557379

research-article2014
WMR0010.1177/0734242X14557379Waste Management & ResearchMoraes et al.

Review Article

Waste Management & Research

Review of the rice production cycle: By-

2014, Vol. 32(11) 1034­–1048
© The Author(s) 2014
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DOI: 10.1177/0734242X14557379

on rice husk combustion and ash recycling wmr.sagepub.com

Carlos AM Moraes1, Iara J Fernandes1, Daiane Calheiro2, Amanda G

Kieling2, Feliciane A Brehm1, Magali R Rigon1, Jorge A Berwanger
Filho1, Ivo AH Schneider3 and Eduardo Osorio3

Abstract
One of the consequences of industrial food production activities is the generation of high volumes of waste, whose disposal can be
problematic, since it occupies large spaces, and when poorly managed can pose environmental and health risks for the population. The
rice industry is an important activity and generates large quantities of waste. The main solid wastes generated in the rice production
cycle include straw, husk, ash, bran and broken rice. As such, the aim of this article is to present a review of this cycle, the waste
generated and the identification of opportunities to use them. Owing to impacts that can be minimised with the application of rice
husk ash as a by-product, this work is focused on the recycling of the main wastes. In order to achieve that, we performed theoretical
research about the rice production cycle and its wastes. The findings point to the existence of an environmentally suitable use for
all wastes from the rice production cycle. As rice, bran and broken rice have their main use in the food industry, the other wastes
are highly studied in order to find solutions instead of landfilling. Straw can be used for burning or animal feeding. The husk can be
used for poultry farming, composting or burning. In the case of burning, it has been used as biomass to power reactors to generate
thermal or electrical energy. This process generates rice husk ash, which shows potential to be used as a by-product in many different
applications, but not yet consolidated.

Keywords
Rice production cycle, solid wastes, by-products, recycling, rice husk ash

Introduction
One of the consequences of industrial food production activities
is the generation of high volumes of waste, whose disposal can be
problematic since it occupies large spaces, and when poorly man-
aged can pose environmental and health risks for the population.
According to Non-Hazardous Waste Management Hierarchy
from EPA (2013), the waste management hierarchy preferred
strategies, which emphasised first on reducing and reusing, sec-
ond on recycling the majority of wastes or composting, then on
energy recovery and finally on treatment and disposal. In Brazil,
in a similar scenario, an approved law states that waste ceases to
be defined as worthless material and takes on a new role as a by-
product. Thus, the final disposal in sanitary or industrial landfill
must be the last option, considered only when no other means of
the world rice production is located in Asia, while Brazil is the
ninth largest producer and the largest outside of Asia (FAOSTAT,
2012). Rice processing can be summarised in steps: harvesting,
transport, reception and pre-cleaning, drying, storage, shelling,
milling/polishing and finally, selection and classification. The
main solid waste generated in this process includes: straw, husk,
ash, bran and broken rice.
Given the above, the aim of this article is to present the rice
production cycle, the waste generated during its processing, and
1CivilEngineering – Graduate Program, Universidade do Vale do Rio
dos Sinos (UNISINOS), Brazil
2Undergraduate Environmental Engineering, Universidade do Vale do

use is environmentally appropriate (BRASIL, 2010). Rio dos Sinos (UNISINOS), Brazil
3Metallurgical, Mine and Material Graduate Program, Universidade
In this context, the rice industry is an extremely important
Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Brazil
activity and generates large quantities of waste. Rice is the sec-
ond most widely grown crop in the world and produces the larg- Corresponding author:
est quantity of waste (Nakhshiniev et al. 2014). Rice has a global Carlos AM Moraes, Civil Engineering – Graduate Program,
Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos (UNISINOS), Av. Unisinos, 950,
demand of 477 million t yr−1 and average per capita consumption 93022-000 São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil.
of 57 kg yr−1 (EMBRAPA, 2005; FAO, 2012). Currently 90% of Email: cmoraes@unisinos.br

