Se

t–De
fini
t
ion
Asetisanunorder
edcollect
ionofdif
fer
entel
ements.Asetcanbewr i
tt
enexpl
ici
tl
yby
l
isti
ngitsel
ementsusingsetbracket
.Iftheor
deroftheelementsischangedorany
elementofaseti
srepeat
ed,itdoesnotmakeanychangesintheset
.

SomeExampl
eofSet
s

 Asetofal
lposi
ti
vei
nteger
s

 Asetofal
lthepl
anet
sint
hesol
arsy
stem

.in
 Asetofal
lthest
atesi
nIndi
a

 Asetofal
lthel
ower
casel
ett
ersoft
heal
phabet

ts
Re
pre
sent
ati
onofaSe
t
Set
scanber
epr
esent
edi
ntwoway
s− en
 Rost
erorTabul
arFor
m
ud

 SetBui
l
derNot
ati
on
Rost
erorTabul
arFor
m
st

Thesetisrepr
esentedbyli
sti
ngalltheelement
scompr
isi
ngi
t.Theel
ement
sar
e
tu

encl
osedwi
thi
nbracesandsepar
atedbycommas.

Exampl
e1 
−Setofv
owel
sinEngl
i
shal
phabet
,A={
a,e,
i
,o,
u}
.k

Exampl
e2 
−Setofoddnumber
slesst
han10,
B={
1,3,
5,
7,
9}
w

SetBui
l
derNot
ati
on
w

Theseti
sdefinedbyspeci
fyi
ngapr oper
tyt
hatel
ement
soft
hesethav
eincommon.
w

Theseti
sdescri
bedasA={x: p(
x)}

Exampl
e1 
−Theset{
a,e,
i
,o,
u}i
swr
it
tenas−

A={x:
xisav
owel
inEngl
i
shal
phabet
}

Exampl
e2 
−Theset{
1,3,
5,
7,
9}i
swr
it
tenas−

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B={x:
1≤x<10and(
x%2)≠0}

I
fanelementxi
samemberofanysetS,i
tisdenot
edbyx∈Sandi
fanel
ementyi
s
notamemberofsetS,
iti
sdenot
edbyy∉S.

Exampl
e − 
IfS={
1,1.
2,1.
7,2}
,1∈Sbut1.
5∉S

SomeI
mpor
tantSet
s

N 
−thesetofal
lnat
ural
number
s={
1,2,
3,4,
..
..
.}

Z 
−thesetofal
li
nteger
s={
..
..
.,
−3,
−2,
−1,
0,1,
2,3,
..
..
.}

.in
Z+ 
−thesetofal
lposi
ti
vei
nteger
s

Q 
−thesetofal
lrat
ional
number
s

ts
R 
−thesetofal
lreal
number
s

W 
−thesetofal
lwhol
enumber
s
en
ud
Car
dinal
i
tyofaSe
t
Car
dinal
ityofasetS,denot
edby| S|
,i
st henumberofel
ement
soft
heset
.Ifasethas
st

ani
nfini
tenumberofelements,
itscar
dinal
it
yis∞.

Exampl
e − 
|
{1,
4,3,
5}|
=4,
|{1,
2,3,
4,5,
…}|
=∞
tu

I
fther
ear
etwoset
sXandY,
.k

 |
X|=|
Y|r
epr
esent
stwoset
sXandYt
hathav
ethesamecar
dinal
i
ty,
ift
her
eex
ist
sabi
j
ect
ive
w

f
unct
ion‘
f’f
rom Xt
oY.
w

 |
X|≤|
Y|r
epr
esent
ssetXhascar
dinal
i
tyl
esst
hanorequalt
othecar
dinal
i
tyofY,i
fther
e
exi
stsani
nject
ivef
unct
ion‘
f’f
rom Xt
oY.
w

 |
X|<|
Y|r
epr
esent
ssetXhascar
dinal
i
tyl
esst
hant
hecar
dinal
i
tyofY,i
fther
eisani
nject
ive
f
unct
ionf
,butnobi
j
ect
ivef
unct
ion‘
f’f
rom Xt
oY.

 I
f|X|
≤|Y|
and|
X|≤|
Y|t
hen|
X|=|
Y|

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Ty
pesofSe
ts
Set
scanbecl assi
fiedint
omanyt y
pes.Someofwhi
char
efi
nit
e,i
nfi
nit
e,subset
,
uni
ver
sal
,pr
oper,si
nglet
onset
,et
c.

Fi
nit
eSet
Asetwhi
chcont
ainsadef
ini
tenumberofel
ement
siscal
l
edaf
ini
teset
.

Exampl
e −S={
x|x∈Nand70>x>50}

I
nfi
nit
eSet
Asetwhi
chcont
ainsi
nfi
nit
enumberofel
ement
siscal
l
edani
nfi
nit
eset
.

.in
Exampl
e −S={
x|x∈Nandx>10}

Subset

ts
AsetYi
sasubsetofsetX(
Wri
tt
enasX⊆Y)i
fev
eryel
ementofXi
sanel
ementofset
Y. en
Example1 
−Let,
X={1,2,3,
4,5,6}andY={1,2}.Her
esetXi
sasubsetofsetYas
ud
al
ltheel
ement
sofsetXi
sinsetY.Hence,
wecanwri
teX⊆Y.

Example2 −Let
,X={ 1,2,3}andY={ 1,2,3}.Her
esetXi sasubset(
Notapr
oper
st

subset
)ofsetYasal
ltheelement
sofsetXisinsetY.Hence,
wecanwrit
eX⊆Y.
tu

Pr
operSubset
Thet er
m“ propersubset
”canbedef
inedas“subsetofbutnotequalt
o”.ASetXi sa
.k

propersubsetofsetY( Wri
tt
enasX⊂Y)i fever
yelementofXisanel ementofsetY
and|
X|<|
Y|.
w

Exampl
e −Let,
X={ 1,2,
3,4,
5,6}andY={1,2}.Her
esetXisapr
opersubsetofsetY
w

asatl
eastoneelementi
smorei
nsetY.Hence,
wecanwr i
teX⊂Y.
w

Uni
ver
sal
Set
Iti
sacol l
ect
ionofallel
ementsinapart
icul
arcont
extorappl
icat
ion.Allt
hesetsinthat
contextorappl
icat
ionareessenti
all
ysubsetsoft
hisuniv
ersalset.Univ
ersalset
sar e
repr
esentedasU.

Exampl
e −Wemaydef
ineUast
hesetofal
lani
mal
sonear
th.I
nthi
scase,setofal
l

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mammal sisasubsetofU,setofal
lfi
shesi
sasubsetofU,setofal
linsect
sisa
subsetofU,
andsoon.

Empt
ySetorNul
lSet
Anempt
ysetcont
ainsnoel
ements.I
tisdenotedby∅.Ast henumberofelement
sin
anempt
yseti
sfi
nit
e,empt
yseti
saf i
nit
eset.Thecar
dinal
i
tyofemptysetornul
lseti
s
zer
o.

Exampl
e −∅ ={
x|x∈Nand7<x<8}

Si
ngl
etonSetorUni
tSet
Si
ngl
etonsetoruni
tsetcont
ainsonl
yoneel
ement
.Asi
ngl
etonseti
sdenot
edby{
s}.

.in
Exampl
e −S={
x|x∈N,
7<x<9}

ts
Equal
Set
I
ftwoset
scont
aint
hesameel
ement
stheyar
esai
dtobeequal
en .

Exampl
e −I
fA={ 1,
2,6}andB={ 6,
1,2},t
heyareequalasever
yelementofsetAi
san
ud
el
ementofsetBandever
yelementofsetBisanelementofsetA.

Equi
val
entSet
st

I
fthecar
dinal
i
tiesoft
woset
sar
esame,
theyar
ecal
l
edequi
val
entset
s.
tu

Example 
−IfA={ 1,2,6}andB={ 16,17,22}
,theyar
eequi
val
entascar
dinal
i
tyofAi
s
equal
tothecar
dinali
tyofB.i
.e.|
A|=|B|=3
.k

Ov
erl
appi
ngSet
w

Twoset
sthathav
eatl
eastonecommonel
ementar
ecal
l
edov
erl
appi
ngset
s.
w

I
ncaseofov
erl
appi
ngset
s−
w

 n(
A∪B)=n(
A)+n(
B)−n(
A∩B)

 n(
A∪B)=n(
A−B)+n(
B−A)+n(
A∩B)

 n(
A)=n(
A−B)+n(
A∩B)

 n(
B)=n(
B−A)+n(
A∩B)

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Example 
−Let,A={ 1,2,6}andB={
6,12,42}
.Ther
eisacommonel
ement‘
6’
,hence
theseset
sar
eov er
lappingset
s.

Di
sjoi
ntSet
I
ftwosetsCandDar
edisj
ointset
sast
heydonothav
eev
enoneel
ementi
ncommon.
Ther
efor
e,n(
A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)

Example 
−Let,A={1,
2, 6}andB={
7,9,
14}
,ther
eisnocommonel
ement
,hencet
hese
setsar
eover
lappi
ngsets.

Ve
nnDi
agr
ams

.in
Venndiagram,i
nvent
edin1880byJohnVenn,isaschemat
icdi
agr
am t
hatshowsal
l
possi
blelogi
cal
rel
ati
onsbet
weendi
ff
erentmathemat
ical
set
s.

ts
Ex
ampl
es

en
ud
st

Se
tOpe
rat
i
ons
tu

SetOper
ati
onsi
ncl
udeSetUni
on,SetI
nter
sect
ion,SetDi
ff
erence,Compl
ementofSet
,
.k

andCart
esi
anPr
oduct
.
w

SetUni
on
Theuni
onofset
sAandB( denot
edbyA∪B)i
sthesetofel
ement
swhi
char
einA,
inB,
w

ori
nbothAandB.Hence,
A∪B={ x|
x∈AORx∈B} .
w

Example 
−IfA={10,11,12,13}andB={13,14,15}
,thenA∪B={
10,11,12,13,14,
15}.(
Thecommonelementoccursonl
yonce)

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SetI
nter
sect
ion
Theint
ersect
ionofsetsAandB(denot
edbyA∩B)i
sthesetofel
ement
swhi
char
ein
bot
hAandB.Hence, A∩B={ x|
x∈AANDx∈B} .

Exampl
e −I
fA={
11,
12,
13}andB={
13,
14,
15}
,thenA∩B={
13}
.

.in
ts
en
ud
SetDi
ff
erence/Rel
ati
veCompl
ement
Thesetdi
ff
erenceofset
sAandB(denot
edbyA−B)i
sthesetofel
ement
swhi
char
e
st

onl
yinAbutnotinB.Hence,
A−B={x|x∈AANDx∉B} .
tu

Example 
−IfA={10,
11,12,13}andB={
13,
14,15}
,then(
A−B)={
10,
11,
12}and(
B−
A)={14,15}
.Her
e,wecansee(A−B)≠(B−A)
.k
w
w
w

Compl
ementofaSet
Thecompl
ementofasetA(
denot
edbyA’
)ist
hesetofel
ement
swhi
char
enoti
nsetA.
Hence,
A'={x|
x∉A} .

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Mor
especi
fi
cal
l
y,A'
=(U−A)wher
eUi
sauni
ver
sal
setwhi
chcont
ainsal
lobj
ect
s.

Example 
−IfA={x|xbel
ongst
osetofoddi
nteger
s}t
henA'
={y|ydoesnotbel
ongt
o
setofoddint
eger
s}

Car
tesi
anPr
oduct/Cr
ossPr
oduct

.in
TheCartesianproductoftwosetsisthesetofal lpossibleorder
edpair
swhosef i
rst
el
ementisf rom t
hefir
stsetandthesecondelementi sfrom thesecondset.I
nsimple

ts
l
anguage,theCar t
esi
anproductist
hedirectproductoft heelementsoftwosets.I
fA
andBaret wononempt ysets,t
hentheCartesi
anpr oductisdefi
nedasfol
lows:

AxB={
(a,
en
b)|a∈Aandb∈B}
ud
TheCar
tesi
anpr
oductoft
woset
sAandB,
denot
edbyAxBi
sdef
inedast
hecol
lect
ion
ofal
lor
der
edpai
rs(
a,b)sucht
hat'
a'i
sanel
ementofAand'
b'i
stheel
ementofB.
I
nsett
heor
eti
cnot
ati
on,
theCar
tesi
anpr
oducti
sgi
venby
st

AxB={
(a,
b)|a 
ϵϵ 
A,b 
ϵϵ 
B}
tu

Exampl
e1:
LetA={
1,2,
3}andB={
a,b,
c}
.k

ThenAxB={
(1,
a),
(1,
b),
(1,
c),
(2,
a),
(2,
b),
(2,
c),
(3,
a),
(3,
b),
(3,
c)}
w

Exampl
e2:
w

LetA={
Book,
Pen,
Penci
l
}andB={
1,2}
ThenAxB={
(Book,
1),
(Book,
2),
(Pen,
1),
(Pen,
2),
(Penci
l
,1)
,(Penci
l
,2)
}
w

TheCart
esi
anproductofnnumberofset sA1, 
A2 
..
..
.An, 
def
inedasA1 
×A2 
×..
..
.×An, 
are
theor
der
edpai
r(x1, 
x2,.
..
.xn)wher
ex1 
∈A1,
x2 
∈A2, .
..
..
.xn ∈An

Exampl
e −I
fwet
aket
woset
sA={
a,b}andB={
1,2}
,

TheCar
tesi
anpr
oductofAandBi
swr
it
tenas−A×B={
(a,
1),
(a,
2),
(b,
1),
(b,
2)}

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TheCar
tesi
anpr
oductofBandAi
swr
it
tenas−B×A={
(1,
a),
(1,
b),
(2,
a),
(2,
b)}

Powe
rSe
t
PowersetofasetSi sthesetofal lsubsetsofSi ncl
udi
ngtheemptyset
.The
car
dinal
i
tyofapowersetofasetSofcardi
nali
tyni
s2n.Powerseti
sdenot
edasP(S)
.

Ex
ampl
e−
ForasetS={
a,b,
c,d}l
etuscal
cul
atet
hesubset
s−

 Subset
swi
th0el
ement
s−{
∅}(
theempt
yset
)

.in
 Subset
swi
th1el
ement−{
a},
{b}
,{c}
,{d}

 Subset
swi
th2el
ement
s−{
a,b}
,{a,
c},
{a,
d},
{b,
c},
{b,
d},
{c,
d}

ts
 Subset
swi
th3el
ement
s−{
a,b,
c},
{a,
b,
d},
{a,
c,
d},
{b,
c,
d}

 Subset
swi
th4el
ement
s−{
a,b,
c,
d}
en
Hence,P(S)={{ ∅},{
a},{
b},{
c},{
d},{
a,b}
,{a,
c},{
a,d}
,{b,
c},{
b,d}
,{c,
d},{
a,b,
c},{
a,b,
d},
ud
{
a,c,
d},{
b,c,
d},
{a,
b,
c,
d}}

|
P(S)|
=24 
=16
st

Not
e −Thepowersetofanempt
yseti
sal
soanempt
yset
.
tu

|
P({
∅})|
=20 
=1
.k

RELATI
ONS
w

Wheneverset
sarebeingdiscussed,t
her el
ati
onshi
pbetweent
heelement
softheset
s
w

i
sthenextthi
ngthatcomesup.  Rel
ations 
mayexistbet
weenobj
ectsoft
hesameset
orbet
weenobject
soft woormor esets.
w

De
fini
t
ionandPr
ope
rti
es
Abinar
yrel
ati
onRfrom setxt
oy(wr
it
tenasxRyorR(x,y
))isasubsetoft
heCar
tesi
an
pr
oductx×y.Ift
heorder
edpai
rofGi
sr ev
ersed,
ther
elat
ional
sochanges.

Gener
all
yann-
aryr
elat
ionRbet
weenset
sA1, 
..
.,andAn 
i
sasubsetoft
hen-
arypr
oduct

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A1 
×..
.×An.Themi
nimum car
dinal
i
tyofar
elat
ionRi
sZer
oandmaxi
mum i
sn2 
i
nthi
s
case.

Abi
nar
yrel
ati
onRonasi
ngl
esetAi
sasubsetofA×A.

Fortwodist
inctsets,AandB,havi
ngcardi
nal
i
ti m 
es  n 
and  r
espect
ivel
y,t
hemaxi
mum
car
dinal
i
tyofar el
ati
onRf r
om AtoBi mn.
s 

Domai
nandRange
I
fther
ear
etwoset
sAandB,
andr
elat
ionRhav
eor
derpai
r(x,
y),
then−

 The 
domai
n ofRi
stheset{x|
(x,
y)∈Rf
orsomeyi
nB}

.in
 The 
range 
ofRi
stheset{y|
(x,
y)∈Rf
orsomexi
nA}

ts
Ex
ampl
es
Let
,A={
1,2,
9}andB={
1,3,
7}

 Case1−I
frel
ati
onRi
s‘equal
to’
thenR={
(1,
1)
en
,
(3,
3)}
ud
 Case2−I
frel
ati
onRi
s‘l
esst
han’
thenR={
(1,
3),
(1,
7),
(2,
3),
(2,
7)}
st

 Case3−I
frel
ati
onRi
s‘gr
eat
ert
han’
thenR={
(2,
1),
(9,
1),
(9,
3),
(9,
7)}

Re
pre
sent
ati
onofRe
lat
i
onsus
ingGr
aph
tu

Ar
elat
ioncanber
epr
esent
edusi
ngadi
rect
edgr
aph.
.k

Thenumberofv er
ti
cesi
nthegraphisequaltot
henumberofel ementsinthesetfr
om
whi cht
herel
ationhasbeendefi
ned.Foreachorder
edpair(x,y
)intherel
ationR,t
here
w

willbeadir
ectededgefrom t
hev er
tex‘
x’tover
tex‘y’
.Ift
hereisanorderedpair(
x,x)
,
w

therewil
lbeself-l
ooponver
tex‘
x’.
w

Suppose,ther
ei sarel
ati
onR={ (
1,1)
,(1,
2),(
3,2)
}onsetS={
1,2,3}
,itcanbe
repr
esentedbythef
oll
owinggr
aph−

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Ty
pesofRe
lat
i
ons

.in
 The 
Empt
yRel
ati
on 
bet
weenset
sXandY,
oronE,
ist
heempt
yset∅

ts
 The 
Ful
lRel
ati
on 
bet
weenset
sXandYi
sthesetX×Y

 The 
Ident
it
yRel
ati
on 
onsetXi
stheset{
(x,
xen
)|
x∈X}

 TheI
nver
seRel
ati
onR'
ofar
elat
ionRi
sdef
inedas−R’
={(
b,a)|
(a,
b)∈R}
ud
Exampl
e −I
fR={
(1,
2),
(2,
3)}t
henR’
wil
lbe{
(2,
1),
(3,
2)}
st

 Ar
elat
ionRonsetAi
scal
l
ed 
Ref
lexi
ve 
i
f∀a∈Ai
srel
atedt
oa(
aRahol
ds)
.
tu

Exampl
e −Ther
elat
ionR={
(a,
a),
(b,
b)}onsetX={
a,b}i
sref
lexi
ve

 Ar
elat
ionRonsetAi
scal
l
ed 
Ir
ref
lexi
ve 
i
fnoa∈Ai
srel
atedt
oa(
aRadoesnothol
d).
.k

Exampl
e −Ther
elat
ionR={
(a,
b),
(b,
a)}onsetX={
a,b}i
sir
ref
lexi
ve
w

 Ar
elat
ionRonsetAi
scal
l
ed 
Symmet
ri
c i
fxRyi
mpl
i
esy
Rx,
∀x∈Aand∀y
∈A.
w

Exampl
e −Ther
elat
ionR={
(1,
2),
(2,
1),
(3,
2),
(2,
3)}onsetA={
1,2,
3}i
ssy
mmet
ri
c.
w

 Ar
elat
ionRonsetAi
scal
l
ed 
Ant
i-
Symmet
ri
c i
fxRyandy
Rxi
mpl
i
esx=y∀x∈Aand∀y∈A.

