Data communication and Network

1. Data Communication
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium
The effectiveness of a data communications
• Delivery : The system must deliver data to the correct destination
• Accuracy : The system must deliver the data accurately.
• Timeliness : The system must deliver data in a timely manner.

 Jitter : The variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets.

Composition of data communication

• Message : The information to be communicated such as text, picture, audio or video.
• Sender : The device that sends the data message such as computer, telephone, camera.
• Receiver : The device that receives the message such as computer, telephone, camera.
• Medium : The physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some
examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and
radio waves.
• Protocol : A set of rules that govern data communications It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but
not communicating
2. Data Transmission
2.1 Serial and Parallel
2.1.1 Serial Communication
 Single data wire, possibly also control wires
 Bytes transmitted one bit at a time
 Higher data throughput with long distances

► Less average capacitance, so more bits per unit of time ‰Cheaper, less bulky ‰More complex
interfacing logic and communication protocol

► Sender needs to decompose word into bits

► Receiver needs to recompose bits into word

► Control signals often sent on same wire as data (start, stop, parity bits etc.) - increasing protocol
complexity
2.1.2 Parallel Communication

 Multiple data, control wires, etc.

►One bit per wire

 Typically used when connecting devices on same IC or same circuit board

 High data throughput with short distances

► Bus must be kept short

 Long parallel wires result in high capacitance values which requires more time to charge/discharge „
Data misalignment between wires increases as length increases
 Higher cost, bulky

► Insulation must be used to prevent noise from each wire from interfering with the other wires.

► A 32-wire cable connecting two devices together will cost much more than a two-wire cable.
 Transmission Characteristics
Transmission Description
Comparative Speed
Distance Limitation
Application
Cable Description
Serial Parallel
Bytes transmitted in a linear Bytes in a single character
fashion, one bit at a time transmitted simultaneously
Slower Faster
Farther Shorter
Between two computers, Within a computer’s bus from
Computer to an external computer to parallel high speed
modem, Computer to a slow printer
printer
All bits travel down a single Each bit travel
wire, one bit at a time

2.2 Asynchronous and Synchronous

2.2.1 Asynchronous

 Data is sent one character at a time.

 Each character has a start & stop bit.
 Synchronization is re-established for each character.
 Time (interval) between characters is unsynchronized and of random/ undetermined length.

2.2.2 Synchronous

 Data is sent as a block of uninterrupted characters.

 Synchronization characters precede and follow the data block.
 The data block may be as large as 1000 uninterrupted characters (or more).
 Synchronization is maintained whether data is actually being transmitted or not. So modems remain
synchronized during idle time
2.3 Half and Full Duplex
2.3.1 Half duplex mode
 Bidirectional transmissions, but only one direction at a time.
 After initial handshaking only one modem can transmit.
 Modems can reverse their roles.
 Role reversal is known as turn-around time.
 Turn-around time may take 0.2 sec or more.
 Though it is small but may have an impact if done more often.
 E.g., Walkie-Talkie

2.3.2 Full duplex mode

 Data transmissions can take place in both directions simultaneously.

 Usually used in leased line circuits.

3. Network System
A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network.
Consist of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources, Exchange files or
allow electronic communication
There are many types of networking including
- LANs (Local area networks) ***
- MANs (Metropolitan area networks)
- WANs (Wide area networks)
Local area networks (LANs)
• Topology: The geometric arrangement of devices on the network. For example, devices can be
arranged in a ring or in a straight line.
• Protocols: The rules and encoding specifications for sending data. The protocols also determine
whether the network uses a peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.
• Media: Devices can be connected by twisted-pair wire, coaxial cables, or fiber optic cables.
Some networks do without connecting media altogether, communicating instead via radio
waves.
TOPOLOGY
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Two or more
devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.

Method topology connection

1. Mesh connection

Advantage

 The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
 A mesh topology is robust.
 There is the advantage of privacy or security.
 Point-to-Point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
Disadvantage

 Every device must be connected to every other device, installation and reconnection are
difficult.
 The hardware required to connect each link can be prohibitively expensive.