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Moraes et al. 1035
Table 1.  Area and yields of husked rice.
Production (million t) Harvested area (million ha)
1961/1963 2005/2007 2050 1961/1963
230 644 827 118
Source: Alexandratos and Bruinsma (2012).
the identification of the main opportunities for using and increas-
ing the value of these residues. In order to achieve that, we per-
formed theoretical research to find information about the
processes involved in the production, their residues, and alterna-
tive use and exploitation thereof. From the literature reviewed, a
diagram was drafted with the steps involved with the main inputs
and outputs, as well as survey, identification and analysis of the
potential use of the solid waste generated.
It is well known that for each tone of harvested rice paddy,
1.35 t of rice straw are generated in the field. In the industrial
process, each tone of processed paddy rice generates 200 kg of
rice husk, 100 kg of rice bran and 140 kg of broken rice. Once
husk has no nutritional value as bran or broken rice, it is pre-
sented today as an attractive source of biomass that can be used
in power generation. After the combustion of the organic matter
contained in rice husk, ash with little soil nutrients and a high
silica content remains. Whereas reducing generation of this type
of waste is technically rather limited, recycling is presented as
the best alternative to allocate this material. In this context, this
work emphasises the rice husk ash (RHA) and its various oppor-
tunities open to considering the environmental impacts that can
be minimised through the use of this waste as an alternative
material. Nevertheless, the complete rice production cycle must
also be pointed out, because all solid wastes must be considered
as part of the same intrinsic net.
Rice production cycle
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates indicate
that to meet the projected demand, considering that the world
population will increase by 2 billion people and surpass 9 billion
by 2050, global agricultural production must increase by 60%
based on 2005–2007 levels. Urbanisation and rising incomes are
the main drivers of expected changes in consumption patterns. In
recent decades, many emerging economies in Asia, North Africa
and Latin America have seen rapid and significant changes in
their levels and patterns of food consumption. Roots, tubers and
coarse grains were gradually replaced by increased consumption
of wheat, rice, sugar, vegetable oils, meat and dairy products
(FAO, 2013).
Wheat, rice and maize are the most widely grown crops in the
world. Also, out of the three major crops, rice is the most impor-
tant in terms of human consumption in low-income countries
(Pandey et al., 2010). It is the second most consumed food on the
planet, with a global demand of 477 million t y−1 and an average
per capita consumption of approximately 57 kg yr−1. Rice offers
excellent nutritional balance. It has dry matter comprised of
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Yield (t ha−1)
2005/2007 2050 1961/1963 2005/2007 2050
158 155 1.9 4.1 5.3
approximately 90% starch, and it is a major source of vitamins
and minerals, such as iron, zinc and potassium. It is an extremely
versatile crop, which adapts to different conditions of soil and
climate and is, therefore, considered the species with the greatest
potential to fight hunger in the world (EMBRAPA, 2005; FAO,
2012).
According to the FAO report on world agriculture for
2030/2050, the per capita consumption of rice has stabilised
after the end of 1980, with small decreases in countries of East
and South Asia, where the diet is based on rice, and small
increases in other regions of the world, including developed
countries, where the consumption of rice per capita should con-
tinue increasing. In developing countries, the per capita con-
sumption could drop from 64 to 57 kg yr−1 in 2050 (Alexandratos
and Bruinsma 2012). In China, for example, currently the per
capita consumption of rice exceeds 95 kg yr−1. In Brazil, rice is
still the main product of the staple diet, with a per capita con-
sumption that exceeds 41 kg yr−1 (EMBRAPA, 2005; Wailes
and Chavez, 2012).
Table 1 shows changes in rice planted areas, production and
yield in the world since 1961, with estimates for 2050. As Table
1 indicates, the production of rice has a projected growth until
2050, with almost the same harvested area, owing to an increase
in productivity. Lim et al. (2013) point out that, judging by the
steady increase in demand for rice and the estimates for the com-
ing years, the rice industry will remain growing in the coming
decades, being vital to the global economy and for the safety of
the food supply. Thus, it can be inferred that the increase in the
generation of waste from the rice cycle will also increase as much
by 2050. Therefore, the currently existing concern to seek alter-
natives for the waste generated in the rice cycle for this industry
to remain sustainable is critical.
Figure 1 shows, for the year 2012, the ten largest rice produc-
ers (China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Bangladesh,
Myanmar, the Philippines, Brazil and Pakistan). It is possible to
observe that 90% of the world production comes from Asia.
Brazil is the ninth largest producer, the largest outside of Asia,
and according to FAO statistics, harvested 11.4 million tonnes in
2012 (FAOSTAT, 2012).
Worldwide, the irrigated rice ecosystem accounts for about
half of the harvested rice area and contributes to three-quarters of
the world production. It is mainly concentrated in regions of
humid subtropical climate and in the tropics (Childs, 2004;
Maclean et al., 2002).
A typical rice milling process usually involves several steps,
with the main being harvest, drying, shelling and milling or pol-
ishing. The following describes briefly the stages of production
1036 Waste Management & Research 32(11)
Figure1.  Major world rice producers and quantity produced (million tonnes) in 2012.
Source: FAOSTAT (2012).
and processing of rice from the harvest (Lim et al., 2013; Pandey
et al., 2010; Saidelles et al., 2012).
•• Harvest: The aim is to ensure maximum grain yield, minimis-
ing grain loss and preventing quality deterioration. Rice straw
is generated in this step.
•• Transport, reception and pre-cleaning: Upon reaching the
conservation area, pre-cleaning must be performed in order to
separate contaminant materials.
•• Drying: Drying can be done naturally in the sun, forced, arti-
ficially or mechanically. After drying, the husked rice can be
stored safely for some time.
•• Storage: The rice can be stored in bags or in bulk in silos.
•• Shelling: It is the process of husk removal. In this process,
brown rice and rice husk are generated. Typically, the husks
are separated from the rice by aspiration.
•• Milling/polishing: This process consists of removing germ
and the starch-based film that surrounds the caryopsis of the
grain. This process generates the milled rice and rice husk
(germ and film removed from around the grain).
•• Sorting/classification: The selection process is the separation
of fragments and defected or broken grains. From this selec-
tion, rice is classified according to the type and length of the
grain, with whole rice and broken rice being generated. After
these processes, rice is ready to be packaged.
From the study of the processes involved in the processing of
rice, the diagram was prepared in Figure 2 that shows all the steps
involved with their inputs and outputs.
By-products and main applications
Rice is the second most widely grown crop in the world and pro-
duces the largest quantity of waste (Nakhshiniev et al., 2014).
Rice grain is made primarily of endosperm and embryo or germ.
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During the growth of rice, there is the formation of rice husk as a
coating or protective layer for grains and bran located between
the husk and the endosperm of the grain.
As it can be seen in the stages of the rice production process,
the main solid wastes generated are rice straw, husk, ash, bran
and broken rice. According to Pandey et al. (2010), the most
important by-product is husk, which represents about 20% of
paddy rice and rice straw mass. Bran and broken rice can be gen-
erated in different ratios, depending on the process and its effi-
ciency. Figure 3 illustrates the different steps and the main
products and wastes (potential by-products) from rice produc-
tion, considering the proportion of each one.
Lim et al. (2013) point out that one of the main challenges
facing the rice industry refers to the appropriate use or disposal of
by-products, especially in underdeveloped countries. The authors
also point out that, in most cases, the processing companies sell
their rice by-products at rock bottom prices. In the short term, the
sale of by-products is perhaps the easiest way for rice mills to
obtain enough income and reduce their environmental impact.
However, in the long run, it can be more profitable and more
environmentally suitable to invest in technology to convert by-
products into value-added products.
Rice straw
Main characteristics. Rice straw is separated from the grain
during the harvest. According to Kadam et al. (2000), straw is
about 50% of the dry weight of rice, with significant variation
from 40% to 60% according to the method of cultivation, field
conditions and harvesting technique. For every tonne of grain
harvested, about 1.35 tonnes of rice straw remains in the field.
Rice straw is a fibrous lignocellulosic material typical in most
agricultural waste. However, it is distinguished from most of
other residues owing to the high content of silicon dioxide –
called silica (SiO2). The ash content varies from 13% to 20%
depending upon the condition after the harvest. Ash typically
Moraes et al. 1037

Seeds
Water
Substrates, Farming GHG: CH4,
Fossil Fuels
fertilizers CO2
Agrochemicals Transportation Cleaning
Harvest Paddy rice reception process Impurities
Fossil Fuels
GHG: CO2
RICE Drying GHG: CO2 GHG: CO2
GHG: CO2
STRAW Power
RICE RICE HUSK
Shelling Burning
HUSK ASH

Brown rice Power

Power Milling RICE

process BRAN
Water

Milled rice

BROKEN
Power Sorting
RICE
Label
Products/Outputs Whole kernel
Emissions
Solid Waste
Inputs Packaging

Figure 2.  Diagram of the rice production process with inputs and outputs.
GHG: greenhouse gas.
Source: Developed by the authors (2014).

