .
(σ )∗ : Tσ− (x) M → Tx M
1h i
LX Y = lim Y |x − (σ )∗ Y |σ− (x)
→0 
(σ )∗ : Tx M → Tσ (x) M
1h i
LX Y = lim Y |σ (x) − (σ )∗ Y |x
→0 
Let (U, ϕ) be a chart with coordinates x

µ ∂
Let X = X ∂xµ
∂
Y =Yµ µ
∂x
σ (x) = xµ + X µ (x)
Y |σ (x) = Y (x + X (x))|x+X ' [Y µ (x) + X ν (x)∂ν Y µ (x)] eµ |x+X
µ ν ν

{eµ = ∂x∂ µ } is the coordinate basis.

Consider Fig. 5.12. Note the need to “pullback” vector Y to x.
(σ− )∗ at σ (x) to x.
Recall that
σ− : M → M
(σ− )∗ : Tσ (x) M → Tx M
((σ− )∗ Y )[g] = Y [g(σ− )]
 
∂  ∂ 
Y |σ (x) = Y µ (xν + X ν (x)) µ  ' [Y µ (x) + X ν ∂ν Y µ (x)] µ 
∂x x+X ∂x x+X
∂ ∂ α ∂
Now (σ− )∗ Y |σ (x) = W α α = Y µ µ σ−
∂x ∂x ∂xα
∂
=⇒ W α = Y µ |σ (x) µ σ− α
=
∂x
∂
= (Y µ (x) + X ν ∂ν Y µ (x)) µ (xα − X α ) = [Y µ (x) + X ν ∂ν Y µ (x)](δµα − ∂µ X α ) =
∂x
= Y α (x) + X ν ∂ν Y α (x) − Y µ ∂µ X α + O(2 )
22
So the first order term is
(X ν ∂ν Y α (x) − Y ν ∂ν X α )
Exercise 5.9.

µ ∂
Given X = X ∂xµ
∂
Y =Yµ µ
∂x
Lie bracket [X, Y ]. [X, Y ]f = X[Y [f ]] − Y [X[f ]].

∂Y µ µ
 
ν ∂X ∂f
[X, Y ]f = X ν ν
− Y ν
∂x ∂x ∂xµ
∂Y ν ∂X ν
 
∂
=⇒ [X, Y ] = X µ µ − Y µ µ
∂x ∂x ∂xν
This is the local form of the Lie bracket
=⇒ LX Y = [X, Y ] (5.49b). [X, Y ] indeed 1st.-order derivative and indeed a vector field.
Exercise 5.10.
(a) bilinearity
[X, c1 Y1 + c2 Y2 ] = c1 [X, Y1 ] + c2 [X, Y2 ]
Want:
[c1 X1 + c2 X2 , Y ] = c1 [X1 , Y ] + c2 [X2 , Y ]
∂ ∂X ν
[X, c1 Y1 + c2 Y2 ] = X µ µ (c1 Y1 + c2 Y2 )ν − (c1 Y1 + c2 Y2 )µ µ =
∂x ν ν
  ν
∂x
ν

µ ∂Y1 µ ∂X µ ∂Y 2 µ ∂X
= c1 X − Y1 + c2 X − Y2 = c1 [X, Y1 ] + c2 [X, Y2 ]
∂xµ ∂xµ ∂xµ ∂xµ
∂Y ν ∂
[c1 X1 + c2 X2 , Y ] = (c1 X1 + c2 X2 )µ µ − Y µ µ (c1 X1 + c2 X2 )ν =
∂x ∂x
ν ν ν ν
   
µ ∂Y µ ∂X1 µ ∂Y µ ∂X2
= c1 X1 −Y + c2 X2 −Y = c1 [X1 , Y ] + c2 [X2 , Y ]
∂xµ ∂xµ ∂xµ ∂xµ
(b)
ν ν ν ν
 
µ ∂X µ ∂Y µ ∂Y µ ∂X
[Y, X] = Y −X =− X −Y = −[X, Y ]
∂xµ ∂xµ ∂xµ ∂xµ
(c) Want:
[[X, Y ], Z] + [[Z, X], Y ] + [[Y, Z], X] = 0
Now
[[X, Y ], Z]
ν
∂Z ∂
[X, Y ]µ µ
− Z µ µ [X, Y ]ν = (X a ∂a Y µ − Y a ∂a X µ )∂µ Z ν − Z µ (∂µ X a ∂a Y ν + X a ∂µa 2
Y ν − ∂µ Y a ∂a X ν − Y a ∂µa
2
Xν) =
∂x ∂x
= X a ∂a Y µ ∂µ Z ν − Y a ∂a X µ ∂µ Z ν − Z µ ∂µ X a ∂a Y ν − Z µ X a ∂µa
2
Y ν + Z µ ∂µ Y a ∂a X ν + Z µ Y a ∂µa
2
Xν
Likewise,
[[Z, X], Y ]ν = Z a ∂a X µ ∂µ Y ν − X a ∂a Z µ ∂µ Y ν − Y µ ∂µ Z a ∂a X ν − Y µ Z a ∂µa
2
X ν + Y µ ∂µ X a ∂a Z ν + Y µ X a ∂µa
2
Zν
[[Y, Z], X]ν = Y a ∂a Z µ ∂µ X ν − Z a ∂a Y µ ∂µ X ν − X µ ∂µ Y a ∂a Z ν − X µ Y a ∂µa
2
Z ν + X µ ∂µ Z a ∂a Y ν + X µ Z a ∂µa
2
Yν
All the 18 terms cancel.

5.4. Differential forms. symmetry operation on tensor

0
ω ∈ τr,p (M )

(29) P ω(v1 . . . vr ) ≡ ω(vP (1) . . . vP (r) ) (5.59)

vi ∈ Tp M , P ∈ Sr , symmetry group of order r
23
 ω(eµ1 . . . eµr ) = ωµ1 ...µr
P ω(eµ1 . . . eµr ) = ωµP (1) ...µP (r)
0
symmetrizer S, ω ∈ τr,p (M )

1 X
Sω = Pω (5.60)
r!
P ∈Sr
anti-symmetrizer A
1 X
Aω = sgn(P )P ω
r!
P ∈Sr

5.4.1. Definitions.
Definition 6 (5.4). diff. form or r-form, totally antisymmetric tensor of type (0, r)
define wedge product ∧ of r 1-forms by the totally antisymm. tensor product
X
(30) dxµ1 ∧ dxµ2 ∧ · · · ∧ dxµr = sgn(P )dxµ (5.62)
P ∈Sr
e.g.

dxµ ∧ dxν = dxµ ⊗ dxν − dxν ⊗ dxµ

dxλ ∧ dxµ ∧ dxν = dxλ dxµ dxν + dxν dxλ dxµ + dxµ dxν dxλ − dxλ dxν dxµ − dxν dxµ dxλ − dxµ dxλ dxν
(i)
(ii)
dxµ1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxµr = sgn(P )dxµP (1) ∧ · · · ∧ dxµP (r)
X X
sgn(Q)dxµQ(1) dxµQ(2) . . . dxµQ(r) = sgn(Q)(sgn(P ))2 dxµQ(P (1)) . . . dxµQ(P (r)) =
Q∈Sr Q∈Sr
X
= (sgnP ) sgn(Q)sgnP dxµQ(P (1)) . . . dxµQ(P (r))
Q∈Sr
r
vector space of r-forms at p ∈ M by Ωp (M )
set of r-forms (5.62) forms basis of Ωrp (M )

ω ∈ Ωrp (M )

1
(31) ω= ωµ ...µ dxµ1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxµr (5.63)
r! 1 r
ωµ1
...µr totally antisymmetric, reflecting antisymmetry of basis
m
r choices of (µ1 . . . µr ) out of (1 . . . n) in (5.62)
 
m
dimΩrp (M ) =
r
m m


r m−r
since r = m−r , Ωp (M ) ' Ωp (M )

q
Let ω ∈ Ωp (M )
ξ ∈ Ωrp (M )
action of (q + r)-form ω ∧ ξ on q + r vectors

1 X
(32) (ω ∧ ξ)(v1 . . . vq+r ) = sgn(P )ω(vp(1) . . . vp(q) )ξ(vp(q+1) . . . vp(q+r) ) (5.65)
q!r!
p∈Sq+r

with this product, define

m
M
(33) Ω∗p (M ) ≡ Ωkp (M ) (5.66)
k=0
24
Exercise 5.13. p
x = r cos θ r= x2 + y 2
y
y = r sin θ θ = arctan
x
x y
∂x r = ∂y r =
r r
−y
∂r x = cθ ∂θ x = −rsθ x2 −y
∂x θ = 2 =
∂r y = sθ ∂θ y = rcθ 1 + xy 2 x2 + y 2
x
∂y θ =
x2
+ y2
dx ∧ dy = (cθ dr + −rsθ dθ) ∧ (sθ dr + rcθ dθ) = rcθ dr ∧ dθ + rs2θ dr ∧ dθ = rdr ∧ dθ
2

Exercise 5.14.
2
ξ ∧ ξ = (v1 ∧ · · · ∧ vq ) ∧ (v1 ∧ · · · ∧ vq ) = (−1)q v1 ∧ (v1 ∧ · · · ∧ vq ) ∧ (v2 ∧ · · · ∧ vq ) = (−1)q ξ ∧ ξ = −ξ ∧ ξ if q odd
5.4.2. Exterior derivatives.
Definition 7 (5.5). exterior derivatives
dr : Ωr (M ) → Ωr+1 (M )
1
ω = ωµ1 ...µr dxµ1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxµr
r!  
1 ∂
dr ω = ωµ ...µ dxν ∧ dxµ1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxµr (5.68)
r! ∂xν 1 r
Example 5.10. in 3-dim.
ω0 = f (x, y, z)
ω1 = ωx (x, y, z)dx + ωy (x, y, z)dy + ωz (x, y, z)dz
ω2 = ωxy (x, y, z)dx ∧ dy + ωyz (x, y, z)dy ∧ dz + ωzx (x, y, z)dz ∧ dx
ω3 = ωxyz (x, y, z)dx ∧ dy ∧ dz
Recall
1
ω= ωµ ...µ dxµ1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxµr
r! 1 r
e.g.