Exampl
e −Ther
elat
ionR={
(1,
2),
(3,
2)}onsetA={
1,2,
3}i
sant
isy
mmet
ri
c.

 Ar
elat
ionRonsetAi
scal
l
ed 
Transi
ti
ve 
i
fxRyandy
Rzi
mpl
i
esxRz,
∀x,
y,
z∈A.

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 Exampl
e −Ther
elat
ionR={
(1,
2),
(2,
3),
(1,
3)}onsetA={
1,2,
3}i
str
ansi
ti
ve

 Ar
elat
ioni
san 
Equi
val
enceRel
ati
on 
i
fiti
sref
lexi
ve,
symmet
ri
c,andt
ransi
ti
ve.

Exampl
e −Ther
elat
ionR={
(1,
1),
(2,
2),
(3,
3),
(1,
2),
(2,
1),
(2,
3),
(3,
2),
(1,
3),
(3,
1)}onsetA=
{
1,2,
3}i
sanequi
val
encer
elat
ionsi
ncei
tisr
efl
exi
ve,
symmet
ri
c,andt
ransi
ti
ve.

Rel
ati
onmat
ri
xandgr
aphf
orr
elat
ion
IfS={s1,...,sn}andT={ t
1,...,tm}arefi
nit
esetsandR⊆S×Tisabinar
y
rel
ations,t
hentheadjacencymat
ri
xAR oftherel
ati
onRi st
hen×m mat
ri
xwhoser
ows
areindexedbySandcol umnsbyTdefinedby

.in
As,t=1i
f(s,
t)∈R;

ts
=0ot
her
wise.

or
I
ft
derast
heset
hecol
sSandTar
umns.
eequal
,theni
tiscusten
omar
ytoputt
her
owsi
nthesame
ud
st
tu

Ar
elat
ioncanal
sor
epr
esent
edpi
ctor
ial
l
ybydr
awi
ngi
tsgr
aph.
.k

LetRbear el
ationinsetX.heelementsofXarerepr
esentedbypoint
sorcir
clescal
l
ed
w

nodesorv
er t
ices.ifxiRxji
e,(
xi,
xj)∈R,t
henweconnectnodesxiandxjbymeansofan
w

arcwit
hproperarrowsandthuswegetagr aphforr
elat
ionR
w

PRACTI
CEPROBLEMS

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1)LetS={1,
2,3,
4}andR={
(x,
y)|x>y
}.Dr
aw t
hegr
aphofRandal
sogi
vei
ts
rel
ati
onmat
ri
x.

2)Det
ermi
net hepr
oper
ti
esofr
elat
ionsgi
venbyt
hegr
aphsandal
sowr
it
ethe
rel
ati
onmatr
ix.

a)

.in
ts
b) en
ud
st
tu
.k
w

c)
w
w

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 d)

.in
Par
ti
ti
oni
ngofaSe
t
Par
tit
ion ofa set
,sayS,i
  sa coll
ect
ion of
 n 
disj
ointsubset
s,say
 P1, 
P2,.
..
… Pn,t
hat

ts
sat
isf
iesthef
oll
owingt
hreecondi
ti
ons−

 Pi 
doesnotcont
aint
heempt
yset
.
en
ud
[Pi 
≠{∅}f
oral
l0<i
≤n]

 Theuni
onoft
hesubset
smustequal
theent
ir
eor
igi
nal
set
.
st

[
P1 
∪P2 
∪..
..
.∪Pn 
=S]
tu

 Thei
nter
sect
ionofanyt
wodi
sti
nctset
sisempt
y.
.k

[
Pa 
∩Pb 
={∅}
,fora≠bwher
en≥a,
b≥0]

Thenumberofpar
ti
ti
onsoft
heseti
scal
l
edaBel
lnumberdenot
edasBn.
w

Ex
ampl
e
w

LetS={
a,b,
c,d,
e,f
,g,
h}
w

Onepr
obabl
epar
ti
ti
oni
ngi
s{a}
,{b,
c,d}
,{e,
f,g,
h}

Anot
herpr
obabl
epar
ti
ti
oni
ngi
s{a,
b},
{c,
d},
{e,
f,g,
h}

I
nthi
sway
,wecanf
indoutBn 
numberofdi
ff
erentpar
ti
ti
ons.

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Equi
val
enceRel
ati
ons
Anequi
val
encer
elat
iononaset
  i
sa 
subset
 of
  ,
i.
e.,
acol
l
ect
ion  
ofor
der
edpai
rs
ofel
ement
sof
 ,sat
isf
yingcer
tai
npr
oper
ti
es.Wr
it
e" "t
omean   
i
sanel
ement
of
 ,andwesay" 
i
srel
atedt
o ,
"thent
hepr
oper
ti
esar
e

1.Ref
lexi
ve:
   
foral
l
  ,

2.Sy
mmet
ri
c:
   
i
mpl
i
es   
foral
l
 

3.Tr
ansi
ti
ve:
   
and   
i
mpl
y   
foral
l
  .

.in
/
/Saywear
easkedt
opr
ovet
hat"
="i
sanequi
val
encer
elat
ion.Wet
henpr
oceedt
o
pr
oveeachpr
oper
tyabovei
ntur
n.

ts
 Ref
lexi
ve:Cl
ear
ly,
iti
str
uet
hat
 a 
= a 
foral
lval
uesa.Ther
efor
e,=i
sref
lexi
ve.

 Symmet
ri
c:I
f 
a = 
b,i
tisal
sot
ruet
hat
 b 
=  en
a.Ther
efor
e,=i
ssymmet
ri
c

 Transi
ti
ve:I
f 
a = 
b and b 
= c,
thi
ssaysthat
 a i
sthesameas 
b whichint
urni
sthe
ud
sameas c.So 
a i
st henthesameas c,
so a = 
c,andthus=i
stransi
ti
ve.
Thus=i
sanequi
val
encer
elat
ion.
//
st

I
fRi
sanequi
val
encer
elat
ioni
nasetX,
thenD®,
thedomai
nofR,
isXi
tsel
f.
eg:
tu

a)Equal
i
tyofnumber
sonasetofr
eal
number
s.
.k

b)Si
mil
ari
tyoft
ri
angl
esi
nasetoft
ri
angl
es.
w

1)LetX={1,
2,
3,
4}andR={
(1,
1),(
1,4)
,(4,
1),(
4,4)
,(2,
2),(
2,3)
,(
3,2)
.(3,
3)}
.Wr
it
ethe
w

mat
ri
xRanddr
awi
tsgr
aph.Checkwhet
herRi
sanequi
val
encer
elat
ion.
2)LetX={1,
2,
3,
…,7}
andR={
(x,
y)|x-
yisdi
vi
sibl
eby3}
.Wr
it
ethemat
ri
xRanddr
aw
w

i
tsgr
aph.Checkwhet
herRi
sanequi
val
encer
elat
ion.
3)Gi
venasetS={1,
2,
3,
4,
5}.Fi
ndt
heequi
val
encer
elat
iononwhi
chgener
atest
he
par
ti
ti
on{1,
2,3,
4,5}
.Dr
awt
hegr
aphoft
her
elat
ion.

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 Par
ti
alOr
der
ing

Abi
nar
yrel
ati
onRonasetPi
scal
l
edapar
ti
alor
derr
elat
ionorapar
ti
alor
der
ing
i
ffRi
sref
lexi
ve,
ant
isy
mmet
ri
candt
ransi
ti
ve.

Apart
ialor
der i
sa bi
nar
yrelat
ion 
"≤"overa set
 P 
whichi
s r
efl
exi
ve,
ant
isy
mmet
ri
c,and
t
ransi
ti
ve,i
.e.
,whichsat
isf
iesf
oralla,
  b,
  and c 
i
n P:

 a 
≤ a 
(r
efl
exi
vi
ty)
;

 i
fa 
  b 
≤  b 
and  a,
≤  t a 
hen  b 
=  (
ant
isy
mmet
ry)
;

.in
 i
fa 
  b 
≤  b 
and  c,
≤  t a 
hen  c 
≤  (
transi
ti
vi
ty)
.

ts
1)Showt
hatr
elat
ion‘
div
ides’
def
inedonNi
sapar
ti
alor
derr
elat
ion.

2)Checkwhethert
her
elat
ion‘
x y
’def
i
en
nedonasetofposi
ti
vei
nteger
sisa
par
ti
alor
derr
elat
ion.
ud
st

Par
ti
all
yor
der
edset
s
tu

ThesetPtoget
herwit
haparti
all
yor
der
edr
elat
ionRonasetPi
scal
l
edpar
ti
all
yor
der
d
setandi
sdenotedby(P,
R).
.k

Let(p,≤)beapar ti
all
yor deredset.I
fforeveryx,y∈Pwehav eei
therx≤yandy≤x,
w

then≤i scall
edsimpl eor deri
ngorlinearorderi
ngonP,and( p,≤)iscal
ledatotal
l
y
w

orderedorsi
mpl yorderedset .I
ftwoobject
sar ealway
srel
atedinaposet,
iti
scal
leda
total
orderorli
nearorderorsi mpleor
der.
w

HasseDi
agr
ams
H
as
e a
m
a
g
rd
i
s  
aremeantt
opr
esentpar
ti
alor
derr
elat
ions.Hassedi
agr
am 
i
sasi
mpl
e
pi
ctur
eofaf
ini
te 
par
ti
all
yor
der
edset
.Concr
etel
y,oner
epr
esent
seachmemberof
 S 
as

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av
ert
exont
hepageanddr
awsal
i
net upwar
hatgoes  d f
r x 
om  t
o y 
i
f x 
< y,andt
her
eis
z 
no sucht
hat
 x 
< z 
< y.I
nthi
scase,wesay
 y 
cov
er x,or
s   y 
i
sani
mmedi
atesuccessor
of
 x.Fur
ther
mor
eiti
srequi
redt
hatt
hev
ert
icesar
eposi
ti
onedi
nsuchawayt
hateach
l
i
nemeet
sexact
lyt
wov
ert
ices:i
tst
woendpoi
nts.Anysuchdi
agr
am (
giv
ent
hatt
he
v
ert
icesar
elabel
ed)uni
quel
ydet
ermi
nesa 
par
ti
alor
der
.

Exampl
es

LetA={
a,b,
c}beagiv
enf
ini
tesetandp(
A)i
tspowerset
.dr
awt
heHasse
di
agram of(p(
A),
≤)

.in
ts
en
ud
Iti
ssomewhat`
`messy
''andsomear
rowscanbeder
ivedf
rom t
ransi
ti
vi
ty
anyway
.Ifwe
st

omi
tal
ll
oops,
tu

omi
tal
lar
rowst
hatcanbei
nfer
redf
rom t
ransi
ti
vi
ty,
.k

dr
awar
rowswi
thoutheads,
w

under
standt
hatal
lar
rowspoi
ntupwar
ds,
w

t
hent
heabov
egr
aphsi
mpl
i
fiest
o
w

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Thi
stypeofgraphi
scal
l
eda 
Hassedi
agr
am,
iti
sof
tenusedt
orepr
esenta
par
ti
all
yorder
edset.

a)Let
 A={1,
2,
3,
9,
18}
 andf
orany
 a,
b  
A,

a  
b  i
ff
 a 
|
 b 
.

Dr
awt
heHassedi
agr
am oft
her
elat
ion.

Sol
uti
on:Fi
rsti
tiseasyt
over
if
ythatt
her
elat
ion   
def
inedabov
eisapar
ti
al
or
der
ing.Thedi
rect
edgr
aphofr
elat
ion  
i
s

.in
ts
en
ud
andt
heHassedi
agr
am i
s
st
tu
.k
w

(
a)
w

Letset
 A 
begi
venby
w

A={3,
4,5,
6,10,
12}

andabi
nar
yrel
ati R 
on  A 
on  bedef
inedby

(
x,y)
  R 
 i
ff
 x 
|
 y 
,

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i
.e.
 (
x,y)
  R 
i
fandonl
yif
 x 
div
i y.Gi
des  veexpl
i
cit
lyR 
  i
nter
msofi
tsel
ement
sand
dr
awt
hecor
respondi
ngHassedi
agr
am.

(
b)
Letanewbi
nar
yrel
ati R'
on   
ont
heset
 A 
giv
eni
n(a)bedef
inedby

(
x,y)
  R'
 
 ifandonl
yifei
ther
 x 
|
 y 
ory 
 |x
 

R'
and  '
 
be t
he t
ransi
ti
ve cl
osur
e of
 R'
. Use di
rect
ed gr
aphs t
o
r
epr
esent
 R,
R'
    R'
and  '
 
respect
ivel
y.Whi
choft
het
hreer
elat
i R,
ons  R'
    R'
and  '
 
isan
equi
val
ence r
elat
ion? For t
he equi
val
ence r
elat
ion,gi
ve al
lthe di
sti
nct

.in
equi
val
encecl
asses.

ts
Sol
uti
on

(
a)
Amongal
ltheel
ement
sofset
 
en
A={3,4,5,6,10,12}
,obv
iousl
y3  
  A,f
ori
nst
ance,
ud
di
vi 3,
des  6 
  12.Hencebyt
and  hedef
ini
ti
onoft
her
elat
i R 
on  speci
fi
edbyt
he
quest
ion we concl (
ude 3,
3)(
,
 3,
6) (
and 3,
12)
 ar
e al
lel
ement
soft
he r
elat
i R.
on 
st

Li
kewi
se we can show
t
hat
 (
4,4)
,(
 4,
12)
,(
 5,
5)(
,
 5,
10)
,(
 6,
6)(
,
 6,
12)
,(
 10,
10)
,(
 12,
12)
 ar
eal
lel
ement
sof
 R.I
n
tu

f
actwehav
e
.k

R={(
3,3)
,(3,
6),
(3,
12)
,(4,
4),
(4,
12)
,(5,
5),
(5,
10)
,(6,
6),
(6,
12)
,(10,
10)
,(12,
12)}.
w

Hencet
hedi
graphf
orR 
  i
s
w
w

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 whi
chi
nducest
hef
oll
owi
ngHassedi
agr
am

.in
ts
en
ud
st
tu

a)l
etp={
1,2,
3,
4}and≤bet
her
elat
ion‘
l
esst
hanorequal
to’
.Dr
awt
heHassedi
agr
am.
.k

b)X={2,3,
6,
12,
24,
36}andr
elat
ion≤besucht
hatx≤yi
fxdi
vi
desy
.Dr
awt
heHasse
w

di
agram.
w

c)LetAbeasetoff
act
orsofapar
ti
cul
arposi
ti
vei
nteger‘
m’andl
et‘
≤’bet
her
elat
ion
di
vides.
w

Let(
P,≤)beapar
ti
all
yor
der
edsetandl
etA P.Anyel
ementx Pi
sanupperbound
f
orAi
fforal
la A,
a≤x.

Si
mil
arl
y,anyel
ementx Pi
sal
owerboundofAi
fforal
la A,
x≤a

a)Consi
derpar
ti
all
yor
der
edset(
p(A)
,≤)
.Consi
dersubsetBofp(
A)wher
eB=

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 {{
b,c}
,{
b},
{c}
}

upperboundsofB={
b,c}
,{a,
b,
c}

l
owerboundsofB= 

b)Consi
derC={{
a,c},
{c}
}

upperboundsofC={a,
c},
{a,
b,
c}

l
owerboundofC={
c},


.in
c)A={2,
3,
6} X={2,
3,
6,
12,
24,
36}

ts
upperboundsofA={6,
12,
24,
36}

l
owerboundsofA=ni
l en
ud

FUNCTI
ONS
st

A 
Funct
ion 
assi
gnst
oeachel
ementofaset
,exact
lyoneel
ementofar
elat
edset
.
Funct
ions f
ind t
hei
r appl
i
cat
ion i
n v
ari
ous f
iel
ds l
i
ke r
epr
esent
ati
on of t
he
tu

comput
ati
onalcompl
exi
tyofal
gor
it
hms,count
ingobj
ect
s,st
udyofsequencesand
.k

st
ri
ngs,
tonameaf
ew.Thet
hir
dandf
inalchapt
eroft
hispar
thi
ghl
i
ght
sthei
mpor
tant
aspect
soff
unct
ions.
w

Func
ti
on–De
fini
t
ion
w

Afuncti
onormappi
ng(Defi
nedasf:X→Y)i
sarel
ati
onshi
pfrom el
ementsofonesetX
w

toelement
sofanot
hersetY(XandYarenon-
emptyset
s).Xiscal
ledDomainandYis
cal
ledCodomai
noffunct
ion‘
f’
.

Functi
on‘f’
isar
elat
iononXandYs. tf
oreachx∈X,t
hereexist
sauni
quey∈Ysuch
that(
x,y)∈R.xi
scall
edpre-
imageandyiscal
l
edi
mageoffuncti
onf
.

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Afuncti
oncanbeonet oone,
manytoone( notonet
omany
).Af
unct
ionf
:A→Bi
ssai
d
t
obei nver
ti
blei
fther
eexi
stsafunct
iong:
B→A

I
nj
ect
i
ve/One
-to-
onef
unc
ti
on
Afunct
ionf
:A→Bisi
nject
iveorone-
to-
onef
unct
ioni
fforev
eryb∈B,t
her
eexi
stsat
mostonea∈Asucht
hatf(s)=t
.