contains 75% SiO2, 10% K2O, 3% P2O5, 3% Fe2O3, 1.3% CaO
and small amounts of Mg and Na (Kadam et al., 2000). The com-
position of straw varies considerably with the seasons, regions
and plant species (Binod et al., 2010).
Rice straw is usually burned in the open, as a cheap way of
disposal and also to help prevent the spread of fungi in the field
(Kadam et al., 2000). In India, 23% of rice straw is left in the
field, or burned in the open. About 48% is burned in open fields
in Thailand and 95% in the Philippines (Pandey et al., 2010).
Although open-field burning is a convenient option, it generates
large amounts of greenhouse gases, such as CO, SOx, NOx and
particulate matter (Kadam et al., 2000). Chou et al. (2009) show
that burning straw, in addition to polluting the environment, can
also cause traffic accidents when the field is close to roads, owing
to the large amount of smoke generated.
Opportunities for rice straw.  Suramaythangkoor and Gheewala
(2008) point out that when well managed, rice straw can be a
valuable resource for energy generation, rather than being wasted
by open burning. Several studies suggest the use of rice straw as
a source of biomass for power generation. Biomass is a source of
clean and sustainable energy with potential for neutralising CO2.
In recent years, the use of biofuels for steam and energy genera-
tion has been of great interest as an alternative to fossil fuels
(Madhiyanon et al., 2010).
Gadde et al. (2009) evaluated the amount of rice straw gener-
ated and assessed its possible energy potential in three different
countries: India, Thailand and Philippines. The authors concluded
that the energetic potential from rice straw as a renewable fuel
could be around 312, 237 and 142 × 1015 J, respectively, for India,
Thailand and Philippines, considering 100% collect efficiency.
However, the researchers point out that the generation of energy
directly from straw can be complex, depending on factors such as
its low density, which creates considerable difficulties for trans-
portation and logistics. Furthermore, there are other complicated
factors associated to the its combustion, such as high ash content
and low ash melting point.
Several researches have also been conducted for preparing
biomass briquettes from rice straw. Chou et al. (2009) investi-
gated the preparation and characterisation of briquette fuel made
from rice straw and rice bran. The researchers demonstrated the
feasibility of developing a solid biomass fuel.
Another energy application is the manufacture of ethanol
from rice straw. Binod et al. (2010) explain that rice straw is a
very attractive lignocellulosic material for bioethanol produc-
tion because it is an abundant and renewable agro-waste, and
features high cellulose and hemicellulose content, which can
be easily hydrolysed into fermentable sugars. However, there
are some limitations for this application, owing to the presence
of high ash content and the need for pretreatment techniques.
Huang et al. (2013) investigated products, mechanism and kinet-
ics of rice straw pyrolysis. Park et al. (2014) elucidated that mechan-
ical, biological and thermochemical conversion technologies have
been developed for using biomass, and applied in industry for the
production of different types of energy, fuels and chemicals.
Another possible application for rice straw is animal feeding.
According to Schiere and Nell (1993), the potential use of rice

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1038 Waste Management & Research 32(11)

Figure 3.  Photographs of the different products obtained in the conversion of paddy rice with proportion of the by-products.
Source: Adapted from Buggenhout et al. (2013).

straw for animal feed is large in quantitative terms, but its con-
centration of digestible nutrients is low. Thus, the low nutrient
content of the straw directly limits its use for animal feeding.
There are several practical options to overcome this problem,
such as chemical treatment with ammonia or urea.
Considering the large amount of rice straw that is generated
during harvesting, its application can be possible if distributed into
different applications, part for power generation, part for ethanol
production or for animal feeding, depending on location of its gen-
eration and economical return associated to the application.
Rice husk
Main characteristics.  Rice husk is a coating or protective layer
formed during grain growth, with low density and high volume,
equivalent to about 20% of the grain’s weight and consists of four
structural, fibrous, spongy or cell layers (Houston, 1972, as cited
in Pouey, 2006).
The principal constituents are cellulose (50%), lignin (30%)
and inorganic residues (20%). The inorganic residue contains,
on average, 95% to 98% by weight of silica in the amorphous
hydrated form (Houston 1972, as cited in Pouey 2006). Rice
husk has a packing density of 122 kg m−³ and has typical dimen-
sions of 8–10 mm long, 2–3 mm wide and 0.2 mm thick (Fang
et al., 2004). This shell is a low cost raw material, usually con-
sidered difficult to reuse because of negative characteristics such
as abrasion, low nutritional properties, resistance to degradation
and large volume (Calheiro, 2011). Because of low nutritional
properties and high silica content, husk is unfit for animal feed
and cannot be used in feed production (Alfaro et al., 2013;
Almeida, 2010).

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Moraes et al. 1039
In Brazil, before the 1990s, almost all of this material was
used for crops and river banks. One of the problems related to the
allocation of rice husk is the high cost of transport, owing to the
high volume and low packing density, so that in many cases, husk
is still deposited irregularly around roads, in agricultural soil,
near bodies of water, increasing the potential for pollution caused
by this residue. Lim et al. (2012) point out that, owing to growing
concerns about the environment, the practice of random disposal
and open space burning has decreased and many alternative uses
of rice husk were explored and developed. With a very high calo-
rific value, rice husk has burning for power generation as one of
the main applications.
Opportunities for rice husk.  Husk is also mainly used as bio-
mass for power generation. Pandey et al. (2010) noted that, in
general, husk is more widely used than straw, because it is gener-
ated in the industrial process and does not have the same logistics
problems as rice straw.
The use of waste such as rice husk in power reactors for power
generation reduces the negative environmental impact caused by
the disposal of waste, and contributes to reducing dependence on
petroleum and to the use of renewable sources. The advantages of
using rice husk as fuel to generate steam and power, made a num-
ber of companies in southern Brazil operate small thermal power
plants using husk. Rice processing companies themselves are the
main consumers of husk as fuel for power generation and/or heat
for drying and parboiling cereal, replacing firewood (Kieling,
2009). The calorific value of rice husk is quite high, approxi-
mately 16.7 × 106 J kg−1 (Della et al., 2006).
In Brazil, according to the National Electric Energy Agency
– ANEEL (ANEEL, 2014), 484 plants are operating from bio-
mass burning, nine are powered exclusively by rice husk, with
installed capacity to generate 36.4 GW.
Thus, the heat and electricity generated can be used to meet
the demands of the mills and excess electricity can be exported
to the grid. In addition to that, other potential sources of energy
from rice husk include methane and hydrogen, generated
through biomass conversion processes. Ethanol is another
source of energy that can be generated from rice husk (Lim
et al., 2012).
As well as rice straw, rice husk can also be used as a potential
lignocellulosic agricultural material source for bioethanol pro-
duction (Lim et al., 2012). Prasara-A and Grant (2011) studied
and compared the use of rice husk for power generation and for
ethanol production through the life-cycle analysis tool, to deter-
mine the most environmentally friendly option. The results of the
study showed that the environmental benefits achieved through
the use of husk depend on which material rice husk is replacing.
Thus, the option of using rice husk to generate electricity shows
advantages over the option of using it for ethanol production. The
authors showed that the option to generate ethanol causes signifi-
cantly higher impacts of human toxicity, terrestrial and marine
acidification, and ecotoxicity than its conventional system, while
the option of electricity reduces the impact on those categories
(Prasara-A and Grant, 2011).
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Numerous studies have analysed the utilisation of biomass for
conversion of carbohydrates into organic chemicals. Suxia et al.
(2012) studied the optimisation of the conditions for furfural pro-
duction from rice husk. Potumarthi et al. (2013) studied biological
pretreatment of rice husk in order to improve the production of
reducing sugars. Bevilaqua et al. (2013) used rice husks for the
production of levulinic acid, a product with high added value,
which is used in tobacco and also in pharmaceutical industries.
This kind of utilisation is quite promising, however, it often
requires a great number of operations. It obtains relatively limited
yields and uses low amounts of husk compared with its generated
amount, even though the by-product has a higher aggregated
value, it does not solve the high generation problem.
Rice husk can also be used as poultry litter. Ávila et al. (2008)
studied a number of materials for this purpose and rice husk was
one of them. According to the study, husk is a promising material
for use as poultry litter because it provided greater weight gain
for animals, in addition to feed intake, feed conversion, higher
availability and greater productivity index. However, the authors
emphasise that the choice of any of the materials depends on
availability, quality, cost or purpose. Reusing is possible, feasible
and favoured by the climate in Brazil, which allows open aviar-
ies. The materials evaluated had, mostly, higher mineral values
than the wood shaving currently used.
Several researches studied the use of rice husk as a bulking
agent in composting (Chowdhury et al., 2014; Singh and
Kalamdhad, 2014). Orrico et al. (2012) evaluated the differences
between distinct types of litter material and their combinations in
the dynamics of degradation of the organic matter fractions and
the quality of the final compound. The treatments were estab-
lished according to material used as substrate for broiler litter,
such as rice husk, sugar cane bagasse and wood shaving. The
authors concluded that rice husk presents lowest degradation of
fibrous fraction compared with the other substrates. Because of
that, the alternative of using rice husk in composting is not indi-
cated by Orrico et al. (2012), unless it is mixed with other com-
posting material to degrade husk organic matter.
It is important to highlight that some studies (Bishnoi et al.,
2004; Guo et al., 2002; Krishnani et al., 2008) suggest the use of
rice husk to obtain activated charcoal, applying chemistry and
physics activation treatments with rice husk. However, although
the application presents satisfactory results, the cost for obtaining
such material is still very high.
Rice husk ash (RHA)
Main characteristics. RHA is the general term describing all
types of ash produced by burning rice husk. In practice, the prop-
erties of the ash vary considerably depending on the burning con-
ditions of the husk (Khalil, 2008). The structural form of the
silica, after the process of burning rice husk (amorphous and/or
crystalline), as well as its content in the ash, depend on both the
type of equipment and burning process applied (grate, fluidised
bed), as well as time and temperature (Ferro et al., 2007; Pouey,
2006).
1040 Waste Management & Research 32(11)