ω12 dx1 ∧ dx2 + ω13 dx1 ∧ dx3 + ω21 dx2 ∧ dx1 + · · · = (ω12 − ω21 )dx1 ∧ dx2 + . . .
ωµ1 ...µr itself must be antisymmetrized.
 
1 ∂ωµ1 ...µr
dω = dxν ∧ dxµ1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxµr
r! ∂xν
(i)
∂f ∂f ∂f
dω0 = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
(ii)
 
1 ∂ωx ∂ωx ∂ωy ∂ωy ∂ωz ∂ωz
dω1 = dy ∧ dx + dz ∧ dx + dx ∧ dy + dz ∧ dy + dx ∧ dz + dy ∧ dz =
1! ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
     
∂ωy ∂ωx ∂ωz ∂ωy ∂ωx ∂ωz
= − dx ∧ dy + − dy ∧ dz + − dz ∧ dx
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
(iii)
 
1 ∂ωxy ∂ωyx ∂ωyz ∂ωzy
dω2 = dz ∧ dx ∧ dy + dz ∧ dy ∧ dx + dx ∧ dy ∧ dz + dx ∧ dz ∧ dy + . . . =
2! ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x
 
∂ωyz ∂ωzx ∂ωxy
= + + dx ∧ dy ∧ dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
25
Exercise 5.15. 20130929

ξ ∈ Ωq (M ) ξ ∧ ω = ξi1 ...iq ωj1 ...jr dxi1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxiq ∧ dxj1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxjr

ω ∈ Ωr (M )
1 ∂(ξi1 ...iq ωj1 ...jr ) ν
d(ξ ∧ ω) = dx ∧ dxi1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxiq ∧ dxj1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxjr =
(q + r)! ∂xν
1
= (∂ν ξi1 ...iq ωj1 ...jr + ξi1 ...iq ∂ν ωj1 ...jr )dxν ∧ dxi1 ∧ · · · =
(q + r)!
1
= {∂ν ξi1 ...iq ωj1 ...jr dxν ∧ dxi1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxiq ∧ dxj1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxjr +
(q + r)!
+ξi1 ...iq ∂ν ωj1 ...jr dxi1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxiq ∧ dxν ∧ dxj1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxjr (−1)q }

dξ ∧ ω + (−1)q ξ ∧ dω =
1 ∂ξi1 ...iq ν
= dx ∧ dxi1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxiq ∧ ωj1 ...jr dxj1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxjr
q! ∂xν
decomposable forms
ξ = f dxi1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxiq = f dxI
ω = gdxj1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxjq = gdxI
d(ξ ∧ ω) = d(f dxI ∧ gdxJ ) = d(f g) ∧ dx2 ∧ dxJ = (f dg = gdf ) ∧ dx2 ∧ dxJ =
= df ∧ dxI ∧ gdxJ + (−1)q f dxI ∧ dg ∧ dxJ = dξ ∧ ω + ξ ∧ dω
X = X µ ∂xµ ∈ X (M )
ω = ωµ dxµ ∈ Ω1 (M )
Y = Y ν ∂xν
∂ωµ ν µ
X[ω(Y )] − Y [ω(X)] − ω([X, Y ]) = (X Y − X µ Y ν )
∂xν
[X, Y ] = [X µ ∂xµ Y ν − Y µ ∂xµ X ν ]∂xν
ω([X, Y ]) = ων (X µ ∂µ Y ν − Y µ ∂µ X ν )
X[ω(Y )] = X µ ∂µ (ων Y ν ) = X µ ∂µ ων Y ν + X µ ων ∂µ Y ν
Y [ω(X)] = Y µ ∂µ (ων X ν ) = Y µ ∂µ ων X ν + Y µ ων ∂µ X ν
=⇒ X[ω(Y )] − Y [ω(X)] − ω([X, Y ]) = X µ ∂µ ων Y ν − Y µ ∂µ ων X ν = ∂µ ων (X µ Y ν − Y µ X ν )
Suppose
r
X X
dω(X1 . . . Xp+1 ) = (−1)i+1 Xi ω(X1 . . . X
bi . . . Xi+1 )+ (−1)i+1 ω([Xi , Xj ], X1 . . . X
bi . . . X
bj . . . Xi+1 ) (5.71)
i=1 i<j

for r-form ω ∈ Ωr (M )

1
ω = ωµ1 ...µr dxµ1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxµr
 r! 
1 ∂
dω = ωµ ...µ dxν ∧ dxµ1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxµr
r! ∂xν 1 r

5.4.3. Interior product and Lie derivative of forms. interior product iX : Ωr (M ) → Ωr−1 (M ) where X ∈ χ(M )

Let ω ∈ Ωr (M ), define

(34) iX ω(X1 . . . Xr−1 ) ≡ ω(X, X1 . . . Xr−1 ) (5.78)

with
∂
X = Xµ
∂xµ
1
ω= ωµ ...µ dxµ1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxµr
r! 1 r
26
(35)
r
1 1 X µs
iX ω = X ν ωνµ2 ...µr dxµ2 ∧· · ·∧dxµr = X ωµ1 ...µs ...µr (−1)s−1 dxµ1 ∧· · ·∧ dx
[ µs ∧· · ·∧dxµr (5.79)
(r − 1)! r! s=1
cf. wikipedia
iX : Ωp (M ) → Ωp−1 (M ) iX a map that sends a p-form ω to the (p − 1) form iX ω

(iX ω)(X1 . . . Xp−1 ) = ω(X, X1 . . . Xp−1 )

α 1-form iX α = α(X)

p
for β ∈ Ω (M )
γ ∈ Ωq (M )
iX (β ∧ γ) = (iX β) ∧ γ + (−1)p β ∧ (iX γ)

p
1 1 X is
iX ω = X i ωii2 ...ip dxi2 ∧ · · · ∧ dxip = X ωi1 ...is ...ip (−1)s−1 dxi1 ∧ · · · ∧ dx
d is ∧ · · · ∧ dxir
(p − 1)! p! s=1

1
i∂x (dx ∧ dy) = dy = dy
(2 − 1)!
i∂x (dy ∧ dz) = 0
i∂x (dz ∧ dx) = δ i1 31 dx3 = −dz
Let ω 1-form. iX ω = ω(X)

1
(diX + iX d)ω = d(X µ ωµ ) + iX [ (∂µ ων − ∂ν ωµ )dxµ ∧ dxν ] =
2
1
= (ωµ ∂ν X µ + X µ ∂ν ωµ )dxν + (X µ ∂µ ων dxν − X ν ∂ν ωµ dxµ )
2
using, recall,
1
iX ω = X i ωii2 ...ip dxi2 ∧ · · · ∧ dxip
(p − 1)!
Recall (5.55): LX ω = (X ν ∂ν ωµ + ∂µ X ν ων )dxµ

(36) LX ω = (diX + iX d)ω (5.80)

1 µ1
for r-form, ω = r! ωµ1 ...µr dx ∧ · · · ∧ dxµr

(37)
r
1 1 X 1
LX ω = lim ((σ )∗ ω|σ (X) − ω|X ) = X ν ∂ν ωµ1 ...µr dxµ1 ∧· · ·∧dxµr + ∂µs X ν ωµ1 ...(s→ν)...µr dxµ1 ∧· · ·∧dxµr (5.81)
→0  r! r!
s=1

Ex.5.12. (q µ , pµ ) tangent bundle!!!

symplectic 2 form
(38) ω = dpµ ∧ dq µ (5.88)
1-form θ = q µ dpµ or (???) θ = pµ dq µ

