Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F.

Saeed

Heat Transfer by Conduction in Solids

1- Law of conservation of mass
2- Newton’s 2nd law of motion

These two laws are satisfied because we deal with a closed system. It needed to
satisfy only the 1st law of thermodynamics and usually no work is involved.

Conduction Heat Transfer:

Let us we have qx , qy , qz in the three directions By Taylor series expansion, neglecting
the high order terms:

𝜕 𝜕2
qx+dx = qx + (qx) dx+ (qx) dx2+.....
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕
qx+dx = qx + (qx) dx ... (1)
𝜕𝑥

𝜕
qy+dy = qy+ (qy) dy ... (2)
𝜕𝑦

𝜕
qz+dz = qz+ (qz) dz ... (3)
𝜕𝑧

qg= 𝑞̇ dx dy dz

𝑞̇ = the rate of which heat is generated per unit volume = Watt/m3

𝜕𝑇
Est= 𝜌 cp dx dy dz where
𝜕𝑡

Est= Stored energy

𝜌= density of material kg/m3

cp= specific heat J/kg.oC

𝜌 cp𝜕𝑇 = time rate of sensible energy per unit volume

𝜕𝑡

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Energy balance: qin+ qg- qout = Δ Est

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
(qx + qy +qz)- 𝑞̇ dx dy dz –[ (qx+ (qx) dx+ qy+ (qy) dy+ qz+ (qz) dz)]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑇
= 𝜌 cp dx dy dz
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑞𝑥 𝜕𝑞𝑦 𝜕𝑞𝑧 𝜕𝑇

(− dx- dy - dz)+ 𝑞̇ dx dy dz= 𝜌 cp dx dy dz ...(4)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

By Fourier Law;
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
qx= -k dy dz qy= -k dx dz qz= -k dx dy
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Substituting the equation of Fourier law in equation (4), and dividing by dx dy dz we

will get:
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
(k )+ (k )+ (k )+ 𝑞̇ = 𝜌 cp
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

This is called the 3-D general heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinate of
constant thermal conductivity;

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
+ + + 𝑞̇ /k = ... (5)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

Where; α = k/𝜌cp thermal diffusivity m2/s

Equation (5) reduces to the following forms:

1- Steady state with heat generation:

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
+𝜕𝑦 2 +𝜕𝑧 2 +𝑞̇ /k =0 ... (6)
𝜕𝑥 2

2- unsteady state without heat generation (𝒒̇ =0):

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
+ + = ... (7)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

3- Steady state without heat generation:

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
+ + =0 ... (8)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

4- In cylindrical coordinates:

𝜕2 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑟 2 + 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
+
𝑟2 𝜕ɸ 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2
+𝑞̇ /k =
𝛼 𝜕𝑡
... (9)

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
Or; (r )+ 2 + 2 +𝑞̇ /k = ... (10)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕ɸ 𝜕𝑦 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

5- In spherical coordinates:

1 𝜕2 (𝑟𝑇) 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
+ (sin ө )+ + 2 +𝑞̇ /k = ... (11)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ө 𝜕ө 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 2 𝜕ɸ2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ө 𝜕𝑦 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

One dimensional steady state situations

1- Steady State Heat Conduction in plane walls:

T=f(x)
𝑄 𝑑𝑇 𝑄
= -k ; is a constant where;
𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝐴

Q: heat transfer in watt = J/s

A: is the area, which is always normal to the direction of the heat flow
𝑑𝑇
: is the temperature gradient in the direction of the flow
𝑑𝑥

k : is the thermal conductivity of the material W/m.oC

𝑄 𝐿 𝑇2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =-k∫𝑇1 𝑑𝑇
𝐴 0
𝑄 𝑘
= (T1- T2) = Watt/m2
𝐴 𝐿

(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐 )
𝑸= 𝑳⁄ Equation of heat transfer
𝒌𝑨
𝐿
= is called thermal resistance = RT
𝑘𝐴

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

The temperature distribution, for one dimensional-steady state, without heat

generation and constant thermal conductivity, eq. (5) reduces to:

𝑑2 𝑇
=0 integrating twice
𝑑𝑥 2

T =C1 x+C2
B. C.; X=0 ;T=T1 then: C2 =T1
(T2 − T1 )
x=L ;T=T2 then: C1 =
𝐿

(𝐓− 𝐓𝟏 ) 𝑥
So; = equation of temperature distribution
(𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 ) 𝐿

2- For Composite wall:

(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐 ) 𝐿1
𝑸= 𝑳𝟏 (T1 –T2 )=Q* ... (1)
⁄𝒌 𝑨 𝑘 1𝐴
𝟏

(𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟑 ) 𝐿2
𝑸= 𝑳𝟐 (T2 –T3 )=Q* ... (2)
⁄𝒌 𝑨 𝑘 2𝐴
𝟐

(𝑻𝟑 −𝑻𝟒 ) 𝐿3
𝑸= 𝑳𝟑 (T3 –T4 )=Q* ... (3)
⁄𝒌 𝑨 𝑘 3𝐴
𝟑

Adding the above equations 1, 2 and 3:

(𝐓 𝟏 –𝐓 𝟒 )
Q= 𝑳𝟏 𝑳 𝑳
( + 𝟐 + 𝟑 )
𝒌 𝟏𝑨 𝒌 𝟐𝑨 𝒌 𝟑𝑨

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

- Electrical analogy for solving the conduction heat transfer problems:

Consider the heat flow through a slab which is the simplest case:
(T1 − T2 )
Q= 𝐿
𝑘𝐴

Comparing this equation with the equation for electric circuit:

𝑉1 −𝑉2
I= ; which shows that both are symmetrical.
𝑅

(T1-T2): is known as thermal potential.

𝐿
: is known as thermal resistance.
𝑘𝐴

Therefore, the heat flow problem can be represented as an electric circuit as follows:

Assuming (T1) is the temperature of the hot fluid.

(T4) is the temperature of the cold fluid.

Then;
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴
Q=A.hi.(T1-Ts1) = .(T1-T2) =…..= .(T3-T4) = A.ho.(Ts2-T4) , where;
𝐿 𝐿
𝟏 𝟏
and are inside and outside surface resistance.
𝑨 𝒉𝒊 𝑨 𝒉𝒐

𝐿
: is internal resistance of the wall.
𝐴𝐾

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

So the equivalent electric circuit is shown in previous figure:

𝟏
Ri= : inner surface resistance and A is cross sectional area
𝑨 𝒉𝒊

𝐿𝑎
Ra = ; Aa cross sectional area of wall A
𝐴𝑎 𝑘𝑎

𝐿𝑏
Rb = ; Ab cross sectional area of wall B
𝐴𝑏 𝑘𝑏

𝐿𝑐
Rc = ; Ac cross sectional area of wall C
𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑐

𝟏
Ro= ; is outside surface resistance
𝑨 𝒉𝒐

(𝐓𝟏 –𝐓  𝟒 )
Q=
( 𝑹𝒊 +𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒃 +𝑹𝒄 +𝑹𝒐 )

𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝑻𝟏− 𝑻 𝟒

Q= = 𝟏 𝐿𝑎 𝐿 𝐿 𝟏
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 + + 𝑏 + 𝑐 +
𝑨 𝒉𝒊 𝐴𝑎 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑏 𝑘𝑏 𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑐 𝑨 𝒉𝒐

The complicated problems can be solved easily by using the electrical analogy:

Q=U.A. (T1 - T4)

1 1 1 ∆𝑇
So, U= ;where 𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = = =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 .𝐴 𝑈.𝐴 (𝑹𝒊 +𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒕 +𝑹𝒅 +𝑹𝒐 ) 𝑞

U: is called overall heat transfer coefficient.

Composite walls may also be characterized

by series-parallel configurations, such as that
shown in the figure.