Table 2.  Chemical composition of RHA (%) obtained by different researchers.

Author Location Burning/treatment SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 K2O CaO Cl P2O5 MgO Na2O C FL
(RHA)
Vayghan Iran Controlled (700 °C)/ 94.4 0.03 0.25 1.69 1.01 0.09 0.36 0.37 1.25 – 1.72
et al. (2013) untreated
Vayghan Iran Controlled (700 °C)/acid 97.9 0.02 0.16 0.18 0.27 0.02 0.13 0.09 0.18 – 1.23
et al. (2013) leach
Feng et al. Japan Controlled (350–1100 °C)/ 92.4 0.3 0.4 2.54 0.7 0.11 0.51 0.3 0.07 – 2.31
(2004) untreated
Feng et al. Japan Controlled (350–1100 °C)/ 96.0 0.1 0.2 0.16 0.2 0.01 0.18 <0.1 0.03 – 2.65
(2004) acid leach
Ferro et al. Brazil Controlled (300–600 °C)/ 91.9 0.09 0.06 1.5 0.52 0.01 0.25 0.33 – – 4.8
(2007) untreated
Della et al. Brazil Controlled (700 °C)/ 94.9 0.39 0.26 0.94 0.54 – 0.74 0.9 0.25 – 0.85
(2006) untreated
Zhang et al. Canada Controlled/untreated 87.2 0.15 0.16 3.68 0.55 0.45 0.5 0.35 1.12 5.91 8.55
(1996)
Armesto Spain Fluidised bed (834 °C)/ 95.9 1.7 0.77 0.35 0.24 – 0.17 0.13 0.05 0.06 –
et al. (2002) untreated
Nehdi et al. Egypt Fluidised bed (750 °C)/ 94.6 0.3 0.3 1.3 0.4 – 0.3 0.3 1.3 1.0 1.8
(2003) untreated
Zain et al. Malaysia Fire – 30 min, O2 – 60 min 86.5 0.01 0.91 2.7 0.5 – 0.69 0.13 – 3.21 8.45
(2011) and cooling – 2 days
Calheiro Brazil Grill/untreated 76.4 – – 0.6 0.05 – 0.12 – – – 7.94
(2011)

FL: fire loss; RHA: rice husk ash.

Source: Developed by the authors (2014).

Disposing of this ash directly into the environment can be
extremely impactful. Owing to the presence of residual carbon
and high silica content, it can generate harmful contaminants,
such as soil acidification, accumulation of ash in river beds, as
well as changes in soil and water characteristics (Calheiro, 2011;
Foletto et al., 2005).
RHA is a lightweight, bulky and highly porous material with
a density of around 1800 kg m−³. It equates to approximately
20% of the husk mass and 4% of rice in husk (Pouey, 2006).
RHA consists, generally, of SiO2, C, K2O, P2O5, CaO and
minor amounts of Mg, Fe and Na (Armesto et al., 2002). Della
et al. (2002) emphasise that the trace elements most commonly
found in ashes are Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn, and that
differences in the composition may be owing to geographical fac-
tors, year of harvest, sample preparation and analysis methods.
The main impurities in RHA are K2O and Na2O, and their levels
are related to soil type and the amount of fertiliser used during the
process of plant growth (Cordeiro, 2009).
Table 2 shows the chemical analysis of the main elements pre-
sent in RHA obtained and/or used by several researchers, gener-
ated by different burning processes, and that have undergone [or
not] prior chemical treatment to remove contaminants.
Observing Table 2, it is verified that the composition and
characteristics of RHAs vary according to several factors, such as
the burning process, treatment and processing used, as well as
climate, variety, geographical location and origin of the rice husk
used, among others.
RHA obtained by Nehdi et al. (2003) and Armesto et al. (2002),
for example, through the use of a fluidised bed reactor, showed
lower levels of ignition and carbon loss and higher levels of silica
compared with other burning conditions. Moreover, in general,
ashes obtained by burning processes without temperature control
(Calheiro, 2011; Zain et al., 2011) have higher values of ignition loss
when compared with processes of controlled burning (Della et al.,
2006; Feng et al., 2004; Ferro et al., 2007; Vayghan et al., 2013).
Another relevant factor, such as processing by means of chem-
ical treatment, can be seen in some studies as those of Vayghan
et al. (2013), which demonstrated A higher content of SiO2, lower
carbon and lower concentration of alkali and other contaminants
after washing rice husks with hydrochloric acid (HCl) before
burning. The same can be noted in the study by Feng et al. (2004),
in which washing was performed with HCl in rice husk before the
burning process, thereby reducing the alkali, chlorine and other
contaminant concentration and increasing the content of SiO2.
RHA presents inert characteristics, which makes it a waste
with the potential to be transformed into a by-product, and there-
fore safe for recycling and reuse. According to Della et al. (2001),
several studies demonstrate the use of RHA in the preparation of
various materials and in various industries, such as glassmaking,
thermal insulation, pressed bricks, refractories, refractory aggre-
gates and construction applications.
Opportunities for RHA. Foletto et al. (2005) describe in their
work various technological alternatives to the use of RHA.
Among them, the authors point out the following.
•• Production of silicon carbide (SiC), where the RHA is a
low cost source for obtaining material that can be used as