Thi
smeansaf
unct
ion 
f 
isi
nject
ivei
fa1 
≠a2 
i
mpl
i
esf
(a1)≠f
(a2)
.

Ex
ampl
e

 f
:N→N,
f(x)=5xi
sinj
ect
ive.

.in
 f
:Z+→Z+,
f(x)=x2 
i
sinj
ect
ive.

ts
 f
:N→N,
f(x)=x2 
i
snoti
nject
iveas(
−x)
2
 =x2

Sur
jec
ti
ve/Ont
ofunc
ti
on en
Af unct
ionf:A→Bissur
ject
ive(ont
o)i
ftheimageoffequal
sit
srange.Equi
val
ent
ly,
for
ud
everyb∈B, t
her
eexi
stssomea∈Asucht hatf
(a)=b.Thi
smeanst hatf
oranyyinB,
thereexist
ssomexinAsucht haty=f
(x).

Ex
ampl
e
st
tu

 f:
Z+→Z+,
f(x)=x2 
i
ssur
ject
ive.

 f:
N→N,
f(x)=x2 
i
snoti
nject
iveas(
−x) =x2
.k

Bi
j
ect
i
ve/One
-to-
oneCor
res
ponde
nt
w

Af uncti
onf:A→Bi sbi j
ect
iveorone-
to-
onecor
respondenti
fandonl
yiffi
sbot
h
w

i
njecti
veandsur
ject
ive.

Pr
obl
em
w

Pr
ovet
hataf
unct
ionf
:R→Rdef
inedbyf
(x)=2x−3i
sabi
j
ect
ivef
unct
ion.

Expl
anat
ion 
−Wehav
etopr
ovet
hisf
unct
ioni
sbot
hinj
ect
iveandsur
ject
ive.

I
ff(
x1)=f
(x2)
,then2x1 
−3=2x2 
−3andi
timpl
i
est
hatx1 
=x2.

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Hence,
fis 
inj
ect
ive.

Her
e,2x−3=y

So,
x=(
y+5)
/3whi
chbel
ongst
oRandf
(x)=y
.

Hence,
fis 
sur
ject
ive.

Si
nce 
f 
isbot
h sur
ject
ive 
and 
inj
ect
ive,
wecansay
 f 
i
s bi
ject
ive.

Compos
it
ionofFunc
ti
ons
Twofunct
ionsf:A→Bandg:B→Ccanbecomposedtogi
veacomposi
ti
ongof
.Thi
s

.in
i
safuncti
onfrom At
oCdefi
nedby(
gof
)(x)=g(
f(x)
)

Ex
ampl
e

ts
Letf
(x)=x+2andg(
x)=2x,
find(fog)
(x)and(gof
)(x)

Sol
(
ut
fog)
(
i
on
x)=f(
g(x)
)=f
(2x)=2x+2
en
ud
(
gof
)(x)=g(
f(x)
)=g(
x+2)=2(
x+2)=2x+4

Hence,
(fog)
(x)≠(
gof
)(x)
st

SomeFact
saboutComposi
ti
on
tu

 I
ffandgar
eone-
to-
onet
hent
hef
unct
ion(
gof
)isal
soone-
to-
one.
.k

 I
ffandgar
eont
othent
hef
unct
ion(
gof
)isal
soont
o.
w

 Composi
ti
onal
way
shol
dsassoci
ati
vepr
oper
tybutdoesnothol
dcommut
ati
vepr
oper
ty.
w
w

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Pe
rmut
ati
ons
A 
per
mut
ati
on 
i
sanar
rangementofsomeel
ement
sinwhi
chor
dermat
ter
s.I
not
her
wor
dsaPer
mut
ati
oni
sanor
der
edCombi
nat
ionofel
ement
s.

Ex
ampl
es
 Fr
om asetS={
x,y
,z}byt
aki
ngt
woatat
ime,
all
per
mut
ati
onsar
e−xy
,yx,
xz,
zx,
yz,
zy.

 Wehav
etof
orm aper
mut
ati
onoft
hreedi
gitnumber
sfr
om asetofnumber
sS={
1,2,3}
.
Di
ff
erentt
hreedi
gitnumber
swi
l
lbef
ormedwhenwear
ranget
hedi
git
s.Theper
mut
ati
on
wi
l
lbe=123,
132,
213,
231,
312,
321

.in
NumberofPer
mut
ati
ons
Thenumberofper
mut
ati
onsof‘
n’di
ff
erentt
hingst
aken‘
r’atat
imei
sdenot
ed

ts
by
 nPrnPr
nPr=n!
(n−r
)!wher
e n!
=1.
2.3.
…..
(n−1)
.n. en
Pr
oof
 −Lett
her
ebe‘
n’di
ff
erentel
ement
s.
ud
Ther
ear
ennumberofway
stof
il
lupt
hef
ir
stpl
ace.Af
terf
il
li
ngt
hef
ir
stpl
ace(
n−1)
numberofel
ement
sisl
eft
.Hence,t
her
ear
e(n−1)way
stof
il
lupt
hesecondpl
ace.
st

Af
terf
il
li
ngt
hef
ir
standsecondpl
ace,
(n−2)numberofel
ement
sisl
eft
.Hence,
ther
e
ar
e(n−2)way
stof
il
lupt
het
hir
dpl
ace.Wecannowgener
ali
zet
henumberofway
sto
tu

f
il
lupr
-t
hpl
aceas[
n−(
r−1)
]=n−r
+1
.k

So,
thet
otal
no.ofway
stof
il
lupf
rom f
ir
stpl
aceupt
or-
th-
place−
w

nPr=n(
n−1)
(n−2)
..
..
.(
n−r
+1)
w

=[
n(n−1)
(n−2)
..
.(
n−r
+1)
][
(n−r
)(n−r
−1)
−−−−−3.
2.1]
/[
(n−r
)(n−r
−1)
..
3.2.
1
Hence,
w

nPr=n!
/(n−r
)!

Somei
mpor
tantf
ormul
asofper
mut
ati
on
 I
fther
ear
e n 
element
sofwhi
cha1 
areal
i
keofsomeki
nd,a2 
areal
i
keofanot
herki
nd;a3 
are

al
i
keoft
hir
dki
ndandsoonandar 
areofr
t
h
ki
nd,
wher
e (
a1+a2+.
..
ar)
=n.

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 Then,
numberofper
mut
ati
onsoft
hesenobj
ect
si n!
s=  /
[(a1!
)(
a2!
).
..
..
(ar1!
)]
.
 Numberofper
mut
ati
onsofndi
sti
nctel
ement
staki
ngnel
ement
satat
i nPn=n!
me= 

 Thenumberofper
mut
ati
onsofndi
ssi
mil
arel
ement
staki
ngrel
ement
satat
ime,whenx

par
ti
cul
art
hingsal
way
soccupydef
ini
tepl n−xpr-x.
aces= 

 Thenumberofper
mut
ati
onsofndi
ssi
mil
arel
ement
swhenrspeci
fi
edt
hingsal
way
scome

t
oget
heri
s:r
 !(
n−r
+1)
!
 Thenumberofper
mut
ati
onsofndi
ssi
mil
arel
ement
swhenrspeci
fi
edt
hingsnev
ercome

t
oget
heri
s:n!
  −[
r!
(n−r
+1)
!]
 Thenumberofci
rcul
arper
mut
ati
onsofndi
ff
erentel
ement
stakenxel
ement
satt
ime

.in
= 
nPx
/x

 Thenumberofci
rcul
arper
mut
ati
onsofndi
ff
erentt
hi nPn/
ngs=  n

ts
Pr
obl
ems
Pr
obl
em 1 
−Fr
om abunchof6di
ff
erentcar
ds,
howmanyway
en swecanper
mut
eit
?

Sol
uti
on 
−Aswear
etaki
ng6car
dsatat
imef
rom adeckof6car
ds,t
heper
mut
ati
on
ud
wi
l
l 6P6=6!
be  =7206P6=6!
=720
Pr
obl
em 2 
−Inhowmanyway
scant
hel
ett
ersoft
hewor
d'READER'
bear
ranged?
st

Sol
uti
on 
−Ther
ear
e6l
ett
erswor
d(2E,
1A,
1Dand2R.
)int
hewor
d'READER'
.
tu

Theper
mut
ati
onwi
l
l =6!
be  /[
(2!
)(
1!)
(1!
)(
2!)
]=180.
=6!
/[
(2!
)(
1!)
(1!
)(
2!)
]=180.
.k

Pr
obl
em 3 
−Inhowway
scant
hel
ett
ersoft
hewor
d'ORANGE'
bear
rangedsot
hatt
he
consonant
soccupyonl
ytheev
enposi
ti
ons?
w

Sol
uti
on 
−Ther
ear
e3v
owel
sand3consonant
sint
hewor
d'ORANGE'
.Numberof
w

way
s ofar
rangi
ng t
he consonant
s among t
hemsel
v 3P3=3!
es =  =63P3=3!
=6.The
w

r
emai
ning3v
acantpl
aceswi
l
lbef
il
ledupby3v
owel
si 3P3=3!
n  =6way
s3P3=3! s.
=6way

Hence,
thet
otal
numberofper
mut
ati
oni
s 6×6=366×6=36

Combi
nat
i
ons
A 
combi
nat
ion 
i
ssel
ect
ionofsomegi
venel
ement
sinwhi
chor
derdoesnotmat
ter
.

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Thenumberofal
lcombi
nat
ionsofnt
hings,
takenratat
imei
s−

nCr=n!
/r!
(n−r
)!

Pr
obl
em 1
Fi
ndt
henumberofsubset
soft
heset{
1,2,
3,4,
5,6}hav
ing3el
ement
s.

Sol
uti
on

Thecar
dinal
i
tyoft
heseti
s6andwehav
etochoose3el
ement
sfr
om t
heset
.Her
e,t
he
or
der
ingdoesnotmat
ter
.Hence,
thenumberofsubset
swi
l
l 6C3=206C3=20.
be 

.in
Pr
obl
em 2
Ther
ear
e6menand5womeni
nar
oom.I
nhowmanyway
swecanchoose3menand

ts
2womenf
rom t
her
oom?

Sol
uti
on
en
ud
Thenumberofway
stochoose3menf
rom 6meni
s 6C36C3 
andt
henumberofway
s

t
ochoose2womenf
rom 5womeni
s 5C25C2
st

Hence,
thet
otal
numberofway
si 6C3×5C2=20×10=2006C3×5C2=20×10=200
s− 
tu

Pr
obl
em 3
Howmanyway
scany
ouchoose3di
sti
nctgr
oupsof3st
udent
sfr
om t
otal
9st
udent
s?
.k

Sol
uti
on
w

Letusnumbert
hegr
oupsas1,
2and3
w
w

Forchoosi
ng3st
udent
sfor1st 
group,
thenumberofway 9C3
s− 

Thenumberofway
sforchoosi
ng3st
udent
sfor2nd gr
oupaf
terchoosi
ng1st
 gr
oup
− 
6C3
Thenumberofway
sforchoosi
ng3st
udent
sfor3rd 
groupaf
terchoosi
ng1st 
and
2nd 
gr 3C3
oup− 

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Hence,
thet
otal
numberofway 9C3×6C3×3C3=84×20×1=1680
s= 

Pi
geonhol
ePr
inc
ipl
e
I
n1834,Ger
manmat
hemat
ici
an,Pet
erGust
avLej
euneDi
ri
chl
et,st
atedapr
inci
ple
whi
chhecal
l
edt
hedr
awerpr
inci
ple.Now,
iti
sknownast
hepi
geonhol
epr
inci
ple.

Pi
geonhol
ePr
inci
ple 
stat
est
hati
fther
ear
efewerpi
geonhol
est
hant
otalnumberof
pi
geonsandeachpi
geoni
sputi
napi
geonhol
e,t
hent
her
emustbeatl
eastonepi
geon
hol
ewi
thmor
ethanonepi
geon.I
fnpi
geonsar
eputi
ntom pi
geonhol
eswher
en>m,
t
her
e'sahol
ewi
thmor
ethanonepi
geon.

.in
Ex
ampl
es

ts
 Tenmenar
einar
oom andt
heyar
etaki
ngpar
tinhandshakes.I
feachper
sonshakeshands
atl
eastonceandnomanshakest
hesameman’
shandmor
ethanoncet
hent
woment
ook
par
tint
hesamenumberofhandshakes.
en
 Ther
emustbeatl
eastt
wopeopl
einabi
gci
tywi
tht
hesamenumberofhai
rsont
hei
rheads.
ud

TheI
ncl
usi
on-
Exc
lus
ionpr
inc
ipl
e
st

The 
Incl
usi
on-
excl
usi
on pr
inci
ple 
comput
es t
he car
dinalnumberoft
he uni
on of
tu

mul
ti
plenon-
disj
ointset
s.Fort
woset
sAandB,
thepr
inci
plest
ates−
.k

|
A∪B|
=|A|
+|B|
−|A∩B|
|
A∪B|
w

Fort
hreeset
sA,
BandC,
thepr
inci
plest
ates−
w

|
A∪B∪C|
=|A|
+|B|
+|C|
−|A∩B|
−|A∩C|
−|B∩C|
+|A∩B∩C|
w

Thegener
ali
zedf
ormul
a−

∣
∣
⋃∏i
=1Ai
∣
∣=∑1≤i≤n|
<j Ai∩Aj
|+∑1≤i<k≤n|
<j Ai∩Aj
∩Ak|
−..
..
.+(
−1)
n−1|
A1∩.
..
∩A2|

Pr
obl
em 1
Howmanyi
nteger
sfr
om 1t
o50ar
eonl
ymul
ti
plesof2or3?

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Sol
uti
on

Fr
om 1t
o100,
ther
ear
e 50/
2=25number
swhi
char
emul
ti
plesof2.

Ther
ear
e 50/
3=16number
swhi
char
emul
ti
plesof3.

Ther
ear
e 50/
6=8number
swhi
char
emul
ti
plesofbot
h2and3.

|
So,
 A|
=25,
|
B|=16and 
|A∩B|
=8.
|
A∪B|
=|A|
+|B|
−|A∩B|
=25+16−8=33

Pr
obl
em 2
I
nagr
oupof50st
udent
s24l
i
kecol
ddr
inksand36l
i
kehotdr
inksandeachst
udent

.in
l
i
kesatl
eastoneoft
het
wodr
inks.Howmanyl
i
kebot
hcof
feeandt
ea?

ts
Sol
uti
on

LetXbet
dr
inks.
hesetofst
udent
swhol
i
kecol
ddr
i en
nksandYbet
hesetofpeopl
ewhol
i
kehot
ud
|
So,
 X∪Y|
=50,
|
 X|
=24,
|
 Y|
=36
|
X∩Y|
=|X|
+|Y|
−|X∪Y|
=24+36−50=60−50=10
st

Hence,
ther
ear
e10st
udent
swhol
i
kebot
hteaandcof
fee.
tu

RECURRENCERELATI
ONS
.k

De
fini
t
ion
w
w

Ar
ecur
rencer
elat
ioni
sanequat
iont
hatr
ecur
siv
elydef
inesasequencewher
ethenext
t
ermi
saf
unct
ionoft
hepr
evi
oust
erms(
Expr
essi
ngFn 
assomecombi
nat
ionofFi 
wit
h
w

i
<n)
.

Exampl
e −Fi
bonacci
ser
ies:
Fn 
=Fn−1 
+Fn−2,
TowerofHanoi
:Fn 
=2Fn−1 
+1

Li
nearRe
cur
renc
eRe
lat
i
ons

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Al
i
nearr
ecur
renceequat
ionofdegr
eeki
sar
ecur
renceequat
ionwhi
chi
sint
hef
ormat
xn 
=A1 
xn−1 
+A2 
xn−1 
+A3 
xn−1 
+..
.Ak 
xn−k 
(An 
i
saconst
antandAk 
≠0)onasequenceof
number
sasaf
ir
st-
degr
eepol
ynomi
al.

Thesear
esomeexampl
esofl
i
nearr
ecur
renceequat
ions−

Recur
rencer
elat
ions I
nit
ialv
alues Sol
uti
ons

Fn 
=Fn−1 
+Fn−2 a1 
=a2 
=1 Fi
bonaccinumber

.in
Fn 
=Fn−1 
+Fn−2 a1 
=1,
a2 
=3 Lucasnumber

ts
Fn 
=Fn−2 
+Fn−3 a1 
=a2 
=a3 
=1 Padov
ansequence

Fn 
=2Fn−1 
+Fn−2 a1 
=0,
a2 
=1
en Pel
lnumber
ud

Howt
osol
vel
i
nearr
ecur
rencer
elat
ion
st

Suppose,
atwoor
der
edl
i
nearr
ecur
rencer
elat
ioni
s:Fn 
=AFn−1 
+BFn−2 
wher
eAandBar
e
r
eal
number
s.
tu

Thechar
act
eri
sti
cequat
ionf
ort
heabov
erecur
rencer
elat
ioni
s−
.k

x2 
−Ax−B=0
w

Thr
eecasesmayoccurwhi
l
efi
ndi
ngt
her
oot
s−
w

Case1 
−Ift
hisequat
ionf
act
orsas(
x−x1)
(x−x1)=0andi
tpr
oducest
wodi
sti
nctr
eal
w

r
oot
sx1 
andx2,
thenFn 
=ax1n+bx2n 
i
sthesol
uti
on.[
Her
e,aandbar
econst
ant
s]

Case2 
−Ift
hisequat
ionf
act
orsas(
x−x1)
2
 =0andi
tpr
oducessi
ngl
erealr
ootx1,
then
Fn=ax1n 
+bnx1n 
i
sthesol
uti
on.

Case3 
−Ift
heequat
ionpr
oducest
wodi
sti
nctr
ealr
oot
sx1 
andx2 
i
npol
arf
orm x1 
=r∠

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θandx2 
=r∠(
−θ)
,thenFn 
=rn
 (
acos(
nθ)+bsi
n(nθ)
)ist
hesol
uti
on.