Although the heat flow is now

multidimensional, it is often reasonable to
assume one-dimensional conditions. Subject to this assumption, two different thermal
circuits may be used: For case (a), it is presumed that surfaces normal to the x-direction
are isothermal, whereas for case (b) it is assumed that surfaces parallel to the x-
direction are adiabatic. Different results are obtained for Rtot, and the corresponding
values of (q) bracket the actual heat transfer rate.

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

If we have a system like that in figure below, two-dimensional heat flow may result if
the thermal conductivities of materials B, C, and D differ by an appreciable amount.

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒂𝒍 ∆𝑻𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍

Since, q = = ∑ 𝑹𝒕𝒉
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆

1 1
Where; ∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ = [𝑅𝐴 + (1 )+ 𝑅𝐸 + (1 )]
⁄𝑅𝐵 + ⁄𝑅𝐶 +1⁄𝑅𝐷
1 ⁄𝑅𝐹 +1⁄𝑅𝐺

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Example (2.1):
Humans are able to control their heat production rate and heat loss rate to maintain
a nearly constant core temperature of Tc = 37oC under a wide range of environmental
conditions. This process is called thermoregulation. From the perspective of calculating
heat transfer between a human body and its surrounding, we focus on a layer of skin
and fat, with its outer surface exposed to the environment and its inner surface at a
temperature slightly less than the core temperature, Ti = 35oC = 308K. Consider a person
with a skin/fat layer of thickness L=3 mm and effective thermal conductivity k=0.3
W/m.K. The person has a surface area A=1.8 m2 and is dressed in a bathing suit. The
emissivity of the skin is  = 0.95:

1. When the person is in still air at T=297K, what is the skin surface temperature
and rate of heat loss to the environment? Convection heat transfer to the air is
characterized by a free convection coefficient of h = 2 W/m2.K.
2. When the person is in water at T=297K, what is the skin surface temperature and
heat loss rate? Heat transfer to the water is characterized by a convection
coefficient of h = 200 W/m2.K.

Solution:
1. The skin surface temperature may be,
Obtained by performing an energy balance
at the skin surface:
𝐸𝑖𝑛̇ − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 ̇ = 0

𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ̇ − 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 ̇ = 0
̇ − 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑠
𝑘. = ℎ. (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 𝜀. 𝜎. (𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4 )
𝐿
For many applications, it is convenient to express the net radiation heat exchange in the
form:

Where the radiation heat transfer coefficient (hr) is:

So,

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Solving for Ts with Tsur = T, we have;

We estimate hr with a guessed value of Ts=305K

And T=297K to yield hr =5.9 W/m2.K. Then substituting numerical values into preceding
equation, we find:

With this new value of Ts, we can recalculate hr and Ts, which are unchanged. Thus the
skin temp. is 307.2 K = 34oC.

Then the rate of heat loss can be found by evaluating the conduction through the
skin/fat layer:

2- Since liquid water is opaque to thermal radiation, heat loss from the skin surface
is by convection only. using the previous expression with hr = 0, we find:

And:

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Example (2.2):
In previous example, we calculated the heat loss rate from a human body in air and
water environments. Now we consider the same conditions except that the
surroundings (air or water) are at 10oC. To reduce the heat loss rate, the person wears
special sporting gear (snow suit and wet suit) made from a nanostructured silica aerogel
insulation with an extremely low thermal conductivity of 0.014 W/m.K. The emissivity
of the outer surface of the snow and wet suits is 0.95. What thickness of aerogel
insulation is needed to reduce the heat loss rate to 100 W (a typical metabolic heat
generation rate) in air and water? What are the resulting skin temperature?

Solution:

The thermal circuit can be constructed by

Recognizing that resistance to heat flow is associated with conduction through the
skin/fat and insulation layers and convection and radiation at the outer surface.
Accordingly, the circuit and the resistances are of the following form (with hr=0 for
water):

The total thermal resistance needed to achieve the desired heat loss rate is found from:

The total thermal resistance between the inside of the skin/fat layer and the cold
surroundings includes conduction resistances for the skin/fat and insulation layers and
an effective resistance associated with convection and radiation, which act in parallel.
Hence,

This equation can be solved for the insulation thickness.