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Moraes et al. 1041
reinforcement for the production of ceramic materials for
applications in semiconductor devices, among others.
•• Production of pure silica, which can be obtained from the
RHA by heat and chemical processes.
•• Use as polymer filler – RHA can be used as reinforcing filler
in natural rubber compounds, replacing other materials to
promote better mechanical properties, such as stress, hard-
ness, elongation and increased mass, thus providing a rubber
compound with better performance. Sun and Gong (2001)
emphasise that the use of RHA as a reinforcement material in
various polymers results in compounds with improved physi-
cal and thermal properties, moisture and processing resist-
ance, in addition to economic improvements.
•• Use as adsorbents – several studies suggest the use of RHA as
adsorbent material with satisfactory efficiency of adsorbate
removing (Kieling et al., 2009; Lakshmi et al., 2009; Manique
et al., 2012).
•• Use as a support for metal catalysts, for the preparation of
nickel-based catalysts, used in catalytic reactions such as
methanation of CO and CO2.
•• Synthesis of zeolites – RHA can be used as alternative source
of silicon in the preparation of zeolites, especially for adsorp-
tion applications.
•• Production of various types of silicates, such as mullite,
cordierite, reactive glycolate and tri(catecholate) silicate.
Use of RHA in civil construction. RHA presents the use of
already consolidated and established supplementary cementi-
tious material, for employment in civil construction. Various
researchers have studied the incorporation of RHA in concrete
and mortar or replacing Portland cement (Calheiro, 2011; Jamil
et al., 2013).
Considering the generation potential of the RHA and its char-
acteristics as a pozzolanic material, one of the industrial sectors
that would have the capacity to absorb the produced volume is
the Civil Construction Industry, in the production of cement and
concrete (Santos, 2006).
The mineral additions, in the form of pozzolanas, have already
been used for a long time with the aim of improving the quality
of concrete. This substitution is justified by the improvement of
the mechanical properties and the durability, associated with the
cost savings and the reduction in environmental impact (Silveira
and Dal Molin, 1995). Tiboni (2007) stresses that the economic
advantage comes from the reduction of the consumption of
clinker, which is the part of cement that most requires energy to
be produced (1450 °C).
According to Huntzinger and Eatmon (2009), approximately
5% of the global CO2 emissions are a result of the cement manu-
facturing process. One possibility to minimise the impacts gener-
ated by this sector is through the replacement of cement by
industrial wastes, which have pozzolanic properties and allow a
reduction in the costs of construction raw materials.
Saciloto (2005) stresses that the rice husk, when used prop-
erly, can become an important ally in the pursuit of sustainable
development, which may be used as an alternative and renewable
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source of energy. In addition, the ash generated in the combustion
process can be incorporated into the concrete, as pozzolana, in
partial replacement of cement.
Moraes et al. (2010) utilised the life-cycle analysis tool in
order to qualitatively compare the environmental performance
of coating mortar composed of cement, lime and sand with a
replacement of 0%, 5% and 10% in relation to the volume of
cement with RHA. The RHA was produced in a laboratory
under controlled conditions. Based on the interpretations of the
aspects and impact, it can be concluded that the higher the con-
tent of RHA incorporated in the mortar, the greater the possibil-
ity of a reduction of the more aggressive impacts to the
environment will be.
The pozzolanic effect of the RHA is given by the low state of
crystallinity of the material and the amount of silica it contains
(Silveira and Dal Molin, 1995). Mehta and Monteiro (1993) clas-
sify the microsilica and RHA as highly reactive pozzolanas and
the fly ash as a common pozzolana.
In this sense, many studies utilising RHA were developed in
the matrices of Portland cement, to check the technological per-
formance of the products obtained. According to Ferreira et al.
(1997), the addition of RHA influences many aspects of concrete.
Some are favoured by the physical effects associated with the
size of the particles, others by the pozzolanic reactions whose
reactivity is elevated owing to the high silica content associated
with the specific surface of the ash. This effect benefits the
aspects related with the mechanical resistance, as much as those
related with the durability.
Use RHA as an adsorbent. Another application for RHA that
has attracted the interest of researchers is its use as an adsorbent
material, since the commercial adsorbents, such as activated
charcoal, have a very high cost. Already completed studies show
that RHA presents good adsorbent properties and can be used for
the removal of metal ions (Srivastava et al., 2006, 2008) and of
dyes (Lakshmi et al., 2009; Mane et al., 2007), and also in the
filtration of arsenic present in water (Saha et al., 2001).
Adsorption is a unitary operation that involves the contact
between a fluid phase (adsorbate) and a solid (adsorbent). The
efficacy of an adsorbent is related to a series of factors, such as,
the type of interaction between the adsorbate and the adsorbent,
the surface area, the structure of the pores (size greater than the
size of the adsorbate molecule), size and particle size distribution
of the particles, surface chemistry (presence of specific func-
tional groups), temperature at which the process occurs, the acid-
ity of the solution and the contact time between the phases
(Cardoso, 2012).
The use of activated charcoal in the reduction of heavy metals,
in effluents, has shown good results, but it is considered an
expensive treatment. Thus, some unconventional materials with a
lower cost are being studied for the same function. Some exam-
ples are: RHA, activated alumina, sawdust, clarified sludge,
fibres from coconut shells, wood, etc. (Srivastava et al., 2008).
RHA can be insoluble in water, show good chemical stability,
have high durability and possess a granular and porous structure.
1042 Waste Management & Research 32(11)

Table 3.  Some relevant studies that use of RHA in metals adsorption.