Pr
obl
em 1
Sol
vet
her
ecur
rencer
elat
ionFn 
=5Fn−1 
−6Fn−2 
wher
eF0 
=1andF1 
=4

Sol
uti
on

Thechar
act
eri
sti
cequat
ionoft
her
ecur
rencer
elat
ioni
s−

x2 
−5x+6=0,

.in
So,
 
(x−3)(
x−2)=0

Hence,
ther
oot
sar
e−

ts
x1 
=3andx2 
=2

Ther
oot
sar
ereal
anddi
sti
nct
.So,
thi
sisi
nthef
or
en
m ofcase1
ud
Hence,
thesol
uti
oni
s−

Fn 
=ax1n 
+bx2n
st

Her
e,Fn 
=a3n 
+b2n 
(Asx
1 =3andx2 
=2)
tu

Ther
efor
e,
.k

1=F0 
=a30 
+b20 
=a+b
w

4=F1 
=a31 
+b21 
=3a+2b
w
w

Sol
vi
ngt
heset
woequat
ions,
wegeta=2andb=−1

Hence,
thef
inal
sol
uti
oni
s−

Fn 
=2.
3n 
+(−1).2n 
=2.
3n 
−2n

Pr
obl
em 2

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Sol
vet
her
ecur
rencer
elat
ionFn 
=10Fn−1 
−25Fn−2 
wher
eF0 
=3andF1 
=17

Sol
uti
on

Thechar
act
eri
sti
cequat
ionoft
her
ecur
rencer
elat
ioni
s−

x2 
−10x−25=0,

So,
 
(x−5)
2
 =0

Hence,
ther
eissi
ngl
ereal
rootx1 
=5

.in
Ast
her
eissi
ngl
ereal
val
uedr
oot
,thi
sisi
nthef
orm ofcase2

Hence,
thesol
uti
oni
s−

ts
Fn 
=ax
1 
n
+bnx
1
n

3=F0 
=a.
50 
+b.
0.50 
=a
en
ud
17=F1 
=a.
51 
+b.
1.51 
=5a+5b
st

Sol
vi
ngt
heset
woequat
ions,
wegeta=3andb=2/
5
tu

Hence,
thef
inal
sol
uti
oni
s−

Fn 
=3.
5n 
+(2/
5).
n.2n
.k

Pr
obl
em 3
w

Sol
vet
her
ecur
rencer
elat
ionFn 
=2Fn−1 
−2Fn−2 
wher
eF0 
=1andF1 
=3
w
w

Sol
uti
on

Thechar
act
eri
sti
cequat
ionoft
her
ecur
rencer
elat
ioni
s−

x2 
−2x−2=0

Hence,
ther
oot
sar
e−

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x1 
=1+i
 
andx2 
=1−i

I
npol
arf
orm,

x1 
=r∠θ 
andx2 
=r∠(
−θ)
,wher
er=√2andθ=π/4

Ther
oot
sar
eimagi
nar
y.So,
thi
sisi
nthef
orm ofcase3.

Hence,
thesol
uti
oni
s−

n
Fn 
=(√2) 
(acos(
n.π/4)+bsi
n(n.π/4)
)

.in
0
1=F0 
=(√2) 
(acos(
0.π/4)+bsi
n(0.π/4))=a

1
3=F1 
=(√2) 
(acos(
1.π/4)+bsi
n(1.π/4))=√2(a/
√2+b/
√2)

ts
Sol
vi
ngt
heset
woequat
ionswegeta=1andb=2

Hence,
thef
inal
sol
uti
oni
s−
en
ud
Fn 
=(√2)
n(cos(
n.π/4)+2si
n(n.π/4)
)
st

Par
ti
cul
arSol
uti
ons
tu

Ar
ecur
rencer
elat
ioni
scal
l
ednon-
homogeneousi
fiti
sint
hef
orm
.k

Fn 
=AFn−1 
+BFn−2 
+F(
n)wher
eF(
n)≠0
w

Thesol
uti
on(
an)ofanon-
homogeneousr
ecur
rencer
elat
ionhast
wopar
ts.Fi
rstpar
tis
t
hesol
uti
on(
ah)oft
heassoci
atedhomogeneousr
ecur
rencer
elat
ionandt
hesecond
w

par
tist
hepar
ti
cul
arsol
uti
on(
at)
.So,
an 
=ah 
+at.
w

LetF(
n)=cxn 
andx1 
andx2 
aret
her
oot
soft
hechar
act
eri
sti
cequat
ion−

x2 
=Ax+ B whi
chi
sthechar
act
eri
sti
cequat
ionoft
heassoci
atedhomogeneous
r
ecur
rencer
elat
ion−

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  I
fx≠x1 
andx≠x2,
thenat 
=Axn

 I
fx=x1,
x≠x2,
thenat 
=Anxn

 I
fx=x1 
=x2,
thenat 
=An2xn

Pr
obl
em
Sol
vet
her
ecur
rencer
elat
ionFn 
=3Fn−1 
+10Fn−2 
+7.
5n 
wher
eF0 
=4andF1=3

Sol
uti
on

Thechar
act
eri
sti
cequat
ioni
s−

.in
x2 
−3x−10=0

ts
Or
, 
(x−5)
(x+2)=0

Or
, 
x1=5andx2 
=−2
en
Si
nce,
x=x1 
andx≠x2,
thesol
uti
oni
s−
ud

at 
=Anxn 
=An5n
st

Af
terput
ti
ngt
hesol
uti
oni
ntot
henon-
homogeneousr
elat
ion,
weget−
tu

An5n 
=3A(
n−1)
5n−1 
+10A(
n−2)
5n−2 
+7.
5n
.k

Di
vi
dingbot
hsi
desby5n−2,
weget−
w

An52 
=3A(
n−1)
5+10A(
n−2)
50 
+7.
52
w

Or
, 
25An=15An−15A+10An−20A+175
w

Or
, 
35A=175

Or
, 
A=5

So,
 
Fn 
=n5n+1

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Hence,
thesol
uti
oni
s−

Fn 
=n5n+1 
+6.
(−2)
n
 −2.
5n

Ge
ner
ati
ngFunc
ti
ons
Gener
ati
ng Funct
ions 
repr
esent
s sequences wher
e each t
erm ofa sequence i
s
expr
essedasacoef
fi
ci
entofav
ari
abl
e x 
i
naf
ormal
powerser
ies.

Mat
hemat
ical
l
y,f
orani
nfi
nit
esequence,saya0,a1,a2,
…………,ak,
………,t
hegener
ati
ng
f
unct
ionwi
l
lbe−

.in
Gx=a0+a1x+a2x2+.
..
..
..
..
+akxk+.
..
..
..
..
=∑k=0∞akxkGx=a0+a1x+a2x2+.
..
..
..
..
+akxk+.
..
..
..
..
=∑k=0∞akxk

ts
SomeAr
easofAppl
i
cat
ion en
Gener
ati
ngf
unct
ionscanbeusedf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngpur
poses−
ud
 Forsol
vi
ngav
ari
etyofcount
ingpr
obl
ems.Forexampl
e,t
henumberofway
stomake
changef
oraRs.100not
ewi
tht
henot
esofdenomi
nat
ionsRs.
1,Rs.
2,Rs.
5,Rs.
10,Rs.
20
st

andRs.
50
tu

 Forsol
vi
ngr
ecur
rencer
elat
ions

 Forpr
ovi
ngsomeoft
hecombi
nat
ori
ali
dent
it
ies
.k

 Forf
indi
ngasy
mpt
oti
cfor
mul
aef
ort
ermsofsequences
w

Pr
obl
em 1
w

Whatar
ethegener
ati
ngf
unct
ionsf
ort
hesequences{
ak}wi
thak 
=2and=3k?
w

Sol
uti
on

Whenak 
=2,
gener
ati
ngf
unct
ion,

G(
x)=∑∞k=02xk=2+2x+2x2+2x3+.
..
..
..
..
G(x)
=∑k=0∞2xk=2+2x+2x2+2x3+.
..
..
..
..

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 ak=3k,
When  G(x)
=∑∞k=03kxk=0+3x+6x2+9x3+.
..
..
.ak=3k,
G(x
)=∑k=0∞3kxk=0+3x+6
x2+9x3+.
..
..
.

Pr
obl
em 2
Whati
sthegener
ati
ngf
unct
ionoft
hei
nfi
nit
eser
ies;
1,1,
1,1,
……….
?

Sol
uti
on

Her
e,ak  f
=1,
 or
 0≤k≤∞.

G(
Hence,
  x)
=1+x+x2+x
3+.
..
..
..
.=1(1−x)G(
x)=1+x
+x2+x3+.
..
..
..
.=1(
1−x
)

.in
SomeUsef
ulGener
ati
ngFunct
ions

ts
 For
 ak=ak,
G(x)
=∑∞k=0akxk=1+ax+a2x2+.
..
..
..
..
=1(1−ax)ak=ak,
G(x)
=∑k=0∞akxk=1+ax+
a2x
2+.
..
..
..
..
=1(
1−ax)

 For
 ak=(
k+1)
,G(
x)=∑∞k=0(
k+1)
en
xk=1+2x+3x2.
..
..
..
..
=1(1−x)2ak=(
k+1)
,G(
x)=∑k=0∞(
k+1)
ud
xk=1+2x+3x2.
..
..
..
..
=1(
1−x)
2

 For
 ak=cnk,
G(x)
=∑∞k=0cnkxk=1+cn1x+cn2x2+.
..
..
..
..
+x2=(
1+x)
nak=ckn,
G(x)
=∑k=0∞c
st

knx
k=1+c1nx+c2nx2+.
..
..
..
..
+x2=(
1+x)
n
tu

 For
 ak=1k!
,G(
x)=∑∞k=0xkk!
=1+x+x22!
+x33!
..
..
..
..
.=ex
.k

Se
migr
oup
w
w

Af
ini
teori
nfi
nit
eset‘
S’wi
thabi
nar
yoper
ati
on‘
0’(
Composi
ti
on)i
scal
l
edsemi
groupi
f
i
thol
dsf
oll
owi
ngt
wocondi
ti
onssi
mul
taneousl
y−
w

 Cl
osur
e −Forev
erypai
r(a,
b)∈S,
(a0b)hast
obepr
esenti
nthesetS.

 Associ
ati
ve 
−Forev
eryel
ementa,
b,c∈S,
(a0b)0c=a0(
b0c)musthol
d.

Ex
ampl
e

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Thesetofposi
ti
vei
nteger
s(excl
udi
ngzer
o)wi
thaddi
ti
onoper
ati
oni
sasemi
group.
Forexampl
e,S={
1,2,
3,.
..
}

Her
ecl
osur
epr
oper
tyhol
dsasf
orev
erypai
r(a,b)∈S,(
a+b)i
spr
esenti
nthesetS.
Forexampl
e,1+2=3∈S]

Associ
ati
vepr
oper
tyal
sohol
dsf
orev
eryel
ementa,b,c∈S,(
a+b)+c=a+(
b+c)
.
Forexampl
e,(
1+2)+3=1+(
2+3)=5

Monoi
d

.in
A monoi
disasemi
groupwi
thani
dent
it
yel
ement
.Thei
dent
it
yel
ement(
denot
ed
by
 e 
or 
E)ofasetSi
sanel
ementsucht
hat(
a0e)=a,f
orev
eryel
ementa∈S.An

ts
i
dent
it
yel
ementi
sal
socal
l
eda 
uni
tel
ement
.So,amonoi
dhol
dst
hreepr
oper
ti
es
si
mul
taneousl
y− 
Closur
e,Associ
ati
ve,
Ident
it
yel
ement
.

Ex
ampl
e
en
ud
Thesetofposi
ti
vei
nteger
s(excl
udi
ngzer
o)wi
thmul
ti
pli
cat
ionoper
ati
oni
samonoi
d.
S={
1,2,
3,.
..
}
st

Her
ecl
osur
epr
oper
tyhol
dsasf
orev
erypai
r(a,b)∈S,(
a×b)i
spr
esenti
nthesetS.
tu

[
Forexampl
e,1×2=2∈Sandsoon]
.k

Associ
ati
vepr
oper
tyal
sohol
dsf
orev
eryel
ementa,b,c∈S,(
a×b)×c=a×(
b×c)
[
Forexampl
e,(
1×2)×3=1×(
2×3)=6andsoon]
w

I
dent
it
ypr
oper
tyal
sohol
dsf
orev
eryel
ementa∈S,
(a×e)=a[
Forexampl
e,(
2×1)=2,
w

(
3×1)=3andsoon]
.Her
eident
it
yel
ementi
s1.
w

SubSe
migr
oup
L
etAb
ean
one
mpt
ysu
bse
tof
ase
mig
rou
pS.
the
nAi
sca
ll
edas
ubs
emi
gr
oupwi
t
hre
spe
ctt
oth
e
op
era
ti
oni
nS.
Sin
cet
hee
leme
ntsof
Aar
eal
soe
leme
ntsof
S,t
hea
ssoc
iat
i
vel
awh
old
sfor
the
e
leme
ntsof
A.t
her
efor
e,Ai
sas
ubs
emi
gr
oupofSi
fan
don
lyi
ti
scl
ose
dun
der
theop
era
ti
onsonS.

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 F
ore
xamp
leAa
ndbd
evot
eev
ena
ndod
dpos
it
iv
ein
teg
ers
.th
en(
A, )
and(
B, )
ares
ub
s
emi
gr
oup
sof(
N, )
.

Submonoi
d
L
et(
M,*
)beamon
oidwi
t
hid
ent
i
tye
leme
nte.
Sup
pos
eBi
san
one
mpt
ysu
bse
tofM.
IfBi
scl
ose
d
u
nde
rth
eop
era
ti
oni
nMa
nde Bt
hen(
B,*
)isc
all
edas
ubmon
oidof
(M,
*)
.

.in
ts
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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Gr
oup
Agr
oupi
samonoi
dwi
thani
nver
seel
ement
.Thei
nver
seel
ement(
denot
edbyI
)ofa
setSi
sanel
ementsucht
hat(
a0I
)=(
I0a)=a,f
oreachel
ementa∈S.So,agr
oup
hol
dsf
ourpr
oper
ti
essi
mul
taneousl
y−i
)Cl
osur
e,i
i
)Associ
ati
ve,
ii
i)I
dent
it
yel
ement
,iv
)
I
nver
seel
ement
.Theor
derofagr
oupGi
sthenumberofel
ement
sinGandt
heor
der
ofanel
ementi
nagr
oupi
sthel
eastposi
ti
vei
nt hatan 
egernsucht i
sthei
dent
it
y
el
ementoft
hatgr
oupG.

Ex
ampl
es

.in
Thesetof
 N ×N 
non-
singul
armat
ri
cesf
orm agr
oup undermat
ri
xmul
ti
pli
cat
ion
oper
ati
on.

ts
Thepr
oductoft
wo 
N×N 
non-
singul
armat
ri
cesi
sal
soan 
N×N 
non-
singul
armat
ri
x
whi
chhol
dscl
osur
epr
oper
ty.
en
ud
Mat
ri
xmul
ti
pli
cat
ioni
tsel
fisassoci
ati
ve.Hence,
associ
ati
vepr
oper
tyhol
ds.

Thesetof
 N×N 
non-
singul
armat
ri
cescont
ainst
hei
dent
it
ymat
ri
xhol
dingt
hei
dent
it
y
st

el
ementpr
oper
ty.
tu

Asal
lthemat
ri
cesar
enon-
singul
art
heyal
lhav
einv
erseel
ement
swhi
char
eal
sonon-
si
ngul
armat
ri
ces.Hence,
inv
ersepr
oper
tyal
sohol
ds.
.k

Abe
li
anGr
oup
w

Anabel
i
angr
oupG i
sagr
oupf
orwhi
cht
heel
ementpai
r(a,b)∈ G al
way
shol
ds
w

commut
ati
vel
aw.So,agr
ouphol
dsf
ivepr
oper
ti
essi
mul
taneousl
y−i
)Cl
osur
e,i
i
)
w

Associ
ati
ve,
ii
i)I
dent
it
yel
ement
,iv
)Inv
erseel
ement
,v)Commut
ati
ve.

Ex
ampl
e
Thesetofposi
ti
vei
nteger
s(i
ncl
udi
ngzer
o)wi
thaddi
ti
onoper
ati
oni
sanabel
i
angr
oup.
G={
0,1,
2,3,
…}

Her
ecl
osur
epr
oper
tyhol
dsasf
orev
erypai
r(a,b)∈S,(
a+b)i
spr
esenti
nthesetS.

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[
Forexampl
e,1+2=2∈Sandsoon]

Associ
ati
vepr
oper
tyal
sohol
dsf
orev
eryel
ementa,b,c∈S,(
a+b)+c=a+(
b+c)
[
Forexampl
e,(
1+2)+3=1+(
2+3)=6andsoon]

I
dent
it
ypr
oper
tyal
sohol
dsf
orev
eryel
ementa∈S,
(a×e)=a[
Forexampl
e,(
2×1)=2,
(
3×1)=3andsoon]
.Her
e,i
dent
it
yel
ementi
s1.

Commut
ati
vepr
oper
tyal
sohol
dsf
orev
eryel
ementa∈S,
(a×b)=(
b×a)[
Forexampl
e,
(
2×3)=(
3×2)=3andsoon]

Cy
cli
cGr
oupandSubgr
oup

.in
A 
cycl
icgr
oup 
i
sagr
oupt
hatcanbegener
atedbyasi
ngl
eel
ement
.Ev
eryel
ementofa
cy
cli
cgr
oupi
sapowerofsomespeci
fi
cel
ementwhi
chi
scal
l
edagener
ator
.Acy
cli
c

ts
gr
oupcanbegener
atedbyagener
ator‘
g’
,sucht
hatev
eryot
herel
ementoft
hegr
oup
canbewr
it
tenasapoweroft
hegener
ator‘
g’
.

Ex
ampl
e
en
ud
Thesetofcompl
exnumber
s{1,−1,i
,−i
}undermul
ti
pli
cat
ionoper
ati
oni
sacy
cli
c
gr
oup.
st

1 2 3 4 1
Ther
ear
etwogener
ator
s−iand−iasi 
=i,i 
=−1,i 
=−i
,i  
=1andal
so(
−i) 
=−i
,
2 3 4
(
−i) 
=−1,(
−i) 
=i,(
−i) 
=1whi
chcov
ersal
ltheel
ement
soft
hegr
oup.Hence,i
tisa
tu

cy
cli
cgr
oup.
.k

Not
e −A 
cycl
icgr
oup 
i
sal
way
sanabel
i
angr
oupbutnotev
eryabel
i
angr
oupi
sacy
cli
c
gr
oup.Ther
ati
onal
number
sunderaddi
ti
oni
snotcy
cli
cbuti
sabel
i
an.
w

A 
subgr
oup 
Hisasubsetofagr
oupG (
denot
edbyH ≤G)i
fitsat
isf
iest
hef
our
w

pr
oper
ti
essi
mul
taneousl
y− 
Closur
e,Associ
ati
ve,
Ident
it
yel
ement
,and 
Inv
erse.
w

Asubgr
oupHofagr
oupGt
hatdoesnoti
ncl
udet
hewhol
egr
oupGi
scal
l
edapr
oper
subgr
oup(
Denot
edbyH<G)
.A subgr
oupofacy
cli
cgr
oupi
scy
cli
candaabel
i
an
subgr
oupi
sal
soabel
i
an.

