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1 Crop Coefficients
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4 Richard Allen
5 University of Idaho Research and Extension Center, Kimberly, Idaho, U.S.A.
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9 INTRODUCTION to agricultural situations. However, Kc is generally valid
10 for natural vegetation and conditions including open
11 Crops and vegetation on the earth’s surface vary in height, water, although it can have large spatial variability. In
12 amount of leaf area, amount of soil shaded, color, amount situations where Kc has not been derived by ET
13 of stomatal control to evaporation, and amount of soil measurement, it can be estimated from fraction of ground
14 wetness beneath the canopy. All of these factors affect, to cover or leaf area index (LAI), using procedures in Refs. 1
15 some degree, the amount of evapotranspiration (ET) from and 2.
16 the crop or vegetation. Rather than assigning parameters Kc varies during the growing season as: the plants
17 for all of these terms during the process of predicting ET develop, the fraction of ground covered by vegetation
18 from a specific type of vegetation using an ET equation, as½F1 changes, and the plants age and mature (Fig. 1). Kc varies
19 covered in the entry on Evapotranspiration Formulas, the according to the wetness of the soil surface, especially
20 impacts of these variables are often lumped into a single when there is little vegetation cover. Under bare soil
21 parameter, termed the crop coefficient, Kc. This approach conditions, Kc has a high value when soil is wet and its
22 is done to reduce the complexity and time requirement for½F2 value steadily decreases as the soil dries (Fig. 2).
23 predicting ET for each type of crop or vegetation, and
24 relies upon a common “reference ET” for a defined type of
25 reference vegetation to represent the change in ET caused
26 by variation in weather parameters. Kc is defined as the CROP COEFFICIENT CURVES
27 ratio of ET from a crop or soil surface to ET from the
28 reference surface. Reference ET is the ET from a fully Two different approaches are used to calculate Kc. The
29 vegetated surface covering the soil, and normally simpler approach uses a single Kc curve that represents
30 represents ET from clipped grass (termed ETo) or alfalfa time-averaged effects of evaporation from the soil surface.
31 (termed ETr). The result is a relatively smooth, consistently increasing or
32 decreasing Kc curve (Fig. 2). The second Kc approach
33 separates the Kc into two coefficients, with one coefficient,
34 the basal crop coefficient, termed Kcb, representing Kc for a
35 OVERVIEW dry soil surface (with or without vegetation) having little
36 evaporation but full transpiration. The second coefficient,
37 In general, four primary characteristics distinguish crop the evaporation coefficient, Ke, represents the evaporation
38 ET from reference ET: 1) crop cover density and total leaf component from the soil surface (Fig. 2). The value for Ke
39 area; 2) resistance of foliage epidermis and soil surface to changes daily as the soil surface wets or dries, whereas the
40 the flow of water vapor; 3) aerodynamic roughness of the value for Kcb is more consistent day-to-day:
41 crop canopy; and 4) reflectance of the crop and soil surface
42 to short wave radiation. K c ¼ K s K cb þ K e ð2Þ
43 When the Kc is known, crop ET (ETc) is calculated for a
44 specific time period as: where K [0 – 1] represents the reduction in K due to
s c
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ETc ¼ K co ETo and ETc ¼ K cr ETr ð1Þ environmental stresses, primarily from soil water shortage
46 or soil salinity. All four terms are dimensionless. In
47 where Kco is the Kc for the grass ETo basis and Kcr is the Kc application of the dual K cb þ K e procedure, a daily
48 for the alfalfa ETr basis. Because reference ET represents calculation must be made to estimate water content and
49 nearly all effects of weather, Kc varies predominately with associated evaporation rate from the soil surface, so that
50 specific crop characteristics and only a small amount with the approach is relatively computationally intensive.