ω = dθ
Given f (q, p) in phase space
define Hamiltonian vector field
∂f ∂ ∂f ∂
Xf = − µ (5.91)
∂pµ ∂q µ ∂q ∂pµ
−∂f ∂f
iXf ω = dpµ − µ dq µ = −df
∂pµ ∂q
27
 1
iX ω = X i ωii2 ...ip dxi2 ∧ · · · ∧ dxip
(p − 1)!
Consider vector field generated by Hamiltonian

∂H ∂ ∂H ∂
(39) XH = − µ (5.92)
∂pµ ∂q µ ∂q ∂pµ
Hamilton’s eqns. of motion.
∂H
q̇ µ =
∂pµ
(5.93) (Hamilton’s eqn. of motion)
−∂H
ṗµ =
∂q µ

∂ ∂ d
(40) XH = q̇ µ + ṗµ = (5.94)
∂q µ ∂pµ dt
symplectic 2-form ω left-invariant along flow generated by XH

LXH ω = d(iXH ω) + iXH (dω) = d(iXH ω) = −d2 H = 0

used (diX + iX d)ω = LX ω (5.82)
Conversely, if X satisfies LX ω = 0, ∃ Hamiltonian H s.t. Hamilton’s eqn. of motion is satisfied along the flow
generated by X
from LX ω = d(iX ω) = 0 and hence by Poincaré’s lemma, ∃ H(q, p) s.t.
iX ω = −dH

5.5. Integration of differential forms.

5.5.1. Orientation. integration of differential form over manifold M defined only when M is “orientable”
Let M connected m-dim. differential manifold
∀ p ∈ M , Tp M spanned by basis { ∂x∂ µ }, xµ local coordinate on chart Ui 3 p
Let Uj another chart s.t. Ui ∩ Uj 6= ∅ with local cordinates y α .
If p ∈ Ui ∩ Uj , Tp M spanned by either {eµ } = { ∂x∂ µ , or {e
eα } = { ∂y∂α }
∂ ∂xµ ∂
(41) = (5.97)
∂y α ∂y α ∂xµ
 µ
∂x
If J = det ∂y α > 0 on Ui ∩ Uj , {eµ }, {e
eα } define same orientation on Ui ∩ Uj
If J < 0, opposite orientation.
Definition 8 (5.6). M connected manifold covered by {Ui }
 µ
µ ∂x
manifold M orientable if ∀ overlapping charts Ui , Uj , ∃ local coordinates {x } for Ui s.t. J = det ∂y α >0
α
{y } for Uj
If M nonorientable, J can’t be positive in all interactions of charts.
If m-dim. M orientable, ∃ m-form ω s.t. ω 6= 0
This m-form ω is volume element
2 vol. elements ω, ω 0 equivalent if ∃ strictly positive h ∈ F(M ) s.t. ω = hω 0
take m-form
(42) ω = h(p)dx1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxm (5.98)
with positive-definite h(p) on chart (U, ϕ), x = ϕ(p)
If M orientable, extend ω throughout M s.t. component h positive definite on chart Ui
If M orientable, ω vol. element.

µ
Let p ∈ Ui ∩ Uj 6= ∅, x coordinates of Ui
y α coordinates of Uj
28
 ∂x1 µ1 ∂xm µm
 µ
∂x
ω = h(p) dy ∧ · · · ∧ dy = h(p)det dy 1 ∧ · · · ∧ dy m
∂y µ1 ∂y µm ∂y ν
 i m
∂x X ∂x1 ∂xm X ∂x1 ∂xm ∂x1 ∂xm
det = sgn(σ) . . . =  i 1 ...im
. . . =  i 1 ...im
. . .
∂y j ∂y σ1 ∂y σm i1 ...im =1
∂y i1 ∂y im ∂y i1 ∂y im
σ∈Sn

∂x1 ∂xm i1 ∂x1 ∂xm i1 ...im 1

 i
im im ∂x
i
. . . i
dy ∧ · · · ∧ dy = i
. . . i
 dy ∧ · · · ∧ dy = det dy 1 ∧ · · · ∧ dy im
∂y 1 ∂y m ∂y 1 ∂y m ∂y j
5.5.2. Integration of forms. integration of function f : M → R over oriented M
take vol. element ω
in coordinate neighborhood Ui , x = ϕ(p), p ∈ Ui
Z Z
(43) fω ≡ f (ϕ−1 −1 1
i (x))h(ϕi (x))dx . . . dx
m
(5.100)
Ui ϕ(Ui )

Definition 9 (5.7). open covering {Ui } of M s.t. ∀ p ∈ M , p covered by a finite number of Ui . M paracompact.
If diff. i (p) s.t.
(i) 0 ≤ i (p) ≤ 1
(ii) i (p) = 0 if p ∈
/ Ui
(iii) 1 (p) + 2 (p) + · · · = 1 ∀p ∈ M
{(p)} partition of unity subordinate to covering {Ui }
from (iii),
X X
(44) f (p) = f (p)i (p) = fi (p) (5.101)
i i

fi (p) ≡ f (p)i (p), fi (p) = 0 ∀ p ∈

/ Ui P
Hence, ∀ p ∈ M , paracompactness ensures in (5.101), fi (p) < ∞, finite, in sum i
define
Z XZ
(45) fω ≡ fi ω (5.102)
M i Ui

Although a different atlas {(Vi , ψi )} gives different coordinates and different partition of unity, integral defined
by (5.102) same.
 
θ2
1 1 (θ) = sin
Ex. 5.13. S 1 . U1 = S − {(1, 0)} 2 1 + 2 = 1 on S 1
1
 
U2 = S − {(−1, 0)} 2 θ
2 (θ) = cos
2
f = cos2 θ
Z 2π
dθ cos2 θ = π
0
Z 1 Z 2π Z π
θ θ π π
dθ cos2 θ = dθ sin2 cos2 θ + dθ cos2 cos2 θ = + = π
S 0 2 −π 2 2 2
5.6. Lie groups and Lie algebras.
∂z
5.6.1. Lie groups. Take x, y, z ∈ R − 0 s.t. xy = z xy = z ∂x = y 6= 0
Exercise 5.19.
∂ −1
(a) R+ = {x ∈ R|x > 0} ∂x x = −x−2 6= 0 diff.
(b)
∂x z = ∂x (x + y) = 1
∂x (x−1 ) = ∂x (−x) = −1
diff.
29
 (c)  
a
(a, b) + (x, y) = (a + x, b + y) Dg = Dg(x) =
b
 
−1
(x, y)−1 = (−x, −y) D(x, y)−1 =
−1
Lorentz group
O(1, 3) = {M ∈ GL(4, R)|M ηM T = η} η = diag(−1, 1, 1, 1)
Exercise 5.20. 20130801
detM ηM T = (detM )2 detη = detη (detM )2 = 1 detM = ±1
T 2 2
if U M U = diag(λ1 , λ2 , λ3 , λ5 ) = λ1 λ2 λ3 λ4 = (detU ) detM = (±1)(detU )
(0, 0) entry of M ηM T
−m20 + m21 + m22 + m23 = 1
M unbounded so O(1, 3) noncompact
Theorem 8. 5.2 Every closed subgroup M of a Lie group G is a Lie subgroup
e.g. O(n), SL(n, R), SO(n) Lie subgroups of GL(n, R)
f : GL(n, R) → R
SL(n, R) closed subgroup, consider
A 7→ detA
f cont. {1} closed f −1 (1) = SL(n, R) so SL(n, R) closed. By Thm. 5.2., SL(n, R) Lie subgroup.
Let G Lie group.
H Lie subgroup.
Define g ∼ g 0 if ∃ h ∈ H s.t. g 0 = gh
[g] = {gh|h ∈ G}
coset space G/H is a manifold (not necessarily a Lie group)

if H normal subgroup of G, i.e. ghg −1 ∈ H, ∀ g ∈ G , then G/H Lie groupp

h∈H
take [g], [g 0 ] ∈ G/H
Let gh, g 0 h0 representative of [g], [g 0 ], resp.

[g][g 0 ] = ghg 0 h0 = gg 0 h00 h0 ∈ [gg 0 ]

g −1 h
[g][g −1 ] = ghg −1 h0 = gg −1 h00 h0 = eh00 h0 = h00 h0 ∈ [e]
5.6.2. Lie algebras. left-translation
Lg : G → G
Lg h = gh = xik (g)xkj (h) = xij (gh)
Le h = eh = xik (e)xkj (h) = δ ik xkj (h) = xij (h) = 1h = h
Lg e = ge = xik (g)xkj (e) = xik (g)δ kj = xik (g) = g1 = g
Lg∗ : Th G → Tgh G
Pushforward?
Recall local coordinate form of pushforward
X ≡ Xh ∈ Th G

∂ 
Xh = Xhij
∂xij  h

∂xij (gh) ∂ 
 
ij ∂ 
Lg∗ Xh ≡ Lg∗ X = Xhkl = Xgh
∂xkl (h) ∂xij gh ∂xij gh
Note that xik (g)xkj (h) = xij (gh)
(
∂xij (gh) 0 if j 6= l
=⇒ = xim (g)δ km δ jl = xik (g)δ jl =
∂xkl (h) xik if j = l
30
 so
∂xij (gh)
   
∂  ∂  kj ik ∂  kj ∂ 
Lg∗ Xh = Xhkl kl ik
= Xh x (g)δ jl
= Xh x (g) ik
= x (g)Xh
∂xkl (h) ∂xij gh ∂xij gh ∂xij gh ∂xij gh
santiy check: Le∗ Xh = eXh = Xh
Consider left-invariant vector fields
Lg∗ X = X ∀ g (cf. wikipedia)
Lg∗ X|h = Xgh (cf. Nakahara)

Exercise 5.21.