Author Adsorbate Study Results

Srivastava et al. Cd(II) The characterisation of pore The ash was formed predominantly by
(2006) Zn(II) size of RHA waste, as well mesopores (80%), and that the maximum
Ni(II) as the performance of the adsorption occurred at pH 6
material without any treatment
in the adsorption of metals an
aqueous solution
Srivastava et al. Cd(II) The influence of temperature The adsorption of metals was favourably
(2008) Zn(II) on adsorbent behaviour influenced by the increase of temperature
Ni(II) and the isotherms that best indicating that the process is endothermic
characterised the performance
of the RHA
Bhattacharya et al. Zn(II) RHA after milling in the The removal of the metal was 95% in
(2006) adsorption 2 hours of contact time. For a pH 5, at
a temperature of 30 °C, with an initial
concentration of Zn (II) at 225 ppm and for
a dose of 10 g l−1 of RHA
Bhattacharya et al. Cr(VI) RHA after milling in the The maximum adsorption occurred at pH
(2008) adsorption 3. Using an initial concentration of Cr (VI)
of 50 mg l−1 and a dose of 10 g l−1 of RHA,
the adsorption was 93% in 2 h of contact
time
Naiya et al. (2009) Pb(II) RHA dried and the influence of The optimal condition for maximum
pH, initial concentration and removal of the metal (90%) occurred at pH
contact time in the adsorption 5, with a dosage of 5 g l−1 of adsorbent after
1 hour of contact time
Kieling (2009) Cr(VI) RHA samples were segregated It was obtained removal values between
that was carried out in a nest of 43% and 72% (time of 4 h), the highest
sieves (1.2 mm and 0.6 mm sieve value of removal being generated by
openings) placed in a shaker crushed and segregated RHA, and the
smallest by the sample without milling
(RHA size ≥1.2 mm)

RHA: rice husk ash.

Source: Developed by the authors (2014).

It can present itself as a good adsorbent material for the treatment
of heavy metals in effluents (Ngah and Hanafiah, 2008).
Some studies (Rozainee et al., 2008; Wang and Lin, 2008)
perform the calcination of rice husk in controlled conditions, and
then study the characteristics and efficiency of adsorption of the
ash produced. These studies follow the line of procedure devel-
opment for obtaining the adsorbent as a low cost raw material.
Xu et al. (2012), having already studied the reactivity and the
micro structure of the RHA, observed that the 600 °C itself has a
highly reactive RHA and that the structure is divided into three
layers (interior, exterior and interfacial) and two types of pores
(10 µm and 50 nm), the pores being the main reason for the large
surface area and high chemical reactivity.
More recently, research has studied the efficiency of adsorption
of RHA waste, in other words, from the burning of rice husk for the
production of energy in companies. It is understood that these stud-
ies are aimed at the use of an industrial waste in search of low cost
adsorbents. Some relevant studies are shown in Table 3.
According to the studies presented, it is observed that the RHA
has properties that justify its use as an adsorbent. However, the
adsorption process is only efficient when the process parameters
are adjusted to guarantee the removal of the adsorbate in the study.
Use of RHA in polymers. Another interesting opportunity for
exploiting is the use of RHA as a reinforcement agent for poly-
mers. Researchers have begun to carry out studies on the use of
RHA as reinforcement in rubbers since the 1970s. The RHA,
used as reinforcement fillers in polymers, enables better physical,
thermal properties, better resistance to moisture and processing,
as well as savings in the process (Sun and Gong, 2001).
Sun and Gong (2001) reported that the burning conditions are
very important for the use of RHA in polymeric materials. The
RHA must not contain large amounts of carbon, but the use of
high temperatures or long residence times can result in a crystal-
lised product, which is also not useful for most applications.
Chaudhary et al. (2004) also pointed out that, for use as a rein-
forcement agent, it may be necessary to modify the physics and
chemistry of the RHA, which already has an irregular shape and
a porous structure. Irregular particles may result in the obstruc-
tion of flow and low dimensional stability, which is necessary for
beneficiation by milling processes.
Costa et al. (2003) incorporated RHA in rubber and compared
it with two commercial reinforcement fillers, precipitated silica
and carbon black. The researchers observed that the addition of
RHA to the compositions of natural rubber, in comparison with