2. Star connection

Advantage

 Simplify of operation
 Adding and remove network nodes is easy and can be done without affecting the entire
network.
 Due to centralized nature, it is easy to detect faults in the network devices.

Disadvantage

 Quite high cost

 The number of nodes depends on the capacity of the central hub
 Depends in the functioning of the central hub, so central hub failure leads to failure of the
entire networks
3. Bus connection

Advantage

 Easy to setup
 Best for small network
 Less costs
Disadvantage

 Cable length is limited

 Increase Node, Efficiency decrease
 Central Bus Fail, Network Fail
 Each device on Bus ‘’sees’’ all data, posing security risk

4. Ring connection
Advantage

 Traffic is unidirectional and data transmission is high – speed

 Easy to add or remove node, changing only two connection
 Easy to identify fault in network nodes
 Less costly than star topology
Disadvantage

 Failure of single node can cause the entire to fail

 Slow transmission more than star topology

4. Network Device
4.1 Network Interface Card (NIC)
A network interface card (NIC) is a device that plugs into a motherboard and provides ports for the
network cable connections. It is the computer interface with the LAN. The NIC communicates with the network
through serial connections and communicates with the computer through parallel connections.
At source:

• Receives the data packet from the Network Layer

• Attaches its the MAC address to the data packet

• Attaches the MAC address of the destination device to the data packet

• Converts data in to packets suitable for the particular network (Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI)

• Converts packets in to electrical, light or radio signals

• Provides the physical connection to the media 11 Network Interface Card (NIC)

As a destination device:

• Provides the physical connection to the media

• Translates the signal in to data

• Reads the MAC address to see if it matches its own address

• If it does match, passes the data to the Network Layer

4.2 Repeaters
• Allows the connection of segments

• Extends the network beyond the maximum length of a single segment

• Functions at the Physical Layer of the OSI model • A multi-port repeater is known as a Hub

• Connects segments of the same network, even if they use different media

• Has three basic functions • Receives a signal which it cleans up

• Re-times the signal to avoid collisions

• Transmits the signal on to the next segment

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages – Can connect different types of media, can extend a network in terms of distance, does not
increase network traffic

Disadvantages – Extends the collision domain, cannot filter data, cannot connect different network
architectures, limited number only can be used in network
4.3 Hubs
• A central point of a star topology

• Allows the multiple connection of devices

• Can be more than a basic Hub – providing additional services (Managed Hubs, Switched Hubs, Intelligent Hubs)
• In reality a Hub is a Repeater with multiple ports

• Functions in a similar manner to a Repeater 15 Hub

• Works at the Physical Layer of the OSI model

• Passes data no matter which device it is addressed to

• This feature adds to congestion

• Use large Hubs (24 port), or stacking them exacerbates this negative feature

Common Networking Devices

 A hub is a device that is used to extend an Ethernet wire to allow more devices to communicate with
each other.
 Hubs are most commonly used in Ethernet 10BASET or 100BASE-T networks, although there are other
network architectures that use them.

Hub Features

• Type of media connection needed

• Number of ports
• Speed

• Managed or Unmanaged

• Requirement for Uplink Port (allows two Hubs to be connected using a patch cable – crossover cable)

• Token Ring Hubs are known as MAUs – see last week’s notes

Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages – Cheap, can connect different media types

• Disadvantages – Extends the collision domain, can not filter information, passes packets to all connected
segments

4.4 Switches
• A multiport Bridge, functioning at the Data Link Layer

• Each port of the bridge decides whether to forward data packets to the attached network

• Keeps track of the Mac addresses of all attached devices (just like a bridge)

• Similarly priced to Hubs – making them popular

• Acts like a Hub, but filters like a Bridge

• Each port on a Switch is a collision domain 25

Advantages and Disadvantages Switch

• Advantages - Limits the collision domain, can provide bridging, can be configured to limit broadcast domain

• Disadvantages – More expensive than a hub or bridge, configuration of additional functions can be very
complex 26