∂xν (ag) ∂ 
 
µ ν ∂ 
(46) La∗ X|g = X (g) = x (ag) (5.110)
∂xµ (g) ∂xν ag ∂xν ag

La g = ag
La∗ X|g = X|ag y = y i (xj ) = aij xj
i

∂j y i = aij
 
µ ∂  µ ∂  ν
d(y(x))X (g) = X (g) y
∂xµ g ∂xµ g
Recall that
∂
V =Vµ
∂xµ ∂y α
Wα = V µ
∂ ∂xµ
f∗ V = W α
∂y α
∂y ν (ag) ∂ 
 
µ ν ∂ 

La∗ X|g = X (g) = X|ag = Y
∂xµ ∂y ν ag ∂y ν ag
V ∈ Te G defines unique left invariant vector field XV
(47) XV |g = Lg∗ V g∈G (5.111)
ð ≡ set of left invariant vector fields on G
Te G → ð is an isomorphism
V 7→ XV
ð ⊂ χ(G)

Lie Bracket (Sec. 5.3) also defined on ð

g, ag = La g ∈ G
X, Y ∈ ð

(48) La∗ [X, Y ]|g = [La∗ X|g , La∗ Y |g ] = [X, Y ]|ag (5.112)
so [X, Y ] ∈ ð

e.g. GL(n, R) coordinates given by n2 entries xij of the matrix.

g = {xij (g)} a = {xij (a)} ∈ GL(n, R) La g = ag = xik (a)xkj (g)

∂ 

take V = V ij ∂xij e ∈ Te G

   
∂  kl ∂  ∂  ∂ 
XV |g = Lg∗ V = V ij x (g)x lm
(e) = v ij kl
x (g)δ l m
δ
i j = V ij ki
x (g) =
∂xij e ∂xkm g ∂xkm g ∂xkj g
(49)  
∂  ∂ 
= xki (g)V ij = (gV ) kj
(5.113)
∂xkj  g ∂xkj  g
31
 
∂ 
V = V ij
∂xij e

∂ 
W = W ij
∂xij e
 
ki ij ∂  ca ab ∂ 
[XV , XW ]|g = x (g)V x (g)W − (V ↔ W ) =
∂xkj g ∂xcb g
 
ij jk kl jk kl ∂  ij ∂ 
(50) = x (g)[V W − W V ] = (g[V, W [) (5.114)
∂xil g ∂xij g

(51) =⇒ Lg∗ V = gV (5.115)

(52) [XV , XW ]|g = Lg∗ [V, W ] = g[V, W ] (5.116)

Definition 10 (5.11). ð ≡ set of left-invariant vector fields with Lie bracket [ , ] : ð × ð → ð Lie algebra of Lie
group G

20141117 EY recap: Recapping,

La : G → G Ra : G → G
La g = ag Ra g = ga
−1
La , Ra are diffeomorphisms; indeed La−1 = (La ) , Ra−1 = (Ra )−1 ∀a ∈ G
∀ Xg = Tg G,
locally Xg = Xgi ∂g∂ i

La∗ : Tg G → Tag G
j
locally, La∗ Xg = Xgi ∂(ag) ∂
∂g i ∂(ag)j (because that’s what pushforwards do)
Note the abuse of notation above.
if Xg is left-invariant,
La∗ Xg = Xag
this implies
∂(ag)j
Xgi j
= Xag
∂g i
Now isomorphisms can be shown so that
T1 G = g = {X|X ∈ T G, ∀ a, g ∈ G, La∗ Xg = Xag } i.e. set of left-invariant vector fields
∂ 

indeed, for instance, ∀ V ∈ T1 G, locally V = V i ∂x i
1
,
Lg∗ V = X
La∗ X = La∗ Lg∗ V = Lag∗ V = Xag
uniqueness can be shown in either cases, note.
Specialize to the case of G = GL(n)

(La g)ij = aik g kj

∂
Xg = Xgij
∂g ij
∂(ag)kl ∂ ∂ ∂
La∗ Xg = Xgij = Xgij aki = (aXg )kj
∂g ij ∂(ag)kl ∂(ag)kj ∂(ag)kj
where I used the following calculation:
∂(ag)kl
(ag)kl = akm g ml =⇒ = aki δ jl
∂g ij
32
 If Xg left invariant,
aXg = Xag

e.g. so(n) Lie algebra of SO(n)

e.g. 5.15
∂
(a) G = R define La : x 7→ x + a, left invariance field X = ∂x

∂(a + x) ∂ ∂
La∗ X|x = = = X|x+a
∂x ∂(a + x) ∂(x + a)
∂
X= ∂θ unique left vector field on G = SO(2) = {eiθ |0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π}

∂(φ + θ) ∂ ∂
=
∂θ ∂(φ + θ) ∂(φ + θ)

(b) Let gl(n, R) curves c : (−, ) → GL(n, R) c(s) = 1 + sA + O(s2 ) near s = 0, A n × n matrix of
c(0) = 1
real entries
5.6.3. The one-parameter subgroup.
5.6.4. Frames and structure equation. {V1 . . . Vn } basis of T1 G = g

(53) [Xa , Xb ] = ccab Xc (5.133)

From local form of the Lie bracket, cf. Exercise 5.9
ν ν
 
µ ∂Y µ ∂X ∂
[X, Y ] = X µ
−Y µ
∂x ∂x ∂xν
!
j j
i ∂Vb i ∂Va ∂ ∂
[Va , Vb ] = Va − Vb = ccab Vc = ccab Xcj j
∂xi ∂xi ∂xj ∂x
dual basis to {Xa }, {θa } s.t. hθa , Xb i = δ ab
dual basis satisfies Maurer-Cartan’s structure equation
dθa (Xb , Xc ) = Xb δ ac − Xc δ ab − θa ([Xb , Xc ]) = Xb δ ac − Xc δ ab − θa (cdbc Xd ) = Xb δ ac − Xc δ ab − cabc = −cabc
where I used dω(X, Y ) = Xω(Y ) − Y ω(X) − ω([X, Y ]), cf. wikipedia “exterior derivative”, etc.

−1 a b
(54) dθa =
c θ ∧ θc (5.136)
2 bc
define Lie algebra valued 1-form θ : Tg G → T1 G, canonical 1-form or Maurer-Cartan form on G

θ ∈ Ω1 (G; g)
(55) θ : X 7→ (Lg−1 )∗ X = (Lg )−1
∗ X where X ∈ Tg G (5.137)
Theorem 9 (5.3). (a) canonical 1-form is θ = Va ⊗ θ , where {Va } basis of T1 G = g, {θa } dual basis of Tg∗ G
a

EY : 20141117 here’s where Nakahara has a mistake, θ isn’t at e but at g

(b) where
dθ = Va ⊗ dθa and
(56) [θ ∧ θ] ≡ [Va , Vb ] ⊗ θa ∧ θb (5.140)
Proof. (a) ∀ Y = Y a Xa ∈ Tg G
θ(Y ) = (Lg−1 )∗ Y = (Lg )−1 a a a
∗ Y = Y (Lg −1 )∗ Xa = Y (Lg −1 )∗ (Lg )∗ Va = Y Va

On the other hand

(Va ⊗ θa )(Y ) = Va ⊗ θa (Y b Xb ) = Va (Y b (θa (Xb ))) = Y a Va
EY : 20141117 note that Nakahara, I believe, made a mistake with thinking θa is a dual basis at e, not g
33
 Thus
θ = Va ⊗ θa
(b) Now [Va , Vb ] = ccab Vc
1
dθ + [θ ∧ θ] = 0
2
1 1 1
[θ ∧ θ] = [Va , Vb ] ⊗ θa ∧ θb = Vc ⊗ ccab θa ∧ θb
2 2 2
c −1 c a
dθ = Vc ⊗ dθ = Vc ⊗ c θ ∧ θb
2 ab
1
=⇒ dθ + [θ ∧ θ] = 0
2


20141117 EY’s recap:

ccab independent of g ∈ G
∀ g ∈ G, ∀ θa in dual basis for Tg∗ G (also g∗ ), θa ∈ Tg∗ G,
∀ dθa ∈ Ω2g (G), then
−1 a b
dθa = c θ ∧ θc
2 bc
is satisfied, Maurer-Cartan’s structure equation.