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Moraes et al. 1043
the other reinforcement fillers, significantly increased the speed
of reticulation and decreased the activation energy.
Ferro et al. (2007) studied the use of RHA as a structural rein-
forcement filler in order to replace talc in polyamide 6 and poly-
amide 6.6, which is the mineral load most used to give dimensional
stability to the injected parts. Using 30% of RHA or talc in com-
posites evaluated the mechanical properties and concluded that
RHA is an advantageous alternative to be used as reinforcement
filler, as its behaviour was already similar to talc and, in some
conditions, better.
Alfaro et al. (2013) evaluated the potential use of RHA as a
reinforcement filler in polypropylene composite also comparing
it with talc. For this reason, producing composites using 20%
RHA and composites with 20% talc they concluded that the prop-
erties of composites with RHA were lower than those obtained
using talc. The hardness of the composite increased and impact
resistance decreased, as did traction. Thus, the authors concluded
that, despite the composites containing 20% RHA having pre-
sented lower results, RHA could be used as reinforcement filler
for less noble uses of polypropylene. As Sun and Gong (2001)
pointed out in their review, RHA can be efficiently used as filler
in polymers depending on the application. Compared with
composites filled with commercial fumed silica, RHA polymer
composites generally have better impact properties but lower ten-
sile and flexural strengths.
The fillers or reinforcing agents are used in the production of
composites with the aim of providing better dimensional stabil-
ity, improved mechanical properties or electric resistance, ther-
mal stability, among others, and reducing the limitations of
polymers, such as low stiffness and low mechanical strength. The
utilisation of RHA has been mostly studied in thermoplastics and
rubbers. For these composites, several studies show technical
feasibility of substitution, thus creating economic and environ-
mental benefits, mainly owing to substitution of raw material
such as silica, talc or carbon black.
RHA as a raw material for silicon compounds. The studies
focused on the use of RHA also govern the obtaining of silicon
(Si) compounds, to be used in semiconductors, such as, for exam-
ple, in photovoltaic cells. Existing processes for the manufacture
of these cells use semiconductors containing silicon with a very
high level of purity. These have a high production cost, because
they are complex and require high energy consumption, besides
the extraction of non-renewable natural resources (Foletto et al.,
2005; Larbi et al., 2011; Sun and Gong, 2001). Therefore, seek-
ing new sources of silicon like RHA with a more attractive pro-
duction cost is of utmost importance.
When Silicon is brought to temperatures of between 2000 °C
and 2600 °C, in the presence of carbon, it causes the formation of a
compound called silicon carbide (SiC). Owing to its very peculiar
electronic structure, silicon is extremely important in the electron-
ics industry as a semiconductor. This process forms semiconductor
materials, which are the basic materials in the construction of com-
puter chips, transistors, diodes, special silicon switches and several
other components of electronic circuits (Niyomwas, 2009).
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Silicon carbide has a very high hardness, high thermal con-
ductivity, good resistance to thermal shock, high melting point,
low thermal expansion coefficient, good oxidation resistance and
good resistance to attacks by acids and bases (Sun and Gong,
2001). RHA, when crushed, has an elevated surface area, which
allows for very close contact between the carbon and silica (both
in amorphous forms). It is possible to form SiC at relatively low
temperatures, around 1000 °C. Thus, the RHA presents itself as
one of the most promising and economical materials for the pro-
duction of SiC (Larbi et al., 2011; Sun and Gong, 2001).
Nowadays, solar cells are fabricated using silicon-based semi-
conductors. As the level of purity of solar grade silicon is consid-
erably lower than that of high-grade silicon semiconductors, the
cost of manufacturing solar cells can be reduced with studies of
new, low-processing-cost materials (Larbi et al., 2011). Therefore,
efforts throughout the world are directed towards the develop-
ment of a low cost, high volume and commercially viable process
for the production of ultrapure silicon to be used in solar cells.
The preparation of pure silicon, from RHA, is one such study.
RHA has low impurity and little variation in its composition
and has low concentrations (10–20 ppm) of aluminium and iron,
two main impurities in raw materials used to prepare conven-
tional metallurgical silicon. The levels of the main impurities
(Ca, K, Mg, and Mn) in RHA can be reduced from about 100 to
around 20 ppm by leaching with HCl (Sun and Gong, 2001).
As mentioned before, obtaining high-purity silicon is expense.
Thus, the development of methodologies that use recyclable
materials for this purpose is very important. Studies have indi-
cated the potential of RHA, however, further researches must be
carried out to purify it.
Rice bran
Main characteristics.  Rice bran is the part between the husk and
the endosperm of the grain, removed during the polishing process
of rice. The bran represents 10% of the mass of a grain of rice in
the husk, and has an oil content that varies between 15%–20%
(Rukmini, 1988). The bran is highly nutritious owing to the pres-
ence of lipids, proteins, mineral salts and vitamins. The composi-
tion of rice bran varies according to the type of rice, the climatic
conditions and the rice processing method (Grist, 1985 cited in
Amarasinghe and Gangodavilage, 2004).
Moongngarm et al. (2012) analysed the chemical composi-
tion, phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of rice bran in dif-
ferent cultivars of rice purchased from mills in the local province
of Mahasarakham, Thailand. The results obtained by researchers
are summarised in Table 4.
In agreement with Lim et al. (2013), traditionally the rice bran
has been used as animal feed. Because of the high oil content, it
can also be used for the extraction of this component. Fabian
et al. (2011) emphasises that the rice bran is a by-product of pro-
cessing undervalued rice. It is not usually consumed as food
because of the high fibre content and possible contamination
with the husk (Luh, 1991 cited in Fabian et al., 2011). Another
limiting factor is the rapid development of rancidity owing to free
1044 Waste Management & Research 32(11)
Table 4.  The chemical and phytochemical composition of rice bran (% of dry weight) of two different cultivars.
Rice bran compositions Khao dok mali 105 (non-waxy rice)
Yield (% of whole grain) 17.64
Fat 18.8
Protein 13.6
Carbohydrate 40.6
Fibre 12.4
Ash 10.6
Phenolic compounds (mg g−1) 1.57
Phytic acid (mg g−1) 50.68
γ-oryzanols (mg g−1) 3.5
α-tocopherol (μg g−1) 46.12
γ-tocopherol (mg g−1) 40.94
Source: Moongngarm et al. (2012).
fat acids generated because of the high lipolytic activity. The
development of techniques of stabilisation have led to the use of
a small percentage of rice bran for obtaining commercial food
products, but the majority of rice bran is still used directly as an
ingredient in animal feed or as fuel in boilers (Fabian et al.,
2011).
Opportunities for rice bran.  Rice bran is a natural source of oil,
protein, vitamins and antioxidants. Different methods, such as
solvent extraction, solid–liquid extraction, supercritical CO2,
among others, can be utilised for the treatment and extraction of
its useful compounds (Pourali et al., 2009).
Amarasinghe and Gangodavilage (2004) investigated the
extraction of oil from rice bran from various types of rice bran
available in Sri Lanka, using different parameters and methods.
The authors concluded that rice bran contains approximately
20% by weight of oil, consisting mainly of fatty linoleic, oleic
and palmitic acids. The most effective method of extraction was
solvent extraction. However, the rapid growth of the free fat acid
content reduces the quality of the oil and, therefore, stabilisation
of the bran is extremely important.
Lin et al. (2009) explains that, owing to the activity of lipases
present in the bran, the content of free fat acids in extracted oil is
much higher than in other edible oils. Therefore, 60%–70% of
rice bran oil production is not edible, in China for example, the
greater part of rice bran is used as cattle food.
The nutrition, pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries show
great interest in the rice bran oil, as a source of bioactive phyto-
chemicals. The non-saponifiable components of rice bran oil
mainly include tocopherols and tocotrienols (tocois or vitamin E)
and γ-orizanol, as well as other compounds that are found in
lower concentrations, such as lecithin and carotenoids (Lerma-
García et al., 2009).
Lunsin et al. (2012) evaluated the effects of adding oil to rice
bran in different concentrations in feed consumption, digestibil-
ity of nutrients, ruminal fermentation, milk production and com-
position of milk from dairy cows. The researchers found that the
increase in the oil concentration of rice bran decreased the con-
sumption of dry matter and nutrient digestibility.
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RD6 (waxy rice and white in colour)
19.51
16.96
12.07
42.54
11.77
10.78
1.96
48.12
1.52
41.36
37.97
Several studies (Gunawan et al., 2011; Kasim et al., 2009;
Zhang et al., 2013) have used rice bran oil for obtaining bio-
diesel. Zhang et al. (2013) used chlorosulphonic zirconia acid
(ZrO2-HClSO3) modified and a relatively low reaction tempera-
ture (120 °C) for rice bran oil conversion in crude biodiesel,
obtaining a conversion efficiency above 92%. Kasim et al. (2009)
studied the production of biodiesel from degummed rice bran and
rice bran oil, using methanol under supercritical condition.
After the extraction of the rice bran oil, there is another by-
product: Defatted rice bran. This by-product can be a waste prod-
uct from the production of biodiesel, which when used, has the
potential to reduce the cost of biodiesel production. After extract-
ing the oil, the defatted rice bran still contains important nutri-
ents, such as high-quality nutritional protein and nutraceutical
properties (Fabian et al., 2010).
Fabian et al. (2010) examined the precipitation of rice bran pro-
tein, using polysaccharides (alginate and carrageenan) with the
objective of obtaining a greater recovery of protein and a wider
industrial application. Both alginate and carrageenan, common
food ingredients, were effective in the precipitation of rice bran
protein, the precipitation using these polysaccharides being advan-
tageous owing to the greater quantity of protein that can be recov-
ered from the solution, as well as by using safe precipitating agents.
Fabian et al. (2011) have isolated starch from the defatted rice
bran. The rice starch is one of the more expensive starches, but it
is very useful owing to its unique characteristics. Based on the
results of the study, the authors concluded that defatted rice bran
can be a good source of starch suitable for applications in the
food and pharmaceutical industry.
Singh et al. (2005) used rice bran also as adsorbent for the
removal of Cr (VI), from wastewaters. The researchers evaluated
the effects of different variables and achieved a removal of Cr
(VI) of 99.4% at pH 2.0 and with an initial concentration of Cr
(VI) 200 mg L−1. Desorption studies found a complete desorption
of Cr (VI) at a pH of 9.5. However, despite the promising use of
rice bran as an adsorbent, considering the permanent increase of
the world population and a growing food demand, the possibili-
ties for utilisation of rice bran in the food industry tends to be a
better choice instead of its use as adsorbent, for instance.
Moraes et al. 1045

Table 5.  By-products generated during processing and main exploitation opportunities.