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Air:
The radiation heat transfer coefficient is approximated as having the same value as
previous example hr = 5.9 W/m2.K.

Water:

The skin temp. can be calculated by considering conduction through the skin/fat layer:

Or solving for Ts;

The skin temp. is the same in both cases because the heat loss rate and skin/fat
properties are the same.

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Example (2.3):
“Two-by-four” wood studs have actual dimensions of 4.13 X 9.21 cm and a thermal
conductivity of 0.1 W/m.oC. A typical wall for a house is constructed as shown in figure.
Calculate the overall heat-transfer coefficient and R value of the wall?

Solution:

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

2- Steady State Heat Conduction in Cylinder:

Infinitely long Hollow cylinder (steady without generation t=0, 𝒒̇ =0)

Ti

ri

ro Ti To

To

T=f(r)
𝑑𝑇 𝑞 𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = -k𝐴𝑟 = -k
𝑑𝑟 2𝜋 𝑟𝐿 𝑑𝑟

q: is a constant
𝑞 𝑟𝑜 𝑑𝑟 𝑇𝑜
∫𝑟𝑖 = -k∫𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑇
2𝜋 𝐿 𝑟

𝟐𝝅 𝑳𝒌(𝑻𝒊−𝑻𝒐)
q= 𝒓𝒐 Watt/m2 “Equation of heat transfer”
𝒍𝒏( )
𝒓𝒊

𝒓𝒐
𝒍𝒏( 𝒓𝒊 )
Rt=
𝟐𝝅 𝑳 𝒌
𝒓
(𝑻 −𝑻𝒊 ) 𝒍𝒏(𝒓𝒊)
(𝑻𝒐 −𝑻𝒊 )
= 𝒓𝒐 “Equation of temperature distribution”
𝒍𝒏( 𝒓𝒊 )

For Multi-layer cylinder shell

(𝐓𝟏 –𝐓𝟒) 1
q= 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟑 𝒓𝟒 U= 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟑 𝒓𝟒
𝒍𝒏( ) 𝒍𝒏( ) 𝒍𝒏(𝒓𝟑) 𝒍𝒏( ) 𝒍𝒏( ) 𝒍𝒏(𝒓𝟑)
𝒓𝟏
( + 𝒓𝟐 + ) ( 𝒓𝟏
+ 𝒓𝟐
+ )
𝟐𝝅 𝑳𝒌𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝑳𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅 𝑳𝒌𝟑 𝟐𝝅 𝑳 𝒌𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝑳 𝒌𝟐 𝟐𝝅 𝑳 𝒌𝟑

𝟏
q=U.A. (T1- T4) where; U is called over all heat transfer coefficient (U= )
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

To obtain the equation of temp distribution:

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 C1
(r ) = 0 r 𝜕𝑟 =C1 =
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 r

T= C1 ln r ]𝑟2
𝑟1 +C2 …*

B.C.’s: if r=r1 then T =T1 and if r=r2 then T =T2

T2 = C1 ln r2 + C2
Subtracting the two equations
T1 = C1 ln r1+ C2
lnr2 (T2 − T1 )
(T2 - T1 )= C1 𝑙𝑛𝑟1
C1 = lnr2
𝑙𝑛𝑟1

(T2 − T1 )
Then: C2= T1 - 𝐥𝐧𝐫𝟐 ln r1 then substituting into eqn. *
𝒍𝒏𝒓𝟏

(T2 − T1 ) (T2 − T1 )
T= 𝐥𝐧𝐫𝟐 ln r + T1 - 𝐥𝐧𝐫𝟐 ln r1
𝒍𝒏𝒓𝟏 𝒍𝒏𝒓𝟏

𝐥𝐧𝐫
𝒍𝒏𝒓𝟏
= 𝐥𝐧𝐫𝟐 (T2 - T1) + T1
𝒍𝒏𝒓𝟏

𝐥𝐧𝐫
(𝐓 − 𝐓𝟏 ) 𝒍𝒏𝒓𝟏
= 𝐥𝐧𝐫𝟐 (Temp. Distribution equation)
(𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 )
𝒍𝒏𝒓𝟏

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Critical Radius of Insulation:

Let us consider a layer of insulation which might be installed around a circular pipe.