5.7. The action of Lie groups on manifolds.

5.7.1. Definitions.
5.7.2. Orbits and isotropy groups.
5.7.3. Induced vector fields.
5.7.4. The adjoint representation.

6. de Rham Cohomology Groups

r
r-form ω in R

ω = a(x)dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ · · · ∧ dxr

define integration of ω over σ r
Z Z
(57) ω≡ a(x)dx1 dx2 . . . dxr (6.2)
σr σr
Z Z Z 1 Z 1−x
1
ω= dxdy = dx dy =
σ2 σ2 0 0 2
Z 1 Z 1−x Z 1−y−x Z 1 Z 1−x
1
dx dy dz = dx dy(1 − y − x) =
0 0 0 0 0 6
Let smooth f : σr → M
sr = f (σr ) ⊂ M (singular) r-simplex in M
define integration of r-form ω over r-chain in M
Z Z
(58) ω= f ∗ω (6.6)
sr σr
P
general r-chain c = i ai sr,i ∈ Cr (M )
Z X Z
(59) ω= ai ω (6.7)
c i sr,i

34
6.1. Stokes’ theorem.
ω ∈ Ωr−1 (M )
Theorem 10 (Stokes’ thm.).
c ∈ Cr (M )
then
Z Z
(60) dω = ω (6.8)
c ∂c

Proof. c linear combination of r-simplexes

suffices to prove (6.8) for r-simplex sr in M
Let f : σ r → M s.t. f (σ r ) = sr
Z Z Z
∗
dω = f (dω) = d(f ∗ ω)
sr σr σr
using (5.75)
Also we have
Z Z
ω= f ∗ω
∂sr ∂σ r


6.1.1. Preliminary consideration.

6.1.2. Stokes’ theorem.

6.2. de Rham cohomology groups.

7. Riemannian Geometry
7.1. Riemannian manifolds and pseudo-Riemannian manifolds.

7.1.1. Metric tensor.

Definition 11 (7.1). (i) gp (U, V ) = gp (V, U )
Since g ∈ τ20 (M ) (2 covariant indices, type (0,2) tensor)
Recall from Ch. 5, 5.2.3, 1-forms, df ∈ Tp∗ M on V ∈ Tp M defined.
∂f
hdf, V i = V [f ] = V µ ∈R
∂xµ
If ∃ metric g
gp : Tp M ⊗ Tp M → R
define
gp (U, ) :Tp M → R
V 7→ gp (U, V )
Then gp (U, ) identified with 1-form ωU ∈ Tp∗ M
Similarly, ω ∈ Tp∗ M induces Vω ∈ Tp M by hω, U i = g(Vω , U )
Thus gp isomorphism between Tp M and Tp∗ M

∂
Consider V = v α (since v ∈ Tp M )
∂xα
ω = ωα dxα (since ω ∈ Tp∗ M )
For arbitrary U ∈ Tp M
 
∂ ∂
gp (V, U ) = gp (v β , U ) = v β gp ,U = ω · U = ωα dxα (U )
∂xβ ∂xβ
Let U = U λ ∂x∂ λ
35
 ∂xα
   
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
=⇒ v β U λ gp , = ωα dxα U λ = ωα U λ dxα = ωα U λ = ωα U α =
∂xβ ∂xλ ∂xλ ∂xλ ∂xλ
= v β U λ gβλ = v β gβα U α
=⇒ ωα = gαβ v β

gp = gµν (p)dxµ ⊗ dxν (7.1a)

 
∂ ∂
gµν (p) = gp µ
, ν = gνµ (p) (p ∈ M ) (7.1b)
∂x ∂x
since (gµν ) has maximal rank (if gp (U, U ) = 0, U = 0, so kernel is 0), gµν has inverse g µν
isomorphism between Tp M and Tp∗ M expressed as ωµ = gµν U ν , U µ = g µν ων (7.2)
µ ∂
Take an infinitesimal displacement dx ∂xµ ∈ Tp M
 
2 µ ∂ ν ∂
ds = g dx , dx = gµν dxµ dxν (7.3)
∂xµ ∂xν
Exercise 7.1.

− √12 − √12
    √1 √1
  
1 2 2 −1
− √1 √1  1   √1 − √12   1 
 2 2   2 = 
 1  1  1   1 
1 1 1 1
Consider the light-cone basis

{e+ , e− , e2 , e3 }
e1 ± e0
e± ≡ √
2
1 1
g(e± , e± ) = g(e1 ± e0 , e1 ± e0 ) = (1 + (−1)) = 0 g++ = g−− = 0
2 2
1 1 g+− = g−+ = 1
g(e± , e∓ ) = g(e1 ± e0 , e1 ∓ e0 ) = (1 − (−1)) = 1
 2  2
1
1 
Indeed the light cone metric is  
 1 
1
ωµ = gµν U ν
ω+ = V −
ω− = V +
ω2 = V 2
ω3 = V 3

7.1.2. Induced metric. Let M be m-dim. submanifold of n-dim. Riemannian manifold N with metric gN .
If f : M → N embedding which induces the submanifold structure of M . (Sec. 5.2).
(recall, smooth f : M → N , dimM ≤ N , f immersion if f∗ : Tp M → Tf (p) N injection, so rank f∗ = dimM . f
embedding if f immersion and f injection. Also f (M ) submanifold of N ).
- pullback f ∗ induces natural metric gM = f ∗ gN on M
∂f α ∂f β
(61) gM µν (x) = gN αβ (7.5)
∂xµ ∂xν

f ∗ : Tf∗(p) N → Tp∗ M hf ∗ ω, V i = hω, f∗ V i

Recall the pullback:
ω ∈ Tf∗(p) N and
V ∈ Tp M f∗ V [g] = V [gf ], g ∈ F(N )
36
 gN : Tf (p) N ⊗ Tf (p) N → R
Now
gN (U, ) ∈ Tf∗(p) N
∂f ν ∂
hf ∗ gN (U, ), V i = hgN (U, ), f∗ V i = hgN (U, ), V µ i
∂xµ ∂y ν
For ν ν
∂ µ ∂g ∂f µ ∂f ∂g
f∗ V [g] = V [gf ] = V µ µ
[gf ] = V ν µ
= V
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ν
µ

with gf (xµ ) so then (20121026)

∂f ν ∂f β
 
∂µ ν ∂
gN U, V = gN (U, V )
∂y ν ∂xµ ∂y β ∂xν
∂f α ∂f β
=⇒ gN (f (x))
∂xµ ∂xν
with U ∈ Tf (p) N
For example,
f : (θ, φ) 7→ (sθ cϕ , sθ sϕ , cθ )
 
cθ cϕ −sθ sϕ 
 
∇f = cθ sϕ sθ cϕ 
 −sθ 0 
∂f α ∂f β µ
gµν dxµ ⊗ dxν = δαβ dx ⊗ dxν = dθ ⊗ dθ + s2θ dϕ ⊗ dϕ
∂xµ ∂xν
Exercise 7.2. Let f : T 2 → R3 . Embedding of torus into (R3 , δ) defined by
f : (θ, ϕ) 7→ ((R + cos θ) cos ϕ, (R + rcθ )sϕ , rsθ ), R>r
 
−rsθ cϕ −(R + rcθ )sϕ 
 
∇f = −rsθ sϕ (R + rcθ )cϕ 
 rcθ 0 
∂f α ∂f β µ
gµν dxµ ⊗ dxν = δαβ dx ⊗ dxν = r2 dθ ⊗ dθ + (R + rcθ )2 dϕ ⊗ dϕ = gθθ dθ ⊗ dθ + gϕϕ dϕ ⊗ dϕ
∂xµ ∂xν
7.2. Parallel transport, connection and covariant derivative.
7.2.1. Heuristic introduction.
7.2.2. Affine connections.
∇X (f Y ) = X[f ]Y + f ∇X Y (7.13d)

∇ν eµ = ∇eν eµ = eλ Γλνµ (7.14)

∇V W = V ∇µ (W ∂ν ) = V (∂µ W ∂ν +W ∇µ ∂ν ) = V ((∂µ W )∂ν +W ν Γλµν ∂λ ) = V µ (∂µ W λ +W ν Γλµν )∂λ = V µ ∇µ W λ ∂λ
µ ν µ ν ν µ ν

∇µ (W λ ∂λ ) = (∂µ W λ )∂λ + W λ (∇µ ∂λ ) = ∂µ W λ ∂λ + W λ Γaµλ ∂a = (∂µ W λ + W b Γλµb )∂λ