Ex
ampl
e
Letagr
oupG={
1,i
,−1,
−i}

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Thensomesubgr
oupsar
eH1 
={1}
,H2 
={1,
−1}
,

−1
Thi
sisnotasubgr
oup:
H3 
={1,
i}becauset
hat(
i)  
=−i
isnoti
nH3

Homomor
phi
sms
Let(
G1,
*)and(
G2,
o)bet oups.fi
wogr saf
unct
ionf
r oG2.Thenfi
om G1t ssai
dtobea
homomor
phi
sm f
rom (
G1,
*)t
o(G2,
o)i
ffora,
b∈G,

f
(a*
b)=f(
a)of
(b)
.

Eg:
Let(
G1,
+)beagr
oupofi
nteger
sunderaddi
ti
ons.Def
inef:G Gbyf
(x)=2x.

.in
Thenpr
ovet
hatfi
sahomomor
phi
sm f
rom Gt
oG.

I
somor
phi
sm

ts
Twogr
G1
oups(
G1,
*)and(
G2sucht
hat
G2,
o)ar
esai
dtobei
somor
phien
cift
her
eexi
staf
unct
ionff
rom
ud
1.f(
a*b)
=f(
a)*f
(b)
.

2.fi
sonet
st

ooneandont
o.

Coset
s
tu

SupposeHi
sasubgr
oupofGanda∈G.Thent
hesetHa={
ha|
h∈H}i
scal
l
edar
ight
.k

cosetofH.(
Anal
ogousl
y,aHi
scal
l
edal
eftcosetofH.
)
w

Lagr
ange’
sTheor
em
w
w

LetHbeasubgr
oupofaf
ini
tegr
oupG.Thent
heor
derofHdi
vi
dest
heor
derofG.The
numberofr
ightcoset
sofHi
nG,
cal
l
edt
hei
ndexofHi
nG,
isequal
tot
henumberofl
eft
coset
sofHi
nG;
andbot
hnumber
sar
eequal
to|
G|di
vi
dedby|
H|.

Ri
ngs

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LetRbeanonempt
ysetwi
tht
wobi
nar
yoper
ati
ons,anoper
ati
onofaddi
ti
onandan
oper
ati
onofmul
ti
pli
cat
ion.ThenRi
scal
l
edar
ingi
fthef
oll
owi
ngaxi
omsar
esat
isf
ied:

 1.Foranya,
b,c∈R,
wehav
e(a+b)+c=a+(
b+c)
.

 2.Ther
eexi
stsanel
ement0∈R,
cal
l
edt
hezer
oel
ement
,sucht
hat
,forev
erya∈
R,
a+0=0+a=a.

 3.Foreacha∈Rt
her
eexi
stsanel
ement−a∈R,cal
l
edt
henegat
iveofa,such
t
hata+(
−a)=(
−a)+a=0.

 4.Foranya,
b∈R,
wehav
ea+b=b+a.

.in
 5.Foranya,
b,c∈R,
wehav
e(ab)
c=a(
bc)
.

ts
 6.Foranya,
b,c∈R,
wehav
e:(
i)a(
b+c)=ab+ac,
and(
ii
)(b+c)
a=ba+ca.
en
ud
Obser
vet
hatt
heaxi
oms1t
hrough4maybesummar
izedbysay
ingt
hatRi
san
abel
i
angr
oupunderaddi
ti
on.
st

Subt
ract
ioni
sdef
inedi
nRbya−b=a+(
−b)
.Onecanpr
ove(
Probl
em B.
21)t
hat
a·0=0·a=0f
orev
erya∈R.
tu

sasubr
AsubsetSofRi ingofRi
fSi
tsel
fisar
ingundert
heoper
ati
onsi
nR.We
.k

not
ethatSi
sasubr
ingofRi
f:(
i)0∈S,
and(
ii
)foranya,
b∈S,
wehav
ea−b∈Sand
w

ab∈S.
w
w

Speci
alKi
ndsofRi
ngs:I
ntegr
alDomai
nsandFi
elds
Ri edacommut
scal
l ati
ver
ingi
fab=baf
orev
erya,
b∈R.

Ri edar
scal
l ingwi
thani
dent
it
yel
ement1i
ftheel
ement1hast
hepr
oper
tyt
hat
a·1=1·a=af
orev
eryel
ementa∈R.I
nsuchacase,
anel
ementa∈Ri
scal
l
edauni
t

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i
fahasamul
ti
pli
cat
ivei
nver
se,
thati
s,anel
ementa−1i
nRsucht
hata·a−1=a−1·a=
1.

Ri edar
scal
l ingwi
thzer
odi
vi
sor
sift
her
eexi
stnonzer
oel
ement
sa,
b∈Rsuch
t
hatab=0.I
nsuchacase,
aandbar
ecal
l
edzer
odi
vi
sor
s.

Acommut
ati
ver
ingRi
sani
ntegr
aldomai
nifRhasnozer
odi
vi
sor
s,t
hati
s,i
fab
=0i
mpl
i
esa=0orb=0.

Acommut
ati
ver
ingRwi
thani
dent
it
yel
ement1(
notequalt
o0)i
saf
iel
difev
ery
nonzer
oa∈Ri
sauni
t,t
hati
s,hasamul
ti
pli
cat
ivei
nver
se.

.in
Af
iel
disnecessar
il
yani
ntegr
aldomai
n;f
ori
fab=0anda=0,
then

ts
b=1·b=a−1ab=a−1·0=0

Af
iel
dmayal
sobev
iewedasacommut
ati
ver
ingi
ennwhi
cht
henonzer
oel
ement
s
f
orm agr
oupundermul
ti
pli
cat
ion.
ud
EXAMPLE

 ThesetZofi
nteger
swi
tht
heusualoper
ati
onsofaddi
ti
onandmul
ti
pli
cat
ioni
s
st

t
hecl
assi
calexampl
eofani
ntegr
aldomai
n(wi
thani
dent
it
yel
ement
).Theuni
ts
tu

i
nZar
eonl
y1and−1,
thati
s,noot
herel
ementi
nZhasamul
ti
pli
cat
ivei
nver
se.
.k

 (
b)The setZm = {
0,1,2,
.
..
,m − 1}undert
he oper
ati
on ofaddi
ti
on and
mul
ti
pli
cat
ionmodul
om i
sar
ing;i
tiscal
l
edt
her
ingofi
nteger
smodul
om.I
fm
w

i
sapr
ime,
thenZm i
saf
iel
d.Ont
heot
herhand,
ifm i
snotapr
imet
henZm has
w

zer
odi
vi
sor
s.Fori
nst
ance,i
nther
ingZ6,2·3=0but2≡0(
mod6)and3≡0
(
mod6)
w

 (
c)Ther
ati
onalnumber
sQandt
her
ealnumber
sReachf
orm af
iel
dwi
thr
espect
t
otheusual
oper
ati
onsofaddi
ti
onandmul
ti
pli
cat
ion.

 (
d)LetM denot
ethesetof2×2mat
ri
ceswi
thi
ntegerorr
ealent
ri
es.ThenM i
sa
noncommut
ati
ver
ingwi
thzer
odi
vi
sor
sundert
heoper
ati
onsofmat
ri
xaddi
ti
on

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 andmat
ri
xmul
ti
pli
cat
ion.M doeshav
eani
dent
it
yel
ement
,thei
dent
it
ymat
ri
x.

 (
e)LetRbeanyr
ing.Thent
hesetR[
x]ofal
lpol
ynomi
alsov
erRi
sar
ingwi
th
r
espectt
otheusualoper
ati
onsofaddi
ti
onandmul
ti
pli
cat
ionofpol
ynomi
als.
Mor
eov
er,
ifRi
sani
ntegr
aldomai
nthenR[
x]i
sal
soani
ntegr
aldomai
n.

Ri
ngHomomor
phi
sms
Amappi
ngff
rom ar
ingRi
ntoar
ingRi
scal
l
edar
inghomomor
phi
sm or
,si
mpl
y,
homomor
phi
sm i
f,f
orev
erya,
b∈R,

.in
f(
a+b)=f(
a)+f(
b),
f(ab)=f(
a)f(
b)

I
naddi
ti
on,
iffi
sone-
to-
oneandont
o,t
henfi
scal
l
edani
somor
phi
sm;andRandRar
e

ts
sai
dtobei
somor
phi
c,wr
it
tenR R.
en
ud

Pr
obl
em:
I(setofi
nteger
s)i
sagr
oupunder+i
.e.(
I,+)i
sagr
oup
st

Sol
uti
on:Weknowt
hatsum oft
woi
nteger
sisagai
nani
nteger
;ther
efor
e,addi
ti
oni
sa
tu

bi
nar
yoper
ati
ononI
.

(
1)Or
dinar
yaddi
ti
oni
sassoci
ati
vesi
ncea+(
b+c)=(
a+b)+cf
orev
erya,
b,∈I
.k

(
2)Zer
oisani
ntegersucht
hat0+a=a+0=af
orev
erya∈I
;i
dent
it
yexi
sti
nI.
w

(
3)Forev
erya∈I
,wehav
e–aIsucht
hata+(
-a)=(
-a)
+a=0i
.e.i
nver
seofev
ery
w

el
ementexi
sti
nI.
w

Asal
ltheaxi
omsofagr
oupar
esat
isf
iedbyel
ement
sofIunderaddi
ti
on,
ther
efor
e,i
tis
agr
oup.Fur
thera+b=b+af
orev
ery a,b∈ I
.HenceIi
scommut
ati
vegr
oupunder
addi
ti
on.

Theor
em:
IfGi
sagr
oup,
theni
thasuni
quei
dent
it
y.

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Pr
oof
:Leti
fpossi
bleeandfbet
woi
dent
it
yel
ement
sofG,

t
hene.
f=e(
taki
ngfasi
dent
it
yel
ement) (
1)and

e.
f=f(
taki
ngeasi
dent
it
yel
ement) (
2)

Fr
om (
1)and(
2)wegete=fi
.e.i
dent
it
yisuni
que.

Theor
em:I
nagr
oupi
nver
seofeachel
ementi
suni
que.

Pr
oof
:Leta∈Ghast
woi
nver
sebandcsay
,thenbydef
ini
ti
onofi
nver
se

a.
b=b.
a=e (
1)

.in
a.
c=c.
a=e (
2)

ts
Si
nceb.
(a.
c)=(
b.a)
.c(
byassoci
ati
vel
aw) (
3)

Al
sob.
(a.
c)=b.
e=b en (
4)and

(
b.a)
.c=e.
c=c (
5)
ud

By(
3),
(4)
,(
5)wegetb=c.i
.e.I
nver
seofanel
ementi
suni
quei
nG.
st

-1
Theor
em:Pr
ovet
hatf
oral
laandbi
nagr
oupGwehav
e(ab) =b-1a-1
tu

Pr
oof
:Let(
ab)
-1bei
nver
seofab,
thenbydef
ini
ti
onofi
nver
se
.k

-1 -1
(
ab)
.(ab) =(
ab) .
(ab)=e (
1)and
w

( .b-1a-1=a(
ab) bb-1)a-1=a.
e.a-1=e (
2)
w

b-1a-1( =b-1(
ab) a-1a)
.b=b-1e.
b=e (
3)
w

By(
2)and(
3)b-1a-1i
, sinv
erseofab.

-1
Nowusi
ng(
1),
(2)
,(3)weget(
ab) =b-1a-1.

Theor
em:Pr
ovet
hati
nter
sect
ionoft
wosubgr
oupsofagr
oupGi
sagai
nasubgr
oupof
G.

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Pr
oof
:LetHandKar
etwosubgr
oupsofagr
oupG.I
fH∩K={
e}t
henwehav
enot
hing
t
opr
ove,
sosupposet
hath,
k∈H∩K.Wewi
l
l hathk-1bel
showt ongst
oH∩K.

As h∈H∩K⇒ h∈Handh∈K.

Si
mil
arl
y k∈H∩K⇒ k∈Handk∈K.

Now h∈Handk∈H⇒ hk-1∈H(

Hisasubgr
oupofG)

Si
mil
arl
y hKandk∈K⇒ hk-1∈K(
Kisasubgr
oupofG)

Addi
ngbot
hresul
t hathk-1∈H∩K.
swegett

.in
Theor
em:Pr
ovet
hatuni
onoft
wosubgr
oupsofagr
oupGi
sagai
nasubgr
oupofGi
f
andonl
yifonei
scont
ainedi
ntheot
her
.

ts
Pr
oof
:SupposeHandKar
etwosubgr
oupsofagr
oupG.Letussupposet
hatH⊂Kor
K⊂Ht
henH∪Ki
sequalt
oHorK.ButHandKbot
har
en
esubgr
oupofG,
ther
efor
eH∪K=
HorKi
sal
soasubgr
oup.
ud

Conv
ersel
y,supposet
hatH∪Ki
sasubgr
oupofG.Letusassumet
hatHi
snotasubset
ofKandKi
snotasubsetofH.
st

NowHi
snotsubsetofK⇒ ∃h∈Hsucht
hath∉K (
1)
tu

Al
soKi
snotasubsetofH⇒ ∃k∈Ksucht
hatk∉H (
2)
.k

Butby(
1),
h∈H∪Kandby(
2),
k∈H∪Ksohk∈H∪K.Lethk=t
,ther
efor
et∈HorK.I
ft
w

bel
ongst
oHt
henk=h-
1tbel
ongst
oH,acont
radi
cti
on.Hencetdoesnotbel
ongt
oH.
w

Si
mil
arl
ywecanshowt
hattdoesnotbel
ongt
oK.I
tshowst
hattdoesnotbel
ongst
o
H∪K,
acont
radi
cti
onandhenceacont
radi
cti
ont
oourassumpt
iont
hatHi
snotasubset
w

ofKandKi
snotasubsetofH.Henceei
therHi
ssubsetofKorKi
ssubsetofH.

Pr
obl
em:
Findal
ll
eftcoset
sofV4={
I,(
12)
(34),
(13)
(24),
(14)
(23)
}inS4

Sol
uti
on:Fi
rstwewi
l
lseet
hatV4i
sagr
oup.Bei
ngasubsetofS4associ
ati
vel
aw i
s
f
oll
owedbyel
ement
sofV4.Al
soi
nver
seof(
12)
(34)i
s(12)
(34)as(
12)(
34)
.(12)
(3

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4)=I
.Si
mil
arl
yeachel
ementofV4i
sinv
erseofi
tsel
f.NowV4i
sfi
rstl
eftcosetwhi
chi
s
{
I,(
12)
(34)
,(13)
(24)
,(14)
(23)
}

Forsecondl
eftcosetwet
ake(
123)V4={
(123)I
,(123)
(12)
(34)
,(123)(
13)
(24)
,(1
23)
(14)
(23)
}={
(123)
,(243)
,(142)
,(134)
}

Fort
hir
dlef
tcosetwet
ake(
124)V4={
(124)I
,(124)
(12)
(34)
,(124)(
13)
(24)
,(12
4)
(14)
(23)
}={
(124)
,(234)
,(143)(
132)
}.

Forf
ort
h-l
eftcosetwet
ake(
1234)V4={
(1234)I
,(1234)
(12)
(34)
,(1234)(
13)
(2
4)
,(1234)
(14)
(23)
}={
(1234)
,(24)
,(1432)
,(13)
}

.in
Forf
if
thl
eftcosetwet
ake(
1243)V4=(
1243)I
,(1243)
(12)
(34)
,(1243)(
13)
(2
4)
,(1243)
(14)
(23)
}={
(1243)
,(23)
,(14)
,(1342)
}.

ts
Forsi
xthl
eftcosetwet
ake(
1324)V4={
(1324)I
,(1324)
(12)
(34)
,(1324)(
13)
(2
4)
,(1324)
(14)
(23)
}={
(1324),
(1423),
(34),
(12)
}
en
.

Her
eweseet
hatuni
onofal
llef
tcoset
sis{
I,(
12)
,(13)
,(14)
,(23)
,(24)
,(34)
,(123)
,
ud
(
124)
,(134)
,(234)
,(132)
,(142)
,(143)
,(243)
,(1234)
,(1243)
,(1324)
,(134
2)
,(1423)
,(1432)
,(12)
(34)
,(13)
(24)
,(14)
(23)
}whi
chi
sS4.
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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Lat
ti
ce
Alat
ti
ceisaposet(
L,≤)forwhi
cheverypai
r{a,b}∈ Lhasaleastupperbound
(
denot
edbya∨b)andagreat
estl
owerbound(
denotedbya∧b)
.LUB({a,
b})i
scall
ed
t
hej
oinofaandb.GLB(
{a,
b})i
scal
l
edt
hemeetofaandb.

.in
ts
en
Ex
ampl
e
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

Thi
sabov
efi
gur
eisal
att
icebecausef
orev
erypai
r{a,
b}∈L,
aGLBandaLUBexi
sts.

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 .in
ts
Thi
sabov
efi
gur
eisanotal
att
icebecauseGLB(
a,b)andLUB(
e,f
)doesnotexi
st.

Someot
herl
att
icesar
edi
scussedbel
ow−

BoundedLat
ti
ce
en
ud
Alat
ti
ceLbecomesaboundedl
att
icei
fithasagr
eat
estel
ement1andal
eastel
ement
0.
st

Compl
ement
edLat
ti
ce
Alat
ti
ceLbecomesacompl ementedl
att
iceifi
tisaboundedlatt
iceandifever
y
tu

el
ementi
nthel
att
icehasacomplement
.Anelementxhasacomplementx’i
f∃x(
x∧
x’
=0andx∨x’=1)
.k

Di
str
ibut
iveLat
ti
ce
w

I
fal at
ti
cesat
isf
iest
hef
oll
owi
ngt
wodi
str
ibut
epr
oper
ti
es,i
tiscal
l
edadi
str
ibut
ive
l
att
ice.
w
w

 a∨(
b∧c)=(
a∨b)∧(
a∨c)

 a∧(
b∨c)=(
a∧b)∨(
a∧c)
Modul
arLat
ti
ce
I
fal
att
icesat
isf
iest
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
oper
ty,
iti
scal
l
edmodul
arl
att
ice.

a∧(b∨(
a∧d)
)=(
a∧b)∨(
a∧d)

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Pr
ope
rti
esofLat
ti
ces
I
dempot
entPr
oper
ti
es

 a∨a=a

 a∧a=a

Absor
pti
onPr
oper
ti
es

 a∨(
a∧b)=a

 a∧(
a∨b)=a

.in
Commut
ati
vePr
oper
ti
es

 a∨b=b∨a

ts
 a∧b=b∧a

Associ
ati
vePr
oper
ti
es
en
ud
 a∨(
b∨c)=(
a∨b)∨c

 a∧(
b∧c)=(
a∧b)∧c
st

Dual
ofaLat
ti
ce
tu

Thedual
ofal
att
icei
sobt
ainedbyi
nter
changi
ngt
he‘
∨’and‘
∧’oper
ati
ons.