Stage Waste generated Main opportunities

Harvest Straw Fuel for direct burning, production of briquettes from biomass, animal feed, pyrolysis,
ethanol production, animal forage, compost.
Husking Husk Fuel for burning, ethanol production, production of blocks and panels, poultry,
compost.
Burning Ash Production of glass and refractory, production of Portland cement and aggregate in
concrete and mortar, production of pure silicon or silica or silicon carbide, filler in
polymers, adsorbent, support of metal catalysts, synthesis of zeolites obtained from
hydrothermal, production of different types of silicates.
Milling Bran Extraction of proteins, starch extraction, animal feed, oil extraction, biodiesel
production, adsorbent.
Selection Broken rice Production of rice flour, extraction of starch, production of functional foods, production
of beer, animal feed, ethanol production, mixture with whole rice.

Source: Developed by the authors (2014).

Broken rice Limberger et al. (2008) modified, physically and chemically,

Main characteristics. During processing, rice undergoes
mechanical tensions, which cause some of the grains to break,
generating what is known as broken rice. This by-product is also
known as rice grits, which is composed of broken and defective
grains. One of the main challenges for the rice industry is to mini-
mise the amount of broken rice and rice grits (Buggenhout et al.,
2013).
The amount of broken rice generated during the milling of
white rice is about 14%. Broken rice contains the same average
percentage composition of whole grain. During rice production,
broken rice can be mixed with the unbroken rice in specific pro-
portions, according to the legislation of each country. In addition,
broken rice presents several opportunities of recycling, such as
the production of rice flour, animal feeding or as an input for the
production of beer. Broken rice, such as whole grain, is rich in
starch, which is an important energy source for human consump-
tion (Lim et al., 2013; Limberger et al., 2008).
Opportunities for broken rice. Recent studies have demon-
strated that broken rice is an effective material for the fermenta-
tion of ethanol. Gohel and Duan (2012) studied a conventional
process for the production of ethanol from broken rice, achieving
positive results.
Li et al. (2014) investigated the use of broken rice for the pro-
duction of Chinese rice wine. The objective of this work was to
optimise the parameters of extrusion and concentration of the
starch present in rice to obtain the maximum yield of alcohol.
The alcoholic volume reached 18.3%, the extrusion enzyme
improved the growth of yeast and the production of alcohol dur-
ing the fermentation process. The recovery of fermentation and
efficiency of the processed rice wine were 38.07% and 94.66%,
respectively.
Several studies have been developed in order to use broken
rice in the food industry. Ferreira (2012) determined the effect of
the enzymatic hydrolysis of broken rice grain flour for the pro-
duction of modified flour, in order to develop a product similar to
gluten-free milky rice flour. The results shown were satisfactory,
enabling the use of an industrial waste product for human food.
starch from brewer’s rice, evaluating the efficiency of these mod-
ifications by means of rheological characteristics of native and
modified starch. It was observed that as much of the phosphating,
as the extrusion, changed the rheological characteristics of brew-
er’s native rice, expanding the use of this product in the food
industry.
The protein content in broken rice is about 6% to 8%, but
despite this low content, this protein is considered very valuable
because it is hypoallergenic, particularly healthy for human con-
sumption and highly nutritious compared with other cereals. Xia
et al. (2012) extracted protein from broken rice by disrupting
protein–starch agglomerates and obtained a high protein recov-
ery (about 82%) and purity (almost 88%).
Broken rice can also serve as an important raw material for the
production of lactic acid and other functional materials. Nakano
et al. (2012) used broken rice to produce lactic acid using
Lactobacillus delbrueckii.
Broken rice as well as rice bran should have their main use for
human consumption. Despite the legislation in many countries,
allowing specific mixing proportions of broken rice with unbro-
ken rice, there is still an excess of this by-product. Whereas bro-
ken rice has the same composition of rice, it can be used for
various applications of high value and quality, such as the extrac-
tion of proteins or starch.
Conclusions
The Waste Management Hierarchy from EPA (2013) discussed in
the introduction, emphasises first on reducing and reusing,
though except for the bran and broken rice, the other rice by-
products present recycling as the best alternative.
Table 5 was created from the diagram of the process presented
and the completed review. It presents the by-products generated
in the process and the most important exploitation opportunities
for each one.
Rice straw, owing to the large generated amount and to the
difficulties in handling, storage and logistics, is one of the most
problematic solid wastes from rice production cycle. As a result,

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1046 Waste Management & Research 32(11)
rice straw recycling should be distributed into different uses,
avoiding burning in open field.
The most important by-product from industrial process is
husk and there are many possibilities for its use. Recycling and
composting should receive priority in its management. However,
because of the global energy crisis and the search for alternative
sources of renewable energy, burning for energy purposes is a
more environmentally friendly form of destination and it is pre-
sented as the best alternative. Moreover, husk is more suitable for
burning when compared with straw destination.
The solid waste generated from husk burning, RHA, com-
posed primarily by silica, can be used as raw material in the prep-
aration of various materials in different industrial fields, such as
refractory and construction materials production, silica or silicon,
use as adsorbent and polymer filler. The main advantage of utili-
sation of this by-product as a recyclable material is that it pro-
motes the production of materials using smaller amounts of raw
materials extracted from the environment. At the same time, it
can replace high environmental impact raw materials, such as
activated charcoal, cement or pure silica.
Rice bran and broken rice should have their main use for
human consumption. Considering the increase of the world popu-
lation and the subsequent growing food demand, the utilisation
possibilities of these by-products in food industry and mainly to
produce important products such as protein, starch or oil, it may
represent an important role in the world present and future sce-
nario of food consumption.
The review showed evidence that the rice chain by-product
most studied currently in the world is the RHA owing to the num-
ber and scope of application opportunities. Depending on the
destination given to waste, it appears that the rice production
cycle can be considered as environmentally correct, given that
there is a proper final destination for its waste, and it can be used
as by-products in other processes. In addition, the planting of rice
and burning the husk for energy production can reduce emissions
of greenhouse gases and there is still a generation of energy.
Thus, if there is a proper final destination for rice straw and if the
RHA obtained from burning the husk is used for the manufacture
of new products, the productive cycle of rice is closed, making
the full exploitation of a raw material from ploughing possible,
since the bran and broken rice already has its destination in the
food industry.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge CAPES (Coordination of the Improvement
of Higher Education Personnel) and FAPERGS (Foundation for
Research Support of Rio Grande do Sul) for financial support and
scholarships for the researchers.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Funding
This research received grants from CNPq, CAPES and FAPERGS
funding agencies.
Downloaded from wmr.sagepub.com at UNISINOS UNIV VALE RIO SINOS on October 22, 2015
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