4.5 Router
• Functions both as Bridge and a Router – hence name

• Can work on networks using different protocols • Can be programmed only to pass data packets using a
specific protocol forward to a segment – in this case it is functioning in a similar manner to a Bridge

• If a router is set to route data packets to the appropriate network with a routed protocol such as IP, it is
functioning as a router

• Works at Network Layer in an intelligent manner

• Can connect different network segments, if they are in the same building or even on the opposite side of the
globe • Work in LAN, MAN and WAN environments

• Allows access to resources by selecting the best path

• Can interconnect different networks – Ethernet with Token Ring

• Changes packet size and format to match the requirements of the destination network 28 Router

• Two primary functions – to determine the ‘best path’ and to share details of routes with other routers

• Routing Table – a database which keeps track of the routes to networks and the associated costs

• Static Routing – routes are manually configured by a network administrator

• Dynamic Routing – adjust automatically to changes in network topology, and information it receives from
other routers

• Routing Protocol – uses a special algorithm to route data across a network eg RIP

Common Networking Devices

• Routers are slower than bridges and switches, but make “smart” decisions on how to route (or send) packets
received on one port to a network on another port.

• Routers contain tables of network addresses along with optimal destination routes to other networks.

Advantages and Disadvantages Router

• Advantages – Limits the collision domain, can function in LAN or WAN, connects differing media and
architectures, can determine best path/route, can filter broadcasts

• Disadvantages – Expensive, must use routable protocols, can be difficult to configure (static routing), slower
than a bridge

4.6 Gateway
• Allows different networks to communicate by offering a translation service from one protocol stack to another
• They work at all levels of the OSI model – due to the type of translation service they are providing

• Address Gateway – connects networks using the same protocol, but using different directory spaces such as
Message Handling Service

• Protocol Gateway – connects network using different protocols. Translates source protocol so destination can
understand it
• Application Gateway – translates between applications such as from an Internet email server to a messaging
server 32 Default Gateway

• A computer located on one network

5. Cable
5.1 Coaxial
• Coaxial cables are used, almost without exception, for all antennas operating between the HF band of
frequencies up to the SHF band around 2 GHz, where waveguides begin to take over.
• The size of a coaxial cable is determined by two factors – the transmitter power being fed to the
antenna system and the frequency being used.
• The cable will breakdown and if the inner conductor is too small, there will be a high resistive loss in the
cable.

5.2 Twisted pair

• Twisted pair cables are the most economical solution for data transmission and allow for rates of up to
180 Mbps on communication links of up to 100 meters (330 feet).
• Longer distances are possible with lower data transfer rates
• The wires are twisted to reduce the effect of electromagnetic and electrostatic induction.
• An earth screen and/or shield is often placed around the wires to help reduce the electrostatically
(capacitive) induced noise.

5.3 Fiber optic

• Fiber-optic cables are normally used for the transmission of digital signals.
• The capabilities of fiber-optic cables will satisfy any future requirement in data communications,
allowing transmission rates in the Gigabits per second (Gbps) range.
• There are many currently installed systems operating at around 10 Gbps.
• Fiber-optic cables are generally cheaper than coaxial cables, especially when comparing data capacity
per unit cost.
The main benefits of fiber-optic cables are:
• Enormous bandwidth (greater information carrying capacity)
• Low signal attenuation (greater speed and distance characteristics)
• Inherent signal security
• Low error rates
• Noise immunity (impervious to EMI and RFI)
• Logistical considerations (light in weight, smaller in size)
• Total galvanic isolation between ends (no conductive path)
• Safe for use in hazardous areas
• No crosstalk
 Comparison Table

Media cost speed distance noise security

UTP cheap 1-100 Mbps short high Low
STP medium 1-150 Mbps short medium Low
Coaxial medium 1 Mbps – 1 medium medium Low
Gbps
Fiber Optic expensive 1 Mbps – 10 far Low high
Gbps
Reference
1. Industrial network training at TGI
2. Data and communication network William stalling 5th edition
3. Data Communications and Networking By Behrouz A.Forouzan
4. Software quality catalyst
5. Practical Data communication for instrumentation and control