The inner temp. of insulation is fixed at Ti. and the outer surface is exposed to a
convection environment at T. then;

( 𝑇𝑖−𝑇∞)
q= R
ins +Rcon

( 𝑇𝑖−𝑇∞)
q=𝒍𝒏(𝒓𝒐)
𝒓𝒊 + 𝟏
𝟐𝝅 𝑳𝒌 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒐 𝑳𝒉

𝟐𝝅 𝑳 ( 𝑇𝑖−𝑇∞)
q= 𝒓𝒐
𝒍𝒏( 𝒓𝒊 ) 𝟏
+
𝒌 𝒓𝒐 𝒉

𝟐𝝅 𝑳 ( 𝑇𝑖−𝑇∞)
q=𝒍𝒏𝒓𝒐 𝒍𝒏𝒓𝒊 𝟏
− +
𝒌 𝒌 𝒓𝒐 𝒉

𝒓𝒐
𝑑𝑞 𝒍𝒏( ) 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=0 2π L ( Ti − T∞)=[ 𝒓𝒊
+𝒓 ]-2[𝒓 - ]
𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝒌 𝒐 𝒉 𝒐 𝒌 𝒉 𝒓𝟐𝒐

𝟏 𝟏
𝒓𝒐 𝒌
= 𝒉 𝒓𝟐𝒐

𝒌
𝒓𝒐 =𝒉 = critical radius for cylinder

𝒌
𝒓𝒐 =𝟐 𝒉 = critical radius for sphere

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Example (2.4):
Calculate the critical radius of insulation for asbestos [k=0.17 W/m.oC] surrounding a
pipe and exposed to room air at 20oC with h=3 W/m2. oC. Calculate the heat loss from
200oC, 5-cm diameter pipe when covered with the critical radius of insulation and
without insulation?

Solution:
𝑘 0.17
𝑟𝑜 = = = 0.0567 𝑚 = 5.67 𝑐𝑚
ℎ 3

The inside radius of the insulation 5/2 = 2.5 cm, so the heat transfer is calculated from:
𝑞 𝟐𝝅 ( 𝑇𝑖−𝑇∞) 𝟐𝝅(𝟐𝟎𝟎−𝟐𝟎)
= 𝒓𝒐 = 𝟓.𝟔𝟕 =105.7 W/m
𝐿 𝒍𝒏( )
𝒓𝒊 + 𝟏 𝒍𝒏( ) 𝟏
𝟐.𝟓 +
𝒌 𝒓𝒐 𝒉 𝟎.𝟏𝟕 (𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟔𝟕)(𝟑)

Without insulation the convection from the outer surface of the pipe is:
𝒒
= (𝟐𝝅𝒓)𝒉(𝑻𝒊 − 𝑻𝒐 ) = (𝟑)(𝟐𝝅)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓)(𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎) = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟖 W/m
𝑳

So, the addition of 3.17-cm (5.67-2.5) of insulation actually increase the heat transfer by
25%.

As an alternative, fiberglass having a thermal conductivity of 0.04 W/m.oC might be

employed as the insulation material. Then, the critical radius would be:
𝒌 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒
𝒓𝒐 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟑𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝒄𝒎
𝒉 𝟑
Now, the value of critical radius is less than the outside radius of the pipe (2.5cm), so
addition of any fiberglass insulation would cause a decrease in heat transfer.