7.2.3. Parallel transport and geodesics.
∇V X = 0 (7.18a)
µ

d dx (c(t))
X parallel transported along c(t) where V = = ∂

dt dt µ 
c(t)
Now
Ẋ = ∂µ X ċµ = ∂µ XV µ
where X = X(c(t)). So

∇V X = V µ (∂µ X λ + X ν Γλµν )∂λ = 0

dxµ (c(t)) ν
=⇒ V µ ∂µ X λ + Γλµν V µ X ν = 0 or Ẋ + Γλµν X =0
dt
If
∇V V = 0 (7.19a)
tangent vector V (t) itself is parallel transported along c(t). c(t) geodesic.
37
Exercise 7.3. Recall what left-invariant means. A left-invariant vector field is such that
La∗ X|g = X|ag
Recall

d2 xµ ν
µ dx dx
λ
+ Γ νλ =0 (7.19b)
dt2 dt dt
affine reparametrization

t → at + b (a, b ∈ R)
Recall
dxµ dt dxµ
→ 0
dt dt dt
dt
In this case, dt0 = a1 . So under this affine reparametrization
d2 xµ d dxµ 1 d dxµ 1 d2 xµ
   
= → =
dt2 dt dt a dt dt0 a2 dt2
So
d2 xµ dxν dxλ 1 d2 xµ 1 dxν 1 dxλ d2 xµ dxν dxλ
 
1
2
+ Γµνλ → 2 2
+ Γµνλ = 2 2
+ Γµνλ =0
dt dt dt a dt a dt a dt a dt dt dt
7.2.4. The covariant derivative of tensor fields. Define
∇X f = X[f ] (7.21)

∇X (f Y ) = X[f ]Y + f ∇X Y (7.13d)
∇X (f Y ) = (∇X f )Y + f ∇X Y (7.13d0 )
Require this
(62) ∇X (T1 ⊗ T2 ) = (∇X T1 ) ⊗ T2 + T1 ⊗ (∇X Y2 ) (7.22)
∞
hω, Y i ∈ C M , Y ∈ X (M )

X[hω, Y i] = ∇X [hω, Y i] = h∇X ω, Y i + hω, ∇X Y i

h∇X ω, Y i = (∇X ω)i Y i

hω, ∇X Y i = ωi X µ (∂µ Y i + Y ν Γiµν )
X[hω, Y i] = X(ωi Y i ) = X i ∂j ωi Y i + X j ωi ∂j Y i

X j ∂j ωi Y i + X j ωi ∂j Y i = (∇X ω)i Y i + ωi X µ (∂µ Y i ) + ωj X µ Y i Γjµi

(∇X ω)ν = X µ ∂µ ων − X µ Γλµν ωλ (7.23)

X = ∂µ
X ν = δ νµ
(∇µ ω)ν = ∂µ ων − Γλµν ωλ (7.24)
Recall ∇ν eµ ≡ ∇eν eµ = eλ Γλνµ (7.14)
ω = δji dxj = dxi
(∇µ dxi )ν = ∂µ δνi − Γλµν δλi = −Γiµν
∇µ dxν = −Γνµλ dxλ

∇ν tµλ11 ...λ λ1 ...λp λ1 κν2 ...λp λp λ1 ...λp−1 κ

...µq = ∂ν tµ1 ...µq + Γ νκ tµ1 ...µq + · · · + Γνκ tµ1 ...µq
p
− Γκνµ1 tλκµ1 ...λ p
2 ...µq
− · · · − Γκνµq tλµ11 ...λp
...µq−1 κ (7.26)
Metric tensor. g : T M ×M T M → R restriction to a fiber, gp : Tp M × Tp M → R
Exercise 7.4.
38
 ∇λ gµν = ∂λ gµν − Γκλµ gκν − Γκλν gµκ
Notice that g(X) : X (M ) → C ∞ (M )
so g(X) a 1-form.

as a 1-form
∇a (g(ei )) = ∇a (gik σ k ) = (∇a gik )σ k + gik ∇a σ k = (∇a gik )σ k + gik (−ωaj
k j
σ )
as tensor product, using rules.
j
∇a (g(ei )) = (∇a g)ei + g∇a ei = (∇a g)ei + gωai ej
subtract the 2 facts above.
j j k
(∇a g)ei = (∇a gik )σ k − gij ωak σ k − gjk ωai σ
k k
=⇒ (∇a g)ij = (∇a gij ) − gik ωaj − gkj ωai

7.2.5. The transformation properties of connection coefficients. another chart (U, ψ), or U V 6= ∅. y = ψ(p)
Let {∂ya }
∂ya = δ ba ∂yb
Recall
∇V X = V µ (∂µ X λ + X ν Γλµν )∂λ = 0
∇ν ∂µ = Γλνµ ∂λ (7.14)
e c ∂c
∇a ∂b = Γ (7.28)
ab
ν
∂x
∂a = ∂y µ ∂ν

∂xµ ∂ 2 xµ ∂xµ ∂ 2 xµ ∂xµ ∂xν λ

   
∇a ∂b = ∇a ∂µ = ∂µ + ∇ a ∂µ = ∂µ + Γ ∂λ
∂y b ∂y a ∂y b ∂y b ∂y a ∂y b ∂y b ∂y a νµ
ν ν
∂x ∂x λ
∇a ∂µ = (∂ν δµν + δµρ Γλνρ )∂λ = Γ ∂λ
∂y a ∂y a νµ
∂ 2 xν ∂xµ ∂xλ ν c ∂x
ν
∂ν + Γ ∂ν = Γ
e ∂ν
∂y a ∂y b ∂y b ∂y a λµ ab
∂y c
e cab ∂xλ ∂xµ ∂y c ν ∂y c ∂ 2 xν
Γ = Γ + (7.29)
∂y a ∂y b ∂xν λµ ∂xν ∂y a ∂y b
7.2.6. The metric connection.
7.3. Curvature and torsion.
7.3.1. Definitions.
7.3.2. Geometrical meaning of the Riemann tensor and the torsion tensor.
7.3.3. The Ricci tensor and the scalar curvature.
7.4. Levi-Civita connections.
7.4.1. The fundamental theorem.
7.4.2. The Levi-Civita connection in the classical geometry of surfaces.
7.4.3. Geodesics.
7.4.4. The normal coordinate system.
7.4.5. Riemann curvature tensor with Levi-Civita connection.
7.5. Holonomy.
7.6. Isometries and conformal transformations.
7.6.1. Isometries.
39
7.6.2. Conformal transformations.
7.7. Killing vector fields and conformal Killing vector fields.
7.7.1. Killing vector fields.
7.7.2. Conformal Killing vector fields.
7.8. Non-coordinate bases.
7.9. Differential forms and Hodge theory.

8. Complex Manifolds
8.1. Complex manifolds.
8.2. Calculus on complex manifolds.

9. Fibre bundles
−1
9.1. Tangent bundles. π (p) = Tp M , fibre at p
section of T M , s : M → T M s.t. π ◦ s = 1M
local section si : Ui → T Ui on chart Ui .

s(p) = X ≡ X|p ≡ U ∈ T M
=⇒
π(u) = p
9.2. Fibre bundles.
9.2.1. Definitions.
Definition 12 (9.1). (diff.) fibre bundle (E, π, M, F, G)
(i) diff. manifold E total space.
(ii) diff. manifold M base space.
(iii) diff. manifold F fibre (or typical fibre)
(iv) surjection π : E → M projection.
π −1 (p) = Fp ' F fibre at p.
(v) Lie group G structure group. Left action on F .
(vi) open cover {Ui } of M , diffeomorphism Φi : Ui × F → π −1 (Ui ) s.t.
πΦi (p, f ) = p
Φi local trivialization since Φ−1
i : π −1 (Ui ) onto direct product Ui × F
(vii) Φi (p, f ) = Φi,p (f ), Φi,p : F → Fp diffeomorphism.
on Ui Uj 6= ∅, tij (p) ≡ Φ−1 i,p Φj,p : F → F , require tij (p) ∈ G
Then Φi , Φj related by smooth tij : Ui Uj → G as
Φj (p, f ) = Φi (p, tij (p)f ) (9.4)
tij transition functions.
coordinate bundle (E, π, M, F, G, {Ui }, {Φi }), {Ui } specified covering of M .
Take chart Ui of M .
π −1 (Ui ) diffeomorphic to Ui × F .
Φ−1
i : π −1 (Ui ) → Ui × F diffeomorphism.
Let u s.t. π(u) = p ∈ Ui Uj .
Φ−1
i (u) = (p, fi )

Φ−1
j (u) = (p, fj )
∃ tij : Ui Uj → G, s.t. fi = tij (p)fj
possible set of transition functions is far from unique.
Let {φi }, {φei } be 2 sets of local trivializations giving rise to the same fiber bundle.