Ex
ampl
e
.k

Thedual
of[
a∨(
b∧c)
]is[
a∧(
b∨c)
]
w
w

Bool
eanEx
pre
ssi
ons&Func
ti
ons
w

Booleanalgebraisal
gebr
aofl ogi
c.Itdeal
swi t
hvari
ablesthatcanhavetwodi scr
ete
val
ues,0( False)and1( True);andoperationsthathav el ogi
calsi
gnif
icance.The
earl
i
estmet hodofmani pul
atingsymboliclogicwasi nventedbyGeor geBool eand
subsequentl
ycamet obeknownasBool eanAl gebr
a.

Bool
eanalgebr
ahasnow becomeani ndi
spensabl
etoolincomputersci
encef
ori
ts
wideappl
i
cabil
i
tyi
nswit
chingtheor
y,buil
dingbasi
celect
roni
cci
rcuit
sanddesi
gnof

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di
git
alcomput
ers.

Bool
eanFunc
ti
ons
ABooleanf
uncti
on i
saspecialki
ndofmat hemati
calfunct
ionf:Xn 
→ Xofdegr een,
wher
eX={ 0,1}isa 
Booleandomain 
andnisanon- negat
ivei
nteger
.Itdescr
ibesthe
wayhowtoderi
veBooleanout
putf
rom Bool
eaninput
s.

Example 
−Let,F(
A,B)=A’
B’.Thi
sisaf unct
ionofdegr
ee2from thesetofor
der
ed
pair
sofBool
eanvari
abl
est
otheset{0,
1}wher eF(
0,0)=1,
F(0,1)=0,F(1,
0)=0and
F(1,1)=0

Bool
eanEx
pre
ssi
ons

.in
A Bool eanexpression 
alwayspr oducesaBool eanvalue.A Booleanexpressi
oni s
composed ofa combi nation oft he Bool
ean const
ants( Tr
ue orFalse)
,Bool ean

ts
vari
ablesand logicalconnecti
v es.EachBooleanexpr essi
onr epr
esent
saBool ean
funct
ion. en
Exampl
e −AB’
CisaBool
eanexpr
essi
on
ud
Bool
eanI
dent
i
ti
es
Doubl
eCompl
ementLaw
st

~(
~A)=A
tu

Compl
ementLaw
A+~A=1(
ORFor
m)
.k

A·~A=0(
ANDFor
m)
w

I
dempot
entLaw
w

A+A=A(
ORFor
m)
w

A·A=A(
ANDFor
m)

I
dent
it
yLaw
A+0=A(
ORFor
m)

A·1=A(
ANDFor
m)

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Domi
nanceLaw
A+1=1(
ORFor
m)

A·0=0(
ANDFor
m)

Commut
ati
veLaw
A+B=B+A(
ORFor
m)

A·B=B·A(
ANDFor
m)

Associ
ati
veLaw
A+(
B+C)=(
A+B)+C(
ORFor
m)

.in
A·(
B·C)=(
A·B)·C(
ANDFor
m)

ts
Absor
pti
onLaw
A·(
A+B)=A

A+(
A·B)=A
en
ud
Si
mpl
i
ficat
ionLaw
A·(
~A+B)=A·B
st

A+(
~A·B)=A+B
tu

A·B+A·C+~B·C=A·B+~B·
C

Di
str
ibut
iveLaw
.k

A+(
B·C)=(
A+B)·(
A+C)
w

A·(
B+C)=(
A·B)+(
A·C)
w

De-
Mor
gan'
sLaw
w

~(
A·B)=~A+~B

~(
A+B)=~A·~B

Canoni
cal
For
ms
ForaBool
eanexpr
essi
ont
her
ear
etwoki
ndsofcanoni
cal
for
ms−

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  Thesum ofmi
nter
ms(
SOM)f
orm

 Thepr
oductofmaxt
erms(
POM)f
orm
TheSum ofMi
nter
ms(
SOM)orSum ofPr
oduct
s(SOP)f
orm
Aminter
mi saproductofal
lvar
iabl
estakenei
theri
nthei
rdirectorcompl
ement
ed
f
orm.AnyBooleanfunct
ioncanbeexpressedasasum ofi t
s1- mi
nter
msandthe
i
nver
seofthef
uncti
oncanbeexpr
essedasasum ofit
s0-
minter
ms.Hence,

F(
li
stofv
ari
abl
es)=∑(
li
stof1-
mint
ermi
ndi
ces)

and

.in
F’
(li
stofv
ari
abl
es)=∑(
li
stof0-
mint
ermi
ndi
ces)

A B C Mi
nter
m

ts
0 0 en 0 m0
ud
0 0 1 m1

0 1 0 m2
st
tu

0 1 1 m3
.k

1 0 0 m4
w

1 0 1 m5
w

1 1 0 m6
w

1 1 1 m7

Ex
ampl
e
Let
,F(
x,y
,z)=x’
y’z’
+xy
’z+xyz’
+xyz

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Or
,F(
x,y
,z)=m0 
+m5 
+m6 
+m7

Hence,

F(
x,y
,z)=∑(
0,5,
6,7)

Nowwewi
l
lfi
ndt
hecompl
ementofF(
x,y
,z)

F’
(x,
y,z)=x’
yz+x’
y’z+x’
yz’
+xy
’z’

Or
,F’
(x,
y,z)=m3 
+m1 
+m2 
+m4

Hence,

.in
F’
(x,
y,z)=∑(
3,1,
2,4)=∑(
1,2,
3,4)

ts
ThePr
oductofMaxt
erms(
POM)orPr
oductofSums(
POS)f
orm
Amaxtermisaddi
ti
onofall
vari
ablestakenei
therinthei
rdirectorcompl
ement
edform.
AnyBool
oft
hef
eanf
unct
i
unct
ioncanbeexpr
oncanbeexpr
essedasapr
essedasapr
en
oductofi
oductofits1-
t
s0-
maxter
maxter
msandt
ms.Hence,
heinv
erse
ud
F(
li
stofv
ari
abl
es)=π(
li
stof0-
maxt
ermi
ndi
ces)

and
st

F’
(l
istofv
ari
abl
es)=π(
li
stof1-
maxt
ermi
ndi
ces)
.
tu

A B C Maxt
erm
.k

0 0 0 M0
w
w

0 0 1 M1
w

0 1 0 M2

0 1 1 M3

1 0 0 M4

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 1 0 1 M5

1 1 0 M6

1 1 1 M7

Ex
ampl
e
Let
,F(
x,y
,z)=(
x+y
+z)•(
x+y
+z’
)•(
x+y
’+z)•(
x’+y
+z)

Or
,F(
x,y
,z)=M0 
•M1 
•M2 
•M4

.in
Hence,

F(
x,y
,z)=π(
0,1,
2,4)

ts
F’
'
(x,
y,z)=(
x+y
’+z’
)•(
x’+y
+z’
)•(
x’+y
’+z)•(
x’+y
’+z’
)

Or
,F(
x,y
,z)=M3 
•M5 
•M6 
•M7
en
ud
Hence,

F'
(x,
y,z)=π(
3,5,
6,7)
st

Logi
cGat
es
tu

Bool
eanf
unct
ionsar
eimpl
ement
edbyusi
ngl
ogi
cgat
es.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethel
ogi
c
gat
es−
.k

NOTGat
e
w
w

ANOTgat
einv
ert
sasi
ngl
ebi
tinputt
oasi
ngl
ebi
tofout
put
.
w

A ~A

0 1

1 0

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ANDGat
e

AnANDgat
eisal
ogi
cgat
ethatgi
vesahi
ghout
putonl
yifal
lit
sinput
sar
ehi
gh,
ot
her
wisei
tgi
vesl
owout
put
.Adot(
.)i
susedt
oshowt
heANDoper
ati
on.

A B A.
B

0 0 0

0 1 0

.in
1 0 0

ts
1 1 1
en
ORGat
e
ud

AnORgat
eisal
ogi
cgat
ethatgi
veshi
ghout
puti
fatl
eastoneoft
hei
nput
sishi
gh.A
st

pl
us(
+)i
susedt
oshowt
heORoperati
on.
tu

A B A+B
.k

0 0 0
w

0 1 1
w
w

1 0 1

1 1 1

NANDGat
e

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ANAND gateisalogi
cgatethatgi
vesal
ow out
putonl
yifal
lit
sinput
sar
ehi
gh,
ot
her
wisei
tgiv
eshi
ghoutput
.

A B ~(
A.B)

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

.in
1 1 0

ts
NORGat
e
en
AnNORgat
eisal
ogi
cgat
ethatgi
veshi
ghout
puti
fbot
hthei
nput
sar
elow,
other
wise
ud
i
tgi
vesl
owout
put
.

A B ~(
A+B)
st

0 0 0
tu
.k

0 1 0
w

1 0 0
w

1 1 0
w

XOR(
Excl
usi
veOR)Gat
e

AnEX-
NORgat
eisal
ogi
cgat
ethatgi
veshi
ghout
puti
fthei
nput
sar
esame,
other
wise
i
tgi
vesl
owout
put
.

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 A B A⊕B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

.in
X-
NOR(
Excl
usi
veNOR)Gat
e

ts
AnEX-
NORgat
eisal
ogi
cgat
ethatgi
veshi
ghout
puti
fthei
nput
sar
esame,
other
wise
i
tgi
vesl
owout
put
. en
A B AX-
NORB
ud

0 0 1
st

0 1 0
tu

1 0 0
.k
w

1 1 1
w
w

Si
mpl
i
fi
cat
i
onUs
ingAl
geb
rai
cFu
nct
i
ons
Inthi
sapproach,oneBooleanexpr
essi
oni
smi
nimi
zedi
ntoanequi
val
entexpr
essi
onby
apply
ingBooleanident
it
ies.

Pr
obl
em 1
Mi
nimi
zet
hef
oll
owi
ngBool
eanexpr
essi
onusi
ngBool
eani
dent
it
ies−

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F(
A,B,
C)=A’
B+BC’
+BC+AB’
C’

Sol
uti
on

Gi
ven,
 
F(A,
B,C)=A’
B+BC’
+BC+AB’
C’

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=A’
B+(
BC’
+BC’
)+BC+AB’
C’

[
Byaddi
ngBC’
,asi
tdoesnotchangeF]

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=A’
B+(
BC’
+BC)+(
BC’
+AB’
C’)

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=A’
B+B(
C’+C)+C’
(B+AB’
)

.in
Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=A’
B+B.
1+C’
(B+A)

ts
[(
C’+C)=1and(
B+AB’
)=(
B+A)
]

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=A’
B+B+C’
(B+A) en
[B.
1=B]
ud
Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=B(
A’+1)+C’
(B+A)
st

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=B.
1+C’
(B+A)

[(
A’+1)=1]
tu

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=B+C’
(B+A)
.k

[As,
B.1=B]
w

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=B+BC’
+AC’
w

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=B(
1+C’
)+AC’
w

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=B.
1+AC’

[
As,
(1+C’
)=1]

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=B+AC’

[
As,
B.1=B]

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so,
 
F(A,
B,C)=B+AC’
ist
hemi
nimi
zedf
orm.

Pr
obl
em 2
Mi
nimi
zet
hef
oll
owi
ngBool
eanexpr
essi
onusi
ngBool
eani
dent
it
ies−

F(
A,B,
C)=(
A+B)(
B+C)

Sol
uti
on

Gi
ven,
 
F(A,
B,C)=(
A+B)(
A+C)

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=A.
A+A.
C+B.
A+B.
C[Appl
yi
ngdi
str
ibut
iveRul
e]

.in
Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=A+A.
C+B.
A+B.
C[Appl
yi
ngI
dempot
entLaw]

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=A(
1+C)+B.
A+B.
C[Appl
yi
ngdi
str
ibut
iveLaw]

ts
Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=A+B.
A+B.
C[Appl
yi
ngdomi
nanceLaw]

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=(
A+1)
.A+B.
C[Appl
yi
ngdi
str
ibut
iv
en
eLaw]
ud
Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=1.
A+B.
C[Appl
yi
ngdomi
nanceLaw]

Or
, 
F(A,
B,C)=A+B.
C[Appl
yi
ngdomi
nanceLaw]
st

So,
 
F(A,
B,C)=A+BCi
sthemi
nimi
zedf
orm.
tu
.k
w
w
w

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Pr
opos
it
ional
Logi
c

The r ules of mat hemati

call ogic specify met hods of r easoning mathematical
statements.Gr eekphil
osopher,Ari
stotl
e,wast hepioneerofl ogicalreasoni
ng.Logical
reasoning pr ovi
des the theoret
icalbase f ormany ar eas of mat hematics and
consequent ly computerscience.Ithas many pr acti
calappl icat
ions i
n comput er
sciencel i
kedesi gnofcomput i
ngmachi nes,arti
ficiali
ntell
igence,defini
ti
onofdat a
struct
uresf orprogr
ammi nglanguageset c.

Proposi
ti
onalLogi
c isconcer
nedwit
hstat
ementst
owhi chthet
rut
hval
ues,“
true”and

.in
“f
alse”
,canbeassigned.Thepur
poseist
oanal
yzethesestat
ement
seit
heri
ndivi
duall
y
orinacompositemanner.

ts
Pr
opos
it
ional
Logi
c–De
fini
t
ion
Aproposi
ora t r
ut
ti
oni
hv
sacol
al
ue "f
l
ect
al
i
onofdecl
se"
.A pr
arat
oposit
i
i
vestat en
ement
onalconsist
sthathasei
s ofpr
t
oposi
herat
ti
r
ut
onalv
hv
ari
al
ue"
abl
t
rue”
es and
connecti
ves.Wedenot ethepr opositi
onalvariabl
esbycapi t
alletter
s(A,B,et
c).The
ud
connecti
vesconnectt
hepr opositi
onalvari
ables.

Someexampl
esofPr
oposi
ti
onsar
egi
venbel
ow−
st

 "
Mani
sMor
tal
",i
tret
urnst
rut
hval
ue“
TRUE”
tu

 "
12+9=3−2"
,itr
etur
nst
rut
hval
ue“
FALSE”
.k

Thef
oll
owi
ngi
snotaPr
oposi
ti
on−
w

 "
Aisl
esst
han2"
.Iti
sbecauseunl
esswegi
veaspeci
fi
cval
ueofA,
wecannotsaywhet
her
t
hest
atementi
str
ueorf
alse.
w

Conne
cti
ves
w

I
nproposit
ionallogi
cgener
all
yweusef i
veconnect
iveswhi
char
e−OR(
∨),AND(
∧),
Negat
ion/NOT( ¬),I
mpl
icat
ion/i
f-
then(
→) ,
Ifandonl
yif(
⇔).

OR(∨) −TheORoper
ati
onoftwoproposi
ti
onsAandB(
wri
tt
enasA∨B)i
str
uei
fat
l
eastanyoft
hepr
oposi
ti
onal
vari
abl
eAorBi str
ue.

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Thet
rut
htabl
eisasf
oll
ows−

A B A∨B

Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue

Tr
ue Fal
se Tr
ue

Fal
se Tr
ue Tr
ue

.in
Fal
se Fal
se Fal
se

ts
AND(∧) 
−TheANDoper ati
onoft
wopr
oposi
ti
onsAandB(
wri
tt
enasA∧B)i
str
uei
f
bot
htheproposi
ti
onal
var
iabl
eAandBi
str
ue.

Thet
rut
htabl
eisasf
oll
ows−
en
ud
A B A∧B
st

Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue
tu

Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se
.k

Fal
se Tr
ue Fal
se
w

Fal
se Fal
se Fal
se
w
w

Negati
on(¬)
 −Thenegati
onofapr
oposi
ti
onA(
wri
tt
enas¬A)i
sfal
sewhenAi
str
ue
andistr
uewhenAisfal
se.

Thet
rut
htabl
eisasf
oll
ows−

A ¬A

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 Tr
ue Fal
se

Fal
se Tr
ue

I
mplicat
ion/if
-t
hen(→)
 −Ani
mpl
i
cat
ionA→Bi
sFal
sei
fAi
str
ueandBi
sfal
se.The
r
estcasesaret
rue.

Thet
rut
htabl
eisasf
oll
ows−

A B A→ B

.in
Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue

ts
Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se

Fal
se Tr
ue
en Tr
ue
ud
Fal
se Fal
se Tr
ue
st

Ifandonl
yif(⇔) −A⇔Bisbi-
condi
ti
onall
ogi
calconnect
ivewhi
chi
str
uewhenpandq
arebot
hfalseorbot
har
etrue.
tu

Thet
rut
htabl
eisasf
oll
ows−
.k

A B A⇔ B
w
w

Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue
w

Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se

Fal
se Tr
ue Fal
se

Fal
se Fal
se Tr
ue

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Taut
ologi
es
A Taut
ologyi
saf
ormul
awhi
chi
sal
way
str
uef
orev
eryv
alueofi
tspr
oposi
ti
onal
v
ariabl
es.

Qn 
:Pr
ove[
(A→ B)∧A]→ Bi
sat
aut
ology

Thet
rut
htabl
eisasf
oll
ows−

A B A→ B (
A→ B)∧A [
(A→ B)∧A]→ B

Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue

.in
Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se Fal
se Tr
ue

ts
Fal
se Tr
ue Tr
ue Fal
se Tr
ue
en
Fal
se Fal
se Tr
ue Fal
se Tr
ue
ud

Aswecanseeev
eryv
alueof[
(A→ B)∧A]→ Bi
s“Tr
ue”
,iti
sat
aut
ology
.
st

Cont
radi
ct
ions
tu

ACont
radi
cti
oni
saf
ormul
awhi
chi
sal
way
sfal
sef
orev
eryv
alueofi
tspr
oposi
ti
onal
v
ari
abl
es.
.k

Qn:
 −Pr
ove(
A∨B)∧[
(¬A)∧(
¬B)
]isacont
radi
cti
on
w

Thet
rut
htabl
eisasf
oll
ows−
w

A B A∨B ¬A ¬B (
¬A)∧(
¬B) (
A∨B)∧[
(¬A)∧(
¬B)
]
w

Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se Fal
se Fal
se

Tr
ue Fal
se Tr
ue Fal
se Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se

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Fal
se Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se Fal
se

Fal
se Fal
se Fal
se Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue Fal
se

Aswecanseeev
eryv
alueof(
A∨B)∧[
(¬A)∧(
¬B)
]is“
Fal
se”
,iti
sacont
radi
cti
on.