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

3- Conduction heat Transfer in sphere

The general heat conduction equation in sphere is:

1 𝜕 2 (𝑟𝑇) 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
+ 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ө (sinө 𝜕𝜃 ) +𝑟 2 + +𝑞̇ /k =𝛼 𝜕𝑡
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕ө 𝜕ɸ2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ө 𝜕𝑦 2

For one dimension steady state without generation:

1 𝜕 2 (𝑟𝑇) ∂2 (rT) 𝜕 (𝑟𝑇)

=0 =0 = c1
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 2 ∂r2 𝜕𝑟

r T =c1 r+ c2
𝑐
T = c1 + 𝑟2 … **

B.C.’s: if r=r1 then T =T1 and if r=r2 then T =T2

𝑐
T1 = c1 +𝑟2
1

𝑐2
T2 = c1 +
𝑟2

𝑇1 𝑇
𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 − 2
𝑟2 𝑟1
T1 - T2 = 𝑟 - 𝑟 c2= 1 1 and c1 = 1 1
1 2 − −
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2

𝑇1 𝑇
− 2 1 𝑇 − 𝑇2
𝑟2 𝑟1
T= 1 1 +𝑟 [ 11 1 ] Temperature distribution for sphere
− 2 −
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2

1 1
−
𝑇 − 𝑇2 𝑟 𝑟2
= 1 1
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 −
𝑟1 𝑟2

𝑑𝑇
Q= - k A
𝑑𝑟

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

𝑑𝑇 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 1
=-{ 1 1 }
𝑑𝑟 − 𝑟2
𝑟1 𝑟2

A= 4𝝅 r2
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
Q= 1 1 1
( − )
4𝝅𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟2

1 1 1
Rtotal = ( − )
4𝝅𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟2

For composite wall in sphere

(𝑇1 – 𝑇4 )
Q= 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(
4𝝅𝑘1 𝑟1
−𝑟 )+4𝝅𝑘 (𝑟 −𝑟 )+4𝝅𝑘 (𝑟 −𝑟 )
2 2 2 3 3 3 4

1
R1=
ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑖𝑛

1 1 1
R2= ( − )
4𝝅𝑘1 𝑟1 𝑟2

1
R3=
ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡

(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
Q= 𝑅 𝑖𝑛+ 𝑅
1 2 +𝑅3

Aout= 4𝝅 𝑟22

Ain= 4𝝅 𝑟12

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Heat source Systems

1- Plane wall With a Heat Source:

q=I2 R watt

𝐼2 𝑅
𝑞̇ = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 watt/m3

The general heat conduction equation through

a plane wall is given by:

𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝑞̇ 1 𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2
+ =
𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

For steady state one dimension heat flow with

heat generation:

𝑑2 𝑇 𝑞̇ 𝑑2 𝑇 𝑞̇
+ =0 =-𝑘 then by integration;
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇ 𝑞̇
=- 𝑘 x+ C1 T= - 𝑘 x2+ C1 x +C2 general temp. distribution equation.
𝑑𝑥

Case1: Heat flow through a slab with heat generation when the Temperature of the
both sides of the wall are same:

Boundary conditions: at x = L then T = Tw

X = -L then T = Tw
𝑞̇
Tw =- 2𝑘 L2+ C1 L +C2 ...(1)
𝑞̇
Tw =- 2𝑘 L2- C1 L +C2 ...(2)

Solving equations 1 and 2 to get C1=0 then adding 1 and 2 to get;

𝑞̇
2Tw =- 𝑘 L2 +2 C2
𝑞̇
C2= 2𝑘 L2 + Tw

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

𝑞̇ 𝑞̇
T= - 2𝑘 x2+ 2𝑘 L2 + Tw
𝑞̇ 2 𝑥 2
T- Tw= L ( 1- ( ) )
2𝑘 𝐿

T= Tmax at x=0
𝑞̇
Tmax=2𝑘 L2+ Tw
𝑑𝑇
q = 2q1 = 2q2 = - kA 𝑑𝑥 ]𝑥=𝐿

Case2: Heat flow through a slab with heat generation when the Temperature of the
both sides of the wall are different:

Boundary conditions; at x = 0 then T = T1

x= L then T = T2
𝑑𝑇
Since; T= Tmax when =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
q= q1+ q2 = (- kA 𝑑𝑥 ]𝑥=0 ) + ( - kA 𝑑𝑥 ]𝑥=𝐿 )