tij (p) = φ−1

i,p φj,p (9.7a)
tij (p) = φe−1
e i,p φj,p
e (9.7b)
40
 define gi (p) : F → F ∀p ∈ M
gi (p) ≡ φ−1
i,p ◦ φi,p
e
require gi (p) homeomorphism s.t. gi (p) ∈ G.
9.2.2. Reconstruction of fibre bundles.
9.2.3. Bundle maps.
9.2.4. Equivalent bundles.
9.2.5. Pullback bundles.
9.2.6. Homotopy axiom.
9.3. Vector bundles.
9.3.1. Definitions and examples.
9.3.2. Frames.
9.3.3. Cotangent bundles and dual bundles.
9.3.4. Sections of vector bundles.
9.3.5. The product bundle and Whitney sum bundle.
9.3.6. Tensor product bundles.
9.4. Principal bundles.
9.4.1. Definitions. Φi : Ui × G → π −1 (Ui ) local trivialization
right action
Φ−1
i (ua) = (p, gi a)
ua = Φi (p, gi a)
∀ a ∈ G, u ∈ π −1 (p)

Since the right action commutes with the left action

EY : ??? Since the right action commutes with the left action ???
Theodore Frankel says: cf. pp. 455, Proof of Theorem 17.8,
gj a = τji (p)gi a = τji gi a
i.e.
ua = Φj (p, gj a) = Φj (p, τji (p)gi a) = Φi (p, gi a)
T
if p ∈ Ui Uj
ua = Φj (p, gj a) = Φj (p, τji (p)gi a) = Φi (p, gi a)
since τji = Φ−1
j Φi
Thus right multiplication defined without reference to local trivializations. Notation of this : i.e. P × G → P or
(u, a) 7→ ua
π(ua) = π(u)
EY :
π(ua) = π(u)
right action of G on π −1 (p) transitive since G acts on G transitively on the right and Fp = π −1 (p) diffeomorphic
to G

cf. wikipedia Group action, types of action

action of G on X,
transitive if X 6= ∅, ∀ x, y ∈ X, ∃ g ∈ G s.t. gx = y
free if given g, h ∈ G, ∃ x ∈ X, with gx = hx implies g = h i.e. if gx = x, (i.e. if g has at least 1 fixed pt.), then g = e

41
 For u ∈ π −1 (p), p ∈ Ui , ∃ !, gU ∈ G s.t. u = si (p)gu
define Φ−1
i (u) = (p, gu )

tji = Φ−1 −1
j Φi (p) ≡ Φj Φi

(p, e) = Φ−1 −1
i (si (p)) = Φi (u)
ug = Φi (p, e)g = Φi (p, g)
Example 9.7
Let P be principal bundle with fiber U (1) = S 1 , base space S 2
This principal bundle represents the topological setting of the magnetic monopole.

G = U (1) = S 1
M = S2

ΦN : UN × S 1 → π −1 (UN )
ΦS : US × S 1 → π −1 (US )
Let u ∈ π −1 (x)
u = ΦN (x, eiαN ) = ΦS (x, eiαS )

τN S = Φ−1
N ΦS
τN S gS = gN
then τN S = ei(αN −αS )
Now τN S : US × G → UN × G
But on equator, S 1
uniquely define τN S (p) on equator

τN S (p) = einφ n∈Z

EY : why like this? but surely
nφ = αN − αS
(from EY)
Note that

einφ → ein(φ+2πm) = einφ eiπ2mn

surely (EY)
ExampleS 9.8. If we identify all the infinite points of the Euclidean space Rm , the 1-point compactification
S = Rm {∞} is obtained.
m

If a trivial G bundle is defined over Rm we shall have a new G bundle over S m after compactification, which is not
necessarily trivial.
 
u v
A=
−v ∗ u∗
u = t + iz
v = y + ix
π3 (SU (2)) ∼
= π3 (S 3 ) ∼
=Z
π3 (S 3 ) = {[f ]|f : S 3 → X = S 3 }
π3 (S 3 ) classifies maps from S 3 to SU (2) ∼
= S3

f : S3 → S3 ∼ = SU (2)
(63)
 
t + iz y + ix
f (x, y, z, t) 7→ = t1 + i(xσx + yσy + zσz ) (9.47)
−y + ix t − iz
42
 T
p = (x, y, z, t) ∈ UN US
R = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 + t2 )1/2

1
τN S (p) = R (t1 + ixi σi )

Φ−1
N (u) = (p, gN )
Φ−1
S (u) = (p, gS )

where gN , gS ∈ SU (2)

9.4.2. Associated bundles. principal fiber bundle P (M, G)

Let G act on manifold F on left

define action of g ∈ G on P × F by

(u, f ) 7→ (ug, g −1 f ), u∈P

f ∈F

associated fiber bundle (E, π, M, G, F, P ) is equivalence class P × F/G which

(u, f ) ∼ (ug, g −1 f )

e.g.
Consider F k-dim. vector space V
ρ k-dim. representation of G
P × ρV
u∈P
−1 g∈G
(u, v) ∼ (ug, ρ(g) v) of P × V,
v∈V
e.g. P (M, GL(k, R))
associated vector bundle over M with fiber Rk

E = P ×ρ V πE : E → M
πE (u, v) = π(u)
π(u) = π(ug) implies

πE (ug, ρ(g)−1 v) = π(ug) = πE (u, v)

−1
local trivialization Φi : Ui × V → πE (Ui )
transition function of E given by ρ(tij (p)) where tij (p) is that of p

9.4.3. Triviality of bundles.

Problems.

10. Connections on Fibre Bundles

10.1. Connections on principal bundles.

10.1.1.

10.1.2.
43
10.1.3. The local connection form and gauge potential. Let {Ui } open covering of M
σi local section defined on each Ui

introduce Lie algebra-valued 1-form Ai on Ui

(64) Ai ≡ σi∗ ω ∈ g ⊗ Ω1 (Ui ) (10.6)

ω ∈ g ⊗ T ∗P

Remember ω ∈ g ⊗ T ∗ P
πσ = 1
πσ(p) = p, p ∈ U ⊂ M

given Lie algebra valued 1-form Ai on Ui , we can reconstruct connection 1-form ω s.t. σi∗ ω = Ai i.e.
Theorem 11 (10.1). given g-valued 1-form Ai on Ui , Ai ∈ g ⊗ Ω1 (Ui ),
local section σi : Ui → π −1 (Ui )

∃ connection 1-form ω s.t. Ai = σi∗ ω

Proof. define g valued 1-form ω on P
(65) ωi ≡ gi−1 π ∗ Ai gi + gi−1 dP gi (10.7)
dP exterior derivative on P

gi canonical local trivialization Φ−1

i (u) = (p, gi ) u = σi (p)gi

for X ∈ Tp M ,

σi∗ ωi (X) = ωi (σi∗ X) = gi−1 π ∗ Ai gi (σi∗ X) + gi−1 dP gi (σi∗ X) =

= π ∗ Ai (σi∗ X) + dP gi (σi∗ X) = Ai (π∗ σi∗ X) + dP gi (σi∗ X)

10.1.4. Horizontal lift and parallel transport.
Theorem 12 (10.2). Let γ : [0, 1] → M , u0 ∈ π −1 (γ(0))
Then ∃ ! horizontal lift γ
e(t) in P s.t. γ
e(0) = u0

 Z t Z γ(t) !
dxµ

µ
(66) gi (γ(t)) = gi (t) = P exp − Aiµ dt = P exp − Aiµ (γ(t))dx (10.14)
0 dt γ(0)

10.2. Holonomy.
10.2.1. Definitions. loop γ ⊂ M defines transformation τγ : π −1 (p) → π −1 (p) on fiber
following from (10.18), EY : ??? , transformation compatible with right action

(67) Rg Γ(e
γ ) = Γ(e
γ )Rg (10.18)

(68) τγ (ug) = τγ (u)g (10.21)

Cp (M ) = {γ : [0, 1] → M |γ(0) = γ(1) = p}

subgroup of structure group G, holonomy group at u is
(69) Φu ≡ {g ∈ G|τγ (u) = ug, γ ∈ Cp (M )} (10.22)
Exercise 10.6.
solution already found! Recall
44
  Z t Z γ(t) !
dxµ

µ
(70) gi (γ(t)) = gi (t) = P exp − Aiµ dt = P exp − Aiµ (γ(t))dx (10.14)
0 dt γ(0)

!
1 Z γ(1)
dxµ
 Z   I 
µ µ
gi (γ(1)) = gi (1) = P exp − Aiµ dt = P exp − Aiµ (γ(t))dx = P exp − Aiµ dx
0 dt γ(0)

 I 
(71) gγ = P exp − Aiµ dxµ (10.26)
γ

11. Characteristic Classes

e.g. cf. Sec. 10.5, SU (2) bundle over S 4 classified by π3 (SU (2)) ∼
=Z
number n ∈ Z tells us how transition functions twist local pieces of the bundle when glued together.
cf. Thm. 10.7, π3 (SU (2)) evaluated by integrating trF 2 ∈ H 4 (S 4 ) over S 4
11.1. Invariant polynomials and the Chern-Weil homomorphism.
11.1.1. Invariant polynomials. M (k, C) - set of complex k × k matrices

Let S r (M (k, C)) denote vector space of symmetric r-linear C-valued functions on M (k, C), i.e.
Nr
Pe : M (k, C) → C
k
P ∈ S (M (k, C))
e