Cont
i
nge
ncy
AConti
ngencyisaformul
awhichhasbot
hsomet
rueandsomef
alsev
aluesf
orev
ery
val
ueofi
tsproposi
ti
onalv
ari
abl
es.

Qn:
 −Pr
ove(
A∨B)∧(
¬A)acont
ingency

.in
Thet
rut
htabl
eisasf
oll
ows−

ts
A B A∨B ¬A (
A∨B)∧(
¬A)

Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue
en
Fal
se Fal
se
ud

Tr
ue Fal
se Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se
st

Fal
se Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue
tu

Fal
se Fal
se Fal
se Tr
ue Fal
se
.k

Aswecanseeev
eryv
alueof(
A ∨ B)∧ (
¬A)hasbot
h“Tr
ue”and“
Fal
se”
,iti
sa
w

cont
ingency
.
w

Pr
opos
it
ional
Equi
val
enc
es
w

Twost
atement
sXandYar
elogi
cal
l
yequi
val
enti
fanyoft
hef
oll
owi
ngt
wocondi
ti
ons
−

 Thet
rut
htabl
esofeachst
atementhav
ethesamet
rut
hval
ues.

 Thebi
-condi
ti
onal
stat
ementX⇔ Yi
sat
aut
ology
.

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Qn:
 −Pr
ove¬(
A∨B)and[
(¬A)∧(
¬B)
]ar
eequi
val
ent

Test
ingby1stmet
hod(
Mat
chi
ngt
rut
htabl
e)
A B A∨B ¬(
A∨B) ¬A ¬B [
(¬A)∧(
¬B)
]

Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se Fal
se Fal
se

Tr
ue Fal
se Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se Tr
ue Fal
se

Fal
se Tr
ue Tr
ue Fal
se Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se

.in
Fal
se Fal
se Fal
se Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue

ts
Here,wecanseethetrut
hval
uesof¬(
A∨B)and[
(¬A)∧(
¬B)
]ar
esame,hencet
he
st
atementsar
eequiv
alent
.
en
Test
ingby2ndmet
hod(
Bi-
condi
ti
onal
i
ty)
ud
A B ¬(
A∨B) [
(¬A)∧(
¬B)
] [
¬(A∨B)
]⇔ [
(¬A)∧(
¬B)
]
st

Tr
ue Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se Tr
ue
tu

Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se Fal
se Tr
ue
.k

Fal
se Tr
ue Fal
se Fal
se Tr
ue
w
w

Fal
se Fal
se Tr
ue Tr
ue Tr
ue
w

As[
¬(A∨B)
]⇔ [
(¬A)∧(
¬B)
]isat
aut
ology
,thest
atement
sar
eequi
val
ent
.

I
nve
rse
,Conv
ers
e,andCont
ra-
pos
it
iv
e
Acondi
ti
onal
stat
ementhast
wopar
ts− 
Hypot
hesi
s and 
Concl
usi
on.

Exampl
e ofCondi
ti
onalSt
atement
 −“
Ify
ou do y
ourhomewor
k,y
ou wi
l
lnotbe

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puni
shed.
”Here,"youdo yourhomewor
k"i
sthehy
pot
hesi
sand "
youwi
l
lnotbe
puni
shed"i
stheconcl
usi
on.

Inv erse − An i
nver
se oft he condi
ti
onalstat
ementi sthe negat
ion ofboththe
hy pothesisandtheconclusion.I
fthest
atementis“Ifp,t
henq”,theinver
sewil
lbe“I
f
notp, thennotq”
.Theinverseof“I
fyoudoyourhomewor k,youwil
lnotbepuni
shed”i
s
“Ify oudonotdoy ourhomewor k,y
ouwill
bepunished.”

Converse −Theconv erseofthecondit
ionalstat
ementiscomputedbyi nt
erchangi
ng
t
hehy pothesisandtheconclusi
on.Ift
hest at
ementis“I
fp,thenq”,t
heinversewil
lbe
“I
fq,t
  hen p”
.Theconv erseof"
Ifyoudoy ourhomework,youwil
lnotbepunished"i
s"I
f
youwillnotbepunished,youdonotdoy ourhomework”.

.in
Contr
a-positi
ve −Thecont r
a-posit
iveoft hecondi
ti
onali
scomput edbyi nt
erchanging

ts
thehypothesisandt heconclusionoft heinver
sestat
ement.Ifthestatementis“Ifp,
thenq”,t
hei nversewillbe“I
fnot q,t
  hennot p”
.TheContra-
posit
iveof"Ifyoudoy our
homewor k,youwi l
lnotbepunished”is"Ifyen
ouwil
lbepuni
shed,youdoy ourhomewor k”
.

Dual
i
tyPr
inc
ipl
e
ud
Dual
it
ypr i
nci
plesetstatest hatforanytr
uestatement
,thedualst
atementobtai
nedby
i
nter
changingunionsi ntointersect
ions(andvicever
sa)andinter
changingUniver
sal
st

seti
ntoNullset(andv i
cev ersa)isalsot
rue.I
fdualofanystat
ementisthestat
ement
i
tsel
f,i
tissai
d sel
f-dual 
statement.
tu

Exampl
e −Thedual
of(
A∩B)∪Ci
s(A∪B)∩C
.k

Todeducenewstat
ementsf
rom t
hest
atement
swhoset
rut
hthatweal
readyknow,
Rul
esofInf
erencear
eused.
w

Whatar
eRul
esofI
nfer
encef
or?
w

Mat
hemat
icall
ogi
cisof
tenusedf
orl
ogi
calpr
oof
s.Pr
oof
sar
eval
i
dar
gument
sthat
w

det
ermi
net
het
rut
hval
uesofmat
hemat
ical
stat
ement
s.

Anar
gumenti
sasequenceofst
atement
s.Thel
astst
atementi
stheconcl
usi
onandal
l
i
tspr
ecedi
ngst
atement
sar
ecal
l
edpr
emi
ses(
orhy
pot
hesi
s).Thesy
mbol“
∴”,(
read
t
her
efor
e)i
s pl
aced bef
oret
he concl
usi
on.A v
ali
d ar
gumenti
s one wher
ethe

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concl
usi
onf
oll
owsf
rom t
het
rut
hval
uesoft
hepr
emi
ses.

Rul
esofI
nfer
encepr
ovi
det
het
empl
atesorgui
del
i
nesf
orconst
ruct
ingv
ali
dar
gument
s
f
rom t
hest
atement
sthatweal
readyhav
e.

Addi
ti
on

I
fPi
sapr
emi
se,
wecanuseAddi
cti
onr
ulet
oder
iveP∨Q.

P
Q
-
--
--
--
--
-
∴P∨Q

.in
Exampl
e

ts
LetPbet
hepr
oposi
ti
on,
“Hest
udi
esv
eryhar
d”i
str
ue

Ther
pr
efor
oposi
e−"
t
ion“
Ei
t
hei
herhest
sav er
udiesv
ybadst
er
yhar
udent”
.
dOrhei
sven
er
ybadst
udent
."Her
eQ i
sthe

Conj
unct
ion
ud

I
fPandQar
etwopr
emi
ses,
wecanuseConj
unct
ionr
ulet
oder
iveP∧Q.
st

P
Q
tu

-
--
--
--
--
-
∴P∧Q
.k

Exampl
e
w

LetP−“
Hest
udi
esv
eryhar
d”
w

LetQ−“
Hei
sthebestboyi
nthecl
ass”
w

Ther
efor
e−"
Hest
udi
esv
eryhar
dandhei
sthebestboyi
nthecl
ass"

Si
mpl
i
ficat
ion

I
fP∧Qi
sapr
emi
se,
wecanuseSi
mpl
i
ficat
ionr
ulet
oder
iveP.

P∧Q
-
--
--
--
--
-

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 ∴P

Exampl
e

"
Hest
udi
esv
eryhar
dandhei
sthebestboyi
nthecl
ass"

Ther
efor
e−"
Hest
udi
esv
eryhar
d"

ModusPonens

I
fPandP→Qar
etwopr
emi
ses,
wecanuseModusPonenst
oder
iveQ.

P→Q
P

.in
-
--
---
--
--
∴Q

Exampl
e

ts
"
Ify
ouhav
eapasswor
d,t
heny
oucanl
ogont
ofacebook"

"
Youhav
eapasswor
d"
en
ud
Ther
efor
e−"
Youcanl
ogont
ofacebook"

ModusTol
lens
st

I
fP→Qand¬Qar
etwopr
emi
ses,
wecanuseModusTol
l
enst
oder
ive¬P.
tu

P→Q
¬Q
.k

-
--
---
--
--
∴¬P
w

Exampl
e
w

"
Ify
ouhav
eapasswor
d,t
heny
oucanl
ogont
ofacebook"
w

"
Youcannotl
ogont
ofacebook"

Ther
efor
e−"
Youdonothav
eapasswor
d"

Di
sjunct
iveSy
ll
ogi
sm

I
f¬PandP∨Qar
etwopr
emi
ses,
wecanuseDi
sjunct
iveSy
ll
ogi
sm t
oder
iveQ.

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 ¬P
P∨Q
-
--
--
--
--
-
∴Q

Exampl
e

"
Thei
cecr
eam i
snotv
ani
l
laf
lav
ored"

"
Thei
cecr
eam i
sei
therv
ani
l
laf
lav
oredorchocol
atef
lav
ored"

Ther
efor
e−"
Thei
cecr
eam i
schocol
atef
lav
ored”

Hy
pot
het
icalSy
ll
ogi
sm

.in
I
fP→QandQ→Rar
etwopr
emi
ses,
wecanuseHy
pot
het
ical
Syl
l
ogi
sm t
oder
iveP→R

ts
P→ Q
Q→ R
-
--
--
--
--
-
∴P→ R en
Exampl
e
ud
"
Ifi
trai
ns,
Ishal
lnotgot
oschool
”
st

"
IfIdon'
tgot
oschool
,Iwon'
tneedt
odohomewor
k"

Ther
efor
e−"
Ifi
trai
ns,
Iwon'
tneedt
odohomewor
k"
tu

Const
ruct
iveDi
lemma
.k

I
f(P→Q)∧( R→S)andP∨Rar
etwopr
emi
ses,wecanuseconst
ruct
ivedi
l
emmat
o
der
iveQ∨S.
w

(P→ Q)∧(R→ S)
w

P∨R
-
--
--
--
--
-
w

∴Q∨S

Exampl
e

“
Ifi
trai
ns,
Iwi
l
ltakeal
eav
e”

“
Ifi
tishotout
side,
Iwi
l
lgof
orashower
”

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“
Eit
heri
twi
l
lrai
nori
tishotout
side”

Ther
efor
e−"
Iwi
l
ltakeal
eav
eorIwi
l
lgof
orashower
"

Dest
ruct
iveDi
lemma

I
f(P→Q)∧(R→S)and¬Q∨¬Sar
etwopr
emi
ses,wecanusedest
ruct
ivedi
l
emmat
o
der
iveP∨R.

(
P→ Q)∧( R→ S)
¬Q∨¬S
-
---
--
--
--
∴P∨R

.in
Exampl
e“I
fitr
ains,
Iwi
l
ltakeal
eav
e”

“
Ifi
tishotout
side,
Iwi
l
lgof
orashower
”

ts
“
Eit
herIwi
l
lnott
akeal
eav
eorIwi
l
lnotgof
orashower
”

Ther
efor
e−"
Itr
ainsori
tishotout
side"
en
Questi
on:
ud
Whichoft
hef
oll
owi
ngar
epr
oposi
ti
ons?Gi
vet
het
rut
hval
ueoft
hepr
opo-
si
ti
ons.
st

a.2+3=7:
b.Jul
i
usCaesarwaspr
esi
dentoft
heUni
tedSt
ates.
tu

c.Whatt
imei
sit
?
d.Bequi
et!
.k

Sol
uti
on.
w

a.Apr
oposi
ti
onwi
tht
rut
hval
ue(
F).
w

b.Apr
oposi
ti
onwi
tht
rut
hval
ue(
F).
w

c.Notapr
oposi
ti
onsi
ncenot
rut
hval
uecanbeassi
gnedt
othi
sst
atement
.
d.Notapr
oposi
ti
on

Questi
on:
Whichoft
hef
oll
owi
ngar
epr
oposi
ti
ons?Gi
vet
het
rut
hval
ueoft
hepr
oposi
ti
ons.
a.Thedi
ff
erenceoft
wopr
imes.
b.2+2=4:

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c.Washi
ngt
onD.
C.i
sthecapi
tal
ofNewYor
k.
d.Howar
eyou?

Sol
uti
on.
a.Notapr
oposi
ti
on.
b.Apr
oposi
ti
onwi
tht
rut
hval
ue(
T).
c.Apr
oposi
ti
onwi
tht
rut
hval
ue(
F).

d.Notapr
oposi
ti
on.

Quest
ion:

.in
Consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
oposi
ti
ons:
p:
Todayi
sThur
sday
.

ts
q:
2+1=3:
r
:Ther
ei
Const
r
snopol
uctt
het
r
l
ut
ut
i
oni
ht
nNewJer
abl
sey
eof[ (
p
.
q)
] r
.
en
ud

Sol
uti
on.
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

Quest
ion:

Fi
ndt
henegat
ionoft
hepr
oposi
ti
onp:
-5<x<=0:

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Sol
uti
on.
Thenegat
ionofpi
sthepr
oposi
ti
on p:
x>0orx<=-
5
a.Const
ructt
het
rut
htabl
eoft
hepr
oposi
ti
on(
p q) ( p q)
:Det
ermi
ne
i
fthi
spr
oposi
ti
oni
sat
aut
ology
.
b.Showt
hatp pi
sat
aut
ology
.

.in
ts
en
ud
a.Showt
hat (
p q) p q:
b.Showt
hat (
p q) p q:
st

c.Showt
hat ( p) p:
a.andb.ar
eknownasDeMor
gan'
slaws
tu

a:
.k
w
w
w

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C:

.in
ts
en
ud

a:
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

b:

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 .in
ts
en
ud

c:
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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 .in
Exampl
esusi
ngRul
esofI
nfer
ence
Quest
ion:

ts
p
p q
sr
en
ud
r q
Ar
ri
veatt
heconcl
usi
on:
st

st
tu

St
ep Reason

1)p Pr
emi
se
.k

2)p q Pr
emi
se
w

3)q ModusPonens(
usi
ng1,
2)
w

4)r q Pr
emi
se

5)q r Cont
raposi
ti
vest
atementof4
w

6)r ModusPonenes(
usi
ng3,
5)

7)sr Pr
emi
se

8)s Di
sjunct
iveSy
ll
ogi
sm (
usi
ng6,
7)

9)st Di
sjunct
iveAmpl
i
ficat
ion(
usi
ng8)

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Quest
ion:

Wr i
tethe following ar gumentsin symbol
icform.(Assi
gn p,q,r ,etc.t
o si
mple
statementsandt hentr anslat
etheargumenti
ntomult
ipl
ecomplexstatement
susi
ngp,
qandr ..
.)Thenest abl
isht heval
idi
tyoft
heargumentorgi
veacounterexampl
etoshow
thatiti
sinval
id.

I
fIgetmyChr i
stmasbonusANDmyf r
iendsarefr
ee,Iwilltakearoadt r
ipwithmy
fri
ends..I
fmyfri
endsdon'tfi
ndajobaf
terChri
stmas,t
hent heywil
lbefree.Igotmy
Christ
masbonusandmyf ri
endsdi
dNOTf indajobafterChrist
mas.Therefor
e,Iwi
l
l
takearoadtr
ipwit
hmyf r
iends!

Sol
uti
on:

.in
Assi
gnt
hest
atement
sasf
oll
ows:

q="
Myf
ri
endsar
efr
ee.
"

ts
p="
IgetmyChr
ist
masbonus.
"

r="
Iwi
l
ltakear
oadt
ri
pwi
thmyf
ri
ends.
" en
s="
Myf
ri
endsf
indaj
obaf
terChr
ist
mas.
"
ud
Thear gument,
symbol
i
cal
l
yisasf ol
l
ows:
Premises:
(pq) r
st

s q
p
tu

s
Conclusion:
r
.k

Steps Reasons

1)s p Pr
emi
se
w

2)s Pr
emi
se
w

3)p ModusPonens(
usi
ng1,
2)
w

4)q Pr
emi
se

5)pq Conj
unct
ion

6)(
pq) r Pr
emi
se

7)r ModusPonens(
usi
ng5,
6)

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I
fIgetmypaycheckANDmymom l endsmet hecartoday,thenIwil
lgoshopping
(t
oday)
.IfIgettothebankbefore4:
00pm andi ti
saFriday,Igetmypaycheck.I
fmy
mom hasthedayoffofwork,shewil
llendmet hecar
.Fr
idayismymom’ sdayoffwork
anditj
ustsohappenst
hattodayisFr
iday.Ther
efor
e,Iwi
l
lgoshoppi ngt
oday

Sol
uti
on:

Assi
gnt
hest
atement
sasf
oll
ows:

p="
Igotmypay
check.
"

q="
Mymom l
endsmet
hecar
."

.in
r="
Iwi
l
lgoshoppi
ng.
"

s="
Igett
othebankbef
ore4pm.
"

ts
t="
Iti
sFr
iday
."

u="
Mymom hast
hedayof
fwor
k."
en
Symboli
cal
ly
,wehavet
hepr
emi
ses:
ud
pq r
st p
u q
st

t u
t
tu

Andtheconcl
usi
on:
.k

r
w

Thisi
sfal
sehowever
.At
tempti
ngtoprov
eitwi
llneverl
eadt
ot heconcl
usi
onr.Her
eisa
w

tr
uthassi
gnmentt
hatmakesal
lthepr
emisest
rue,butt
heconclusi
onfal
se:
w

p=F
q=T
r=F
s=F
t=T
u=T

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 .in
ts
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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Pr
edi
cat
eLogi
cdeal
swi
thpr
edi
cat
es,
whi
char
epr
oposi
ti
onscont
aini
ngv
ari
abl
es.