Case3: Heat flow through a slab with heat generation when one of the ends is
insulated:
𝑑𝑇
Boundary conditions; at x = 0 then =0
𝑑𝑥

x= L then T = Tw
q= h A ( Tw- T∞) = q̇ . Volume

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

2- Solid Cylinder With a Heat Source:

Consider a cylinder of radius R with uniformly distributed heat sources and constant
thermal conductivity. If the cylinder is sufficiently long that the temperature may be
considered a function of radius only, the appropriate differential equation may be
obtained by neglecting the axial, azimuth, and time-dependent:
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝑞̇ 𝑑2 𝑇 1 𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇
(r ) +𝑘 = 0 or + + =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑘

The boundary conditions are: T=Tw at r = R

And heat generated equals heat lost at the surface:

𝑑𝑇
𝑞.̇ 𝜋. 𝑅2 . 𝐿 = −𝑘. 2𝜋. 𝑅. 𝐿.]
𝑑𝑟 𝑟=𝑅
Since the temperature function must be continuous at the center of the cylinder, we could
specify that;
𝑑𝑇
=0 at r=0
𝑑𝑟
However, it will not be necessary to use this condition since it will be satisfied
automatically when the two boundary conditions are satisfied.
We rewrite equation as follow:

And note that:

Then integration yield:

and

from the second boundary condition above,

thus
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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

We could also note that C1 must be zero because at r = 0 the logarithm function
becomes infinite.
From the first boundary condition,

So that;

The final solution for the temperature distribution is then;

Or, in dimensionless form;

Where To is the temperature at r = 0 and is given by;

Now, show that the temperature gradient at r = 0 is zero??

3- Hollow Cylinder With a Heat Source:

For a hollow cylinder with uniformly distributed heat sources the appropriate boundary
conditions would be:

The general solution is still:

Application of the new boundary conditions yields:

Where C1 is given by:

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Example (2.5):
A current of 200 A is passed through a stainless-steel wire [k=19 W/m.oC] 3 mm in
diameter. The resistivity of the steel may be taken as 70 .cm, and the length of the
wire is 1 m. The wire is submerged in a liquid at 110 oC and experiences a convection
heat transfer coefficient of 4 W/m2.oC. Calculate the center temperature of the wire?

Solution:

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Conduction-Convection Systems [Extended Surfaces (Fins)]

The heat that is conducted through a body must frequently be removed (or delivered)
by some convection process. For example, the heat lost by conduction through a furnace
wall must be dissipated to the surroundings through convection.

In heat-exchanger applications a finned-tube arrangement might be used to remove

heat from a hot liquid. The heat transfer from the liquid to the finned tube is by
convection. The heat is conducted through the material and finally dissipated to the
surroundings by convection. Obviously, an analysis of combined conduction-convection
systems is very important from a practical standpoint.

Fines are used to increase the surface area and there are many kinds and are named
according to the shape and they are:
1- Straight fin of uniform cross section.
2- Straight fin of non-uniform cross section.
3- Annular fin of non-uniform cross section.
4- Pin fin.

For the present we wish to examine some simple extended-surface problems. Consider
the one-dimensional fin exposed to a surrounding fluid at a temperature T∞ as shown in
the Figure below. The temperature of the base of the fin is T0. We approach the problem
by making an energy balance on an element of the fin of thickness dx as shown in the
figure. Thus;
Energy in left face = Energy out right face + Energy lost by convection

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

The defining equation for the convection heat-transfer coefficient is recalled as;
q= h.A .(Tw −T∞)
Where the area in this equation is the surface area for convection. Let the cross-
sectional area of the fin be A and the perimeter be P. Then the energy quantities are:

Here it is noted that the differential surface area for convection is the product of the
perimeter of the fin and the differential length dx. When we combine the quantities, the
energy balance yields:

…*

One boundary condition is:

If we let m2 =h.P/k.A, the general solution for Equation:

… (General Solution)
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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

The other boundary condition depends on the physical situation. Several cases may be
considered:
CASE 1: The fin is very long, and the temperature at the end of the fin is essentially
that of the surrounding fluid.