(72) Pe(a1 . . . ai . . . aj . . . ar ) = Pe(a1 . . . aj . . . ai . . . ar ) 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r (11.1)

where ap ∈ GL(k, C)

Pe ∈ S r (g) invariant if ∀ g ∈ G, Ai ∈ g,

(73) Pe(Adg A1 . . . Adg Ar ) = Pe(A1 . . . Ar ) (11.3)

where

Adg Ai = g −1 Ai g
e.g.
1 X
(74) Pe(A1 . . . Ar ) = str(A1 . . . Ar ) ≡ tr(AP (1) . . . AP (r) )
r!
P
invariant polynomial P of degree r

(75) P (A) ≡ Pe(A

| .{z
. . A}) A ∈ g, Pe ∈ I r (G) (11.6)
r

Conversely P defines invariant and symmetric r-linear form Pe by

P (t1 A1 + · · · + tr Ar )
Pe(t1 A1 + · · · + tr Ar . . . t1 A1 + · · · + tr Ar ) =⇒ t1 . . . tr Pe(A1 . . . Ar ) term
1 e
r! P (A1. . . Ar ) term the polarization of P
In the previous chapter, introduced local gauge potential A, field strength F on a principal bundle.
We have shown these geometrical objects describe the associated vector bundles as well.
Since the set of connections Ai describes the twisting of a fiber bundle, the non-triviality of a principal bundle is
equally shared by associated vector bundle
In fact, if (10.57) employed as definition of local connection in a vector bundle, it can be defined even without
reference to the principal bundle with which it is originally associated
Later we encounter situations in which use of vector bundles is essential (the Whitney sum bundle, the splitting
principle, etc.)
45
Theorem 13 (11.1). (Chern-Weil theorem)
Let invariant polynomial P
(a) dP (F ) = 0
(b) F, F 0 curvature 2-forms corresponding to different connections A, A0 . Then P (F 0 ) − P (F ) exact.
Proof. (a) Consider invariant polynomial Pr (F ) homogeneous of degree r, since any invariant polynomial can
be decomposed into homogeneous polynomials

Ωi = Xi ηi
dΩi = Xi dηi
r
X
(76) (−1)p(p1 +···+pi ) Per (Ω1 . . . [Ωi , A] . . . Ωr ) = 0 (11.12)
i=1

(b) Let A, A0 2 connections on E, F, F 0 respective field strength

Define interpolating gauge potential At

(77) At ≡ A + tθ θ ≡ (A0 − A) 0≤t≤1 (11.15)

F1 = F + Dθ + θ2
F0 = F
F1 − F0 = Dθ + θ2 = dθ + [A, θ] + θ2 = F 0 − F
F 0 = dA0 + (A0 )2
F = dA + A2
F 0 − F = dθ + (A0 )2 − A2
Dθ = dθ + [A, θ] = dθ + A ∧ θ + θ ∧ A
A ∧ θ + θ ∧ A = A ∧ (A0 − A) + (A0 − A) ∧ A = A ∧ A0 − A2 + A0 ∧ A − A2
θ2 = (A0 − A) ∧ (A0 − A) = (A0 )2 − A0 ∧ A − A ∧ A0 + A2
Z 1 Z 1  
d dFt
(78) Pr (F 0 ) − Pr (F ) = Pr (F1 ) − Pr (F0 ) = dt Pr (Ft ) = r dtPer , Ft . . . Ft (11.17)
0 dt 0 dt

d
(79) Pr (Ft ) = rPer (Dθ, Ft . . . Ft ) + 2rtPer (θ2 , Ft . . . Ft ) (11.18)
dt

Use (11.12) and Ω1 = A = θ p1 = 1

Ω2 = · · · = Ωm = Ft p2 = · · · = pr = 2
r
X
(−1)p(p1 +···+pi ) per (Ω1 . . . [Ωi , A] . . . Ωr ) = 0 =⇒ Per ([θ, A], Ft . . . Ft ) + (r − 1)Per (θ, [Ft , θ], Ft . . . Ft ) = 0
i=1

From (11.18), (11.19) and the previous identity, we obtain

d
Pr (Ft ) = rd[Per (θ, Ft . . . Ft )]
dt
Z 1 Z 1
0 d
Pr (F ) − Pr (F ) = dt Pr (Ft ) = dtrd[Per (θ, Ft . . . Ft )]
0 dt 0
 Z 1 
0 0
(80) Pr (F ) − Pr (F ) = d r Pr (A − A, Ft . . . Ft )dt
e (11.20)
0

Pr (F 0 ) differs from Pr (F ) by an exact form.


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 transgression T Pr (A0 , A) of Pr
Z 1
(81) T Pr (A0 , A) ≡ r dtPer (A0 . . . A, Ft . . . Ft ) (11.21)
0

Per is polarization of P .

Let dimM = m
Pm (F 0 ) differs from Pm (F ) by an exact form, integrals over M without boundary, should be same
Z Z Z Z
(82) Pm (F 0 ) − Pm (F ) = dT Pm (A0 , A) = Pm (A0 , A) = 0 (11.22)
M M M ∂M
As proved, invariant polynomial closed and in general nontrivial.
Accordingly, defines cohomology class of M

Thm. 11.1(b) (F , F 0 curvature 2-forms corresponding to different connections A, A0 , difference P (F 0 ) − P (F ) is

exact) ensures that this cohomology class is independent of the gauge potential chosen.
The cohomology class thus defines is called the characteristic class.
The characteristic class defined by an invariant polynomial P is denoted by χE (P ) where E is a fiber bundle on
which connections and curvatures are defined.

Remark : Since a principal bundle and its associated bundles share the same gauge potentials and field strengths,
the Chern-Weil theorem applies equally to both bundles. Accordingly, E can be either a principal bundle or a
vector bundle.
11.2. Chern classes. http://www.johno.dk/mathematics/fiberbundlestryk.pdf
Definition 13 (9.7). characteristic class c (with R coefficients) for principal G-bundle associates to every principal
∗
G-bundle (E, π, M ) cohomology class c(E) ∈ HdR (M ) s.t. ∀ bundle map (f , f ):(E 0 , π 0 , M 0 ) → (E, π, M ) (EY f is
just the induced f when you go up to E level, vs. M to M 0 level) we have
c(E 0 ) = f ∗ (c(E))
l
if c(E) ∈ HdR (M ) then c has degree l
11.3.
11.4.
11.5. Chern-Simons form.
11.5.1. Definition. Let Pj (F ) be an arbitrary 2j-form characteristic class.
Pj (F ) closed, so by Poincaré’s lemma, it’s locally exact.

(83) Pj (F ) = dQ2j−1 (A, F ) (11.100)

Q2j−1 (A, F ) ∈ g ⊗ Ω2j−1 (M )

This can’t be true globally.
otherwise, if Pj = dQ2j−1 globally on manifold M with no boundary,
Z Z Z
Pm/2 = dQm−1 = Qm−1 = 0
M M ∂M
m = dimM
2j − 1 from Q2j−1 (A, F ) is the Chern-Simons form of Pj (F )
From Pf. of Thm. 11.2(b),
Q is given by the transgression of Pj ,
Z 1
(84) Q2j−1 (A, F ) = T Pj (A, 0) = j Pej (A, Ft . . . Ft )dt (11.101)
0
47
 where Pej polarization of Pj , F = dA + A2
set A0 = F 0 = 0
of course A0 = 0 only on local chart over which bundle is trivial.
Suppose dimM = m = 2l s.t. ∂M 6= ∅. By Stoke’s
Z Z Z
(85) Pl (F ) = dQm−1 (A, F ) = Qm−1 (A, F ) (11.102)
M M ∂M
R R
P (F ) ∈ Z and so does ∂M Qm−1 (A, F )
M l
Thus Qm−1 is a characteristic class in its own right and describes the topology of boundary ∂M
11.5.2. The Chern-Simons form of the Chern character. Chern character chj (F )
connection At which interpolates between 0 and A,

(86) At = tA (11.103)
the corresponding curvature is

(87) Ft = A2t + dAt = tdA + t2 A2 = tF + (t2 − t)A2 (11.104)

(11.21)
 j Z 1
1 i
(88) Q2j−1 (A, F ) = dtstr(A, Ftj−1 )
(j − 1)! 2π 0

Z 1
i i
(89) Q1 (A, F ) = dtstr(A, Ft0 ) = trA (11.106a)
2π 0 2π
 2 Z 1  2 Z 1
i i
Q3 (A, F ) = dtstr(A, Ft ) = dtstr(A, tF + (t2 − t)A2 ) =
2π 0 2π 0
(90)  2 Z 1  2
i 2 1 2 2 i 2
= dtstr(A, tdA + tA + (t − t)A ) = tr(AdA + A3 )
2π 0 2 2π 3
12. Index Theorems
13. Anomalies in Gauge Field Theories
14. Bosonic String Theory

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