Pr
edi
cat
eLogi
c–Def
ini
ti
on

Apr
edi
cat
eisanexpr
essi
onofoneormor
evar
iabl
esdef
inedonsomespeci
fi
cdomai
n.
Apr
edi
cat
ewi
thv
ari
abl
escanbemadeapr
oposi
ti
onbyei
therassi
gni
ngav
aluet
othe
v
ari
abl
eorbyquant
if
yingt
hev
ari
abl
e.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeexampl
esofpr
edi
cat
es−

 LetE(
x,y
)denot
e"x=y
"

.in
 LetX(
a,b,
c)denot
e"a+b+c=0"
 LetM(
x,y
)denot
e"xi
smar
ri
edt
oy"

ts
Wel
lFor
medFor
mul
a

Wel
lFor
medFor
mul
a(wf
f)i
sapr
edi
cat
ehol
di
en
nganyoft
hef
oll
owi
ng−
ud
 Al
lpr
oposi
ti
onal
const
ant
sandpr
oposi
ti
onal
var
iabl
esar
ewf
fs
 I
fxi
sav
ari
abl
eandYi
sawf
f,∀xYand∃xYar
eal
sowf
f
st

 Tr
uthv
alueandf
alsev
aluesar
ewf
fs
 Eachat
omi
cfor
mul
aisawf
f
tu

 Al
lconnect
ivesconnect
ingwf
fsar
ewf
fs
.k

Quant
if
ier
s
w

Thev
ari
abl
eofpr
edi
cat
esi
squant
if
iedbyquant
if
ier
s.Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofquant
if
ier
w

i
npr
edi
cat
elogi
c−Uni
ver
sal
Quant
if
ierandExi
stent
ial
Quant
if
ier
.
w

Uni
ver
salQuant
if
ier

Uni
ver
sal
quant
if
ierst
atest
hatt
hest
atement
swi
thi
nit
sscopear
etr
uef
orev
eryv
alue
oft
hespeci
fi
cvar
iabl
e.I
tisdenot
edbyt
hesy
mbol
∀.

∀xP(
x)i
sreadasf
orev
eryv
alueofx,
P(x)i
str
ue.

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Exampl
e−"
Mani
smor
tal
"canbet
ransf
ormedi
ntot
hepr
oposi
ti
onal
for
m ∀xP(
x)
wher
eP(
x)i
sthepr
edi
cat
ewhi
chdenot
esxi
smor
tal
andt
heuni
ver
seofdi
scour
sei
s
al
lmen.

Exi
stent
ialQuant
if
ier

Exi
stent
ial
quant
if
ierst
atest
hatt
hest
atement
swi
thi
nit
sscopear
etr
uef
orsome
v
aluesoft
hespeci
fi
cvar
iabl
e.I
tisdenot
edbyt
hesy
mbol
∃.

∃xP(
x)i
sreadasf
orsomev
aluesofx,
P(x)i
str
ue.

.in
Exampl
e−"
Somepeopl
ear
edi
shonest
"canbet
ransf
ormedi
ntot
hepr
oposi
ti
onal
for
m
∃xP(
x)wher
eP(
x)i
sthepr
edi
cat
ewhi
chdenot
esxi
sdi
shonestandt
heuni
ver
seof

ts
di
scour
sei
ssomepeopl
e.

Nest
edQuant
if
ier
s en
I
fweuseaquant
if
iert
hatappear
swi
thi
nthescopeofanot
herquant
if
ier
,iti
scal
l
ed
ud

nest
edquant
if
ier
.
st

Exampl
e
tu

 ∀a∃bP(
x,y
)wher
eP(
a,b)denot
esa+b=0
 ∀a∀b∀cP(
a,b,
c)wher
eP(
a,b)denot
esa+(
b+c)=(
a+b)+c
.k

Not
e−∀a∃bP(
x,y
)≠∃a∀bP(
x,y
)
w
w

Giv
enapredi
cat
est at
ementp(n)
,wewouldli
ketodet
ermi
neifiti
suni
ver
sal
l
yTr
ue,
uni
ver
sal
l
yF alse,orTrue i
nsomei
nst
ancesandFal
seinother
s.
w

1.Auniv
ersal
lyaff
ir
mati
vepr
edi
cat n)
ep( ,
onet
hati
sTr
ue f
oral
lval
uesofi
ts
v
ari
abl
e(s)
,canbewri
tt
enas
∀n)
( ( n)
p( )

2.A uni
versall
y negat
ivepredi
cat
ep( n),onethati
sTr ue fornov al
-uesofi
ts
var
iabl
e(s)
;thati
s,Falseforallv
aluesofit
svari
abl
e(s)
,canbewr
it
tenas

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 ¬(
∃n)
( n)
p( )
or
∀n)
( (¬p(
n))

3.Apart
icul
araffi
rmat
ivepr
edi
cat n)
ep( ,
onet
hati
sTr
ue f
orsomev
aluesofi
ts
v
ari
abl
e(s)canbewri
tt
enas
∃n)
( ( n)
p( )

4.Apart
icul
arnegati
vepredi
cat n)
ep( ,
onet
hati
sFal
sef
orsomev
aluesofi
ts
v
ari
abl
e(s)canbewri
tt
enas
∃n)
( (¬p(
n))

.in
Pr
edi
cat
eLogi
cInf
erenceRul
es

ts
Ther
Uni
v
ear
er
efour
salI
nst
basi
ant
i
cr
at
i
ul
est
on:
I
or
f(
easonabout
∀x∈ U)
( x)
p( )i
quant
sTr
ue t
if
i
hen(
en
edst
at
∃c∈U)
(
ement
c)
p( )
s.
i
sTr
ue
Uni
ver
salGener
ali
sat
ion:I
fp(c)i
str
uef
oranar
bit
r yc∈Ut
ar he ∀x∈ U)
n( ( x)
p( )i
s
ud

t
rue
Exi
stent
ialI
nst
ant
iat
ion:I
f(∃x∈ U)
( x)
p( )i
sTr
ue,t c)i
henp( sTr
uef
orsomei
nst
ance
st

c
tu

Exi
stent
ialGener
ali
zat
ion:I c)i
fp( sTr
ue,t ∃x∈ U)
hen( ( x)
p( )i
sTr
ue
.k

Negat
ionofQuant
if
iedSt
atement
s
w

I
fsomet
hi
ngi
snotal
waysTr
ue,t
her
eisani
nst
ancewher
eiti
s
Fal
se.
w

¬[
(∀x∈X)
( x)
p( ]≡(
) ∃x∈X)
(¬p(
x))
w

I
fther
eisnotani
nst
ancewhensomet
hingTr
ue,t
hent
hesomet
hingi
sal
way
sFal
se.
¬[
(∃x∈X)
( x)
p( ]≡(
) ∀x∈X)
(¬p(
x))

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Answer
s

Quest
ion For
malRepr
esent
ati
on Negat
ions
1.Al
ldogsbar
k. dogsd,
dbar
ks ~( dogsd,
dbar
ks)
dogsd,
~(dbar
ks)
dogsd,
ddoesnotbark
Somedogsdonotbark.
2.Mostcarsar
e sc,
car cisi
nexpensi
v sc,
e ~( car cisi
nexpensi
ve)
i
nexpensi
ve.
sc,
car ~(ci
sinexpensi
ve)
sc,
car cisnotinexpensi
ve
Nocarisi
nexpensi
ve.

.in
3 EverydayIbr
ingl
uncht
o days,
Ibr
ingl
uncht
o ~( day
s,Ibr
ingl
uncht
o
work. work wor
k)

ts
day
s,~(
Ibr
ingl
uncht
o
work)
en day
work
s,Idonotbri
nglunchto

Someday sIdon'
tbr
inglunch
ud
towork.
4 Cheat
ersnev
erpr
osper
. cheat
ersc,
cnever ~( cheat
ersc,
cnever
pr
ospers pr
osper
s)
st

cheat
ersc,
~(cnever
pr
osper
s)
tu

cheat
ersc,
cpr
osper
s
Somecheater
spr
osper
.
.k

5.Somepeopl
ear
ebor
n ep,
peopl pisbor
n ep,
~( peopl pisbor
nlucky
)
l
ucky
. l
ucky
w

ep,
peopl ~(pi
sbor
nlucky
)
ep,
peopl pisnotbor
n
w

l
ucky
Nooneisbor
nlucky.
w

Pr
obl
emsonPr
edi
cat
eLogi
c
1.Usemat
hemat
ical
not
ati
ont
owr
it
ethepr
edi
cat
e“Theweakcannev
erf
orgi
ve,
”that
i
sat
tr
ibut
edt
oMahat
maGandhi
,
Answer
:Lett
hedomai
nbeP,
theset
ofal
lpeopl
e, etp∈ Pr
andl epr
esentaper
son.

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 LetW(p)bet
hepr
edi
cat
e“pi
sweak”andl p)bet
etF( hepr
edi
cat
e“pf
orgi
ves.
”
Gandhi
’
sst
at sW(p)→ ¬F(
ementi p).
2.Thepr
edi
cat
est
atement
sbel
ow comef
rom (
Car
rol
l
,1958)
.Wr
it
ethem usi
ng
mat
hemat
ical
not
ati
on.
(
a)NoFr
enchmenl
i
kepl
umpuddi
ng.
Answer
:(∀p∈ P)
(F(p)→ ¬LP(
p))
,wher p)i
eF( sthepr
edi
cat
e“pi
saFr
echman”
p)i
andLP( sthe
pr
edi
cat
e“pl
i
kespl
umpuddi
ng.Anequi
val
entst
atementi
s(∀p∈ P)
(LP(p)→
p)
F( )
.

.in
(
b)Al
lEngl
i
shmenl
i
kepl
umpuddi
ng.
Answer
:(∀p∈P)
(E(p)→ LP(
p))
.

ts
(
c)Somet
hinper
sonsar
enotcheer
ful
.
Answer
:(∃p∈P)
(T(p)∧¬C(
p))
.

(
d)Al
lpi
gsar
efat
.
en
Answer
:(∀p∈PI
G)(
Fat
(p)
).
ud
(
e)Somel
essonsar
edi
ff
icul
t.
Answer
:(∃l
∈L)
( l
D())
.
st

(
f)Al
lcl
everpeopl
ear
epopul
ar.
tu

Answer
:(∀p∈P)
(C(p)→ P(
p))
.

(
g)Someheal
thypeopl
ear
efat
.
.k

Answer
:(∃p∈P)
( p)∧Fat
H( (p)
).
w

3.Whi
choft
hest
atement
sbel
owar
eTr
ue andwhi
char
eFal
se?
w

n2 >0)
w

( ∀n∈N)
a)( (
Answer
:Thi
sisFal
se;i
tfai
l
stohol
dfor0∈N.

( ∃n∈N)
b)( (n2 >0)
Answer
:Thi
sisTr
ue;i
thol orn=1.
dsf

( ∀n∈N)
c)( (n2 ≤0)

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 Answer
:Thi
sisFal
se;i
tfai
l
stohol
dfor1∈N.

( ∃n∈N)
d)( (n2 ≤0)
Answer
:Thi
sisTr
ue;i
thol orn=0.
dsf

x)bet
4.Letp( hest
atementx2 =x+1ov
ert
hedomai
nofr
ealnumber
s.Whati
s
t
het
rut
hval
ueoft
hef
oll
owi
ngst
atement
s.

(
a)p(
0)
Answer
:p(
0)i
sFal
se.
√
(
b)p(
(1+ 5)
/ 2)

.in
√
Answer
:p(
1+ 5)
/ 2)i
sTr
ue.

ts
( ∀x∈R)
c)( ( x)
p( )
Answer
:(∀x∈R)
( x)
p( )i
sFal
se. en
( ∀x∈R)
d)( (¬p(
x))
Answer
:(∀x∈R)
(¬p(
x))i
sFal
se.
ud
( ∃x∈R)
e)( ( x)
p( )
Answer
:(∃x∈R)
( x)
p( )i
sTr
ue.
st

(
f ∃x∈R)
)( (¬p(
x))
∃x∈R)¬p(
x)
tu

Answer
:( ( )i
sTr
ue.
5.Letcanf (p,t
ool )bet
hepr
oposi
ti
on “
You canf sonpatt
oolper ime t
.”Wr
it
e
.k

Abr
aham Li
ncol
n’
sfamousquot
ati
on
Youcanf
oolsomeoft
hepeopl
eal
loft
het
ime,andal
loft
hepeopl
esomeoft
het
ime,
w

butyoucannotf
oolal
loft
hepeopl
eal
loft
het
ime.
w
w

usi
ngt
hequant
if
ier
sov epandt
erpeopl imestandt
hecanf p,
ool
( t
)pr
edi
cat
e.
Answer ∃p)
: ( (∀t
)(canf ( p, t
ool )) ∧ ∀p)
( (∃t
)(canf ( p, t
ool )) ∧
¬(
∀p)
(∀t
)(canf p,
ool
( t
)).
.SupposeS(
6. n)i
sapr
edi
cat
eonnat
uralnumber
s,n,
andsuppose

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 ∀k∈N)
( (S(
k)→ S(
k+2)
).
hol
dsTr
ue,Ar
ethest
atement
sbel
ow al
way
sTr
ue,al
way
sFal
se,orsomet
imes
Tr
ue andsomet
imes
Fal
se?
•Consi
dert
hest
atement
∀n≤100)
( (S(
n))∧(
∀n>100)
(¬S(
n))

I
sital
way
sTr
ue,al
way
sFal
se,orsomet
imesTr
ue andsomet
imesFal
se?
Answer
:Int
hiscase,Si
sTr ornupt
ue f o100andFal
sef
rom 101on.SoS(
99)i
s

.in
ue,butS(
Tr 101)i
s
Fal
se hatS(
.Thatmeanst k)→ S(
k+2)f
ork=99.
Thi
scasei
simpossi
ble.

ts
•Consi
dert
hest
atement
S(
1)→ (
∀n)
(S(
2n+1)
)
I
sital
way
sTr
ue,al
way
sFal
se,orsomet
imesTr
en
ue andsomet
imesFal
se?
Answer
:Thi
sasser
ti
onsayst fS(
hati 1)hol henS(
ds,t n)hol
dsf lodd n.Thi
oral s
ud
casei
sal
way
sTr
ue.

•Consi
dert
hest
atement
st

∃n)
( (S(
2n)→(
∀n)
(S(
2n+2)
))
tu

I
sital
way
sTr
ue,al
way
sFal
se,orsomet
imesTr
ue andsomet
imesFal
se?
.k

Answer
:IfS(
n)i
sal
way
sTr
ue,t
hisasser
ti
onhol
ds.Sot
hiscasei
spossi
ble.I
f
S(
n)i
str
ueonl
yforev
enngr
eat
ert
han4,
(1)hol
ds,
butt
hisasser
ti
oni
sfal
se.
So
w

t
hiscasedoesnotal
way
shol
d.
w

•Consi
dert
hest
atement
w

∃n)
( (∃m >n)
(S(
2n)∧¬S(
2m)
)

I
sital
way
sTr
ue,al
way
sFal
se,orsomet
imesTr
ue andsomet
imesFal
se?
Answer
:Thi
sasser
ti hatS hol
onsayst dsf
orsomeev ,2n,butnotf
ennumber or
someot
herl
argerev ,2m.Howev
ennumber er fS(
,i 2n)hol yn— m
ds,wecanappl

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 t
imest udeS(
oconcl 2m)al
sohol
ds.Thi
scasei
simpossi
ble.
•Consi
dert
hest
atement
∃n)
( (S(
n))→(
∀n)
(∃m >n)
(S(
m))

I
sital
way
sTr
ue,al
way
sFal
se,orsomet
imesTr
ue and
somet
imesFal
se?
Answer
:Thi
sasser
ti
on sayst fS hol
hati orsomen,t
dsf henf
orev
erynumber
,
t
her
eisal
argernum-ber
,m,
f chSal
orwhi sohol
ds.Si
nce(
1)i
mpl
i
est
hati
fther
e
sonenf
i ch S(
orwhi n)hol
ds,t
her
ear
eani
nfi
nit
e,i
ncr
easi nofk’
ngchai sfor

.in
chS(
whi k)hol
ds,
thi
scasei
sal
way
str
ue.

Met
hodsofI
ndi
rectPr
oof
s:Cont
radi
cti
onandCont
raposi
ti
on

ts
Recal
lthati
nadi
rectpr
oofonest
art
swi
tht
hehy
pot
hesi
sofani
mpl
i
cat
ionp!qand
t
henpr
ovest
hatt
heconcl
usi
oni
str
ue.Anyot
hermet
hodofpr
en oofwi
l
lber
efer
redt
oas
ani
ndi
rectpr
oof
.Int
hissect
ionwest
udyt
womet
hodsofi
ndi
rectpr
oof
s,namel
y,t
he
pr
oofbycont
radi
cti
onandt
hepr
oofbycont
raposi
ti
ve.
ud
Proofbycont
radict
ion:Wewantt oshow thatpist
rue.Weassumei
tisnotand
ther
efor
e pistrueandthender
iveacont
radi
cti
on.
st

Questi
on:
2
I
fn isaneveni
ntegersoi
sn:
tu

Solut
ion:
.k

Supposethecont
rar
y.Thati
ssupposet
hatni
sodd.Thent
her
eisani
nteger
ksucht
hat
n=2k+1:I
nt scase,n2 =2(
hi 2k2 +2k)+1i
soddandt
hiscont
radi
ctst
heassumpt
ion
w

hatn2i
t sev
en.Hence,
nmustbeev
en
w

Quest
ion:
w

Thenumber 2i
sir
rat
ional
.

Solut
ion:
Supposenot
.Thati
s,supposet
hat 2i
srat
ional
.Thent
her
eexi
stt
woi
nteger
sm and

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nwi
thnocommondi
vi
sor
ssucht
hat 2=m/
n:Squar
ingbot
hsi
desoft
hisequal
i
ty

wef
i hat2n2 =m2:Thus,m2 i
ndt sev
en.I
fm i
sev
en.Thati
s,2di
vi
desm:Butt
henm =
2kf
orsomei
ntegerk.Taki
ngt
hesquar
ewef
i hat2n2=m2=4k2;
ndt t sn2=2k2:
hati Thi
s
say
sthatn2 i
sev
enandt
hen,ni
sev
en.Weconcl
udet
hat2di
vi
desbot
hm andnand

t
hiscont
radi
ctsourassumpt
iont
hatm andnhav
enocommondi
vi
sor
s.Hence, 2

mustbei
rr
ati
onal
.
Quest
ion:

Thesetofpr
imenumber
sisi
nfi
nit
e.

.in
Sol
uti
on:

ts
Supposenot
.Thati
s,supposet
hatt
hesetofpr
imenumber
sisi
nfi
nit
e.Thent
hese
pr
imenumber
scanbel
i
sted,
say
,p1;
p2;
...;
pn:
Now,
consi
dert
en hei
ntegerN=p1p2...
pn+1:Byt
heUni
queFact
ori
zat
ionTheor
em,Ncanbef
act
oredi
ntopr
imes.Thus,t
her
e
i
sapr
imenumberpisucht
hatpi
/N:Butsi
ncepi
/p1p2...pnwehav
epi
/(
N-p1p2...
ud
pn)=1;
acont
radi
cti
onsi
ncepi
>1
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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