CASE 2: The fin is of finite length and loses heat by convection from its end.

CASE 3: The end of the fin is insulated so that dT/dx = 0 at x =L.

CASE (1): The fin is very long, and the temperature at the end of the fin is essentially
that of the surrounding fluid.
The boundary conditions are:

The solution is:

CASE 3: The end of the fin is insulated so that dT/dx = 0 at x =L.

The boundary conditions are:

Thus;

Solving for the constants C1 and C2, we obtain:

The hyperbolic functions are defined as:

and

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

CASE 2: The fin is of finite length and loses heat by convection from its end.
The solution for case 2 is more involved algebraically, and the result is:

All of the heat lost by the fin must be conducted into the base at x=0. Using the
equations for the temperature distribution, we can compute the heat loss from

… ***

An alternative method of integrating the convection heat loss could be used:

… ****

In most cases, however, the first equation is easier to apply;

CASE (1):

CASE (2):

CASE (3):

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

FINS:
To indicate the effectiveness of a fin in transferring a given quantity of heat, a new
parameter called fin efficiency is defined by:

For case (3), the fin efficiency becomes:

The fins discussed were assumed to be sufficiently deep that the heat flow could be
considered one-dimensional. The expression for mL may be written:

Where (z) is the depth of the fin, and (t) is the thickness.
Now, if the fin is sufficiently deep, the term (2z) will be large compared with (2t), and

1⁄
Multiplying numerator and denominator by 𝐿 2 gives

(Lt) is called the profile area of the fin, which we define as;
So that;

For case (2), the solution may be expressed in the same form as ;

When the length of the fin is extended by one-half the thickness of the fin. In effect,
lengthening of the fin by [t/2] is assumed to represent the same convection heat transfer
as half the fin tip area placed on top and bottom of the fin.

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

A corrected length [Lc] is then used in all the equations that apply for the case of the
fin with an insulated tip. Thus;

The error that result from this approximation will be less than 8% when;

If a straight cylindrical rod extends from a wall, the corrected fin length is calculated
from:

Again, the real fin is extended a sufficient length to produce a circumferential area equal
to that of the tip area.

Efficiencies of straight rectangular and triangular fins.

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Efficiencies of circumferential fins of rectangular profile.

In some cases a valid method of evaluating fin performance is to compare the heat
transfer with the fin to that which would be obtained without the fin. The ratio of these
quantities is:

Where Af is the total surface area of the fin and Ab is the base area. For the insulated tip
fin described by the equation;

Where;

And the heat ratio would become;

This term is sometimes called the fin effectiveness.

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Example: An aluminum fin [k= 200 W/m.oC] 3-mm thick and 7.5 cm long protrudes
from a wall as shown in figure. The base is maintained at 300oC, and the ambient
temperature is 50oC with h=10 W/m2.oC. Calculate the heat loss from the fin per unit
depth of material?

Solution:
We may use the approximate method of solution by
Extending the fin a fictitious length t/2 and then
Computing the heat transfer from a fin with insulated tip:

When the fin depth z >> t. So,

For an insulated tip fin:

For a depth = 1m

Then;

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Chapter -2- Dr. Arkan F. Saeed

Example: Aluminum fins 1.5cm wide and 1mm thick are placed on a 2.5-cm diameter
tube to dissipate the heat. The tube surface temperature170oC, and the ambient
temperature is 25oC. Calculate the heat loss per fin for h=130 W/m2.oC. Assume k = 200
W/m.oC for aluminum?

Solution:
We can compute the heat transfer by using the fin efficiency curves:

The parameters needed are:

From the above fig. 𝜂𝑓 = 82%. The heat that would be transferred if the entire fin were
at the base temperature is (both sides of fin exchanging heat).

The actual heat transfer is then the product of the heat flow and the fin efficiency:

| P a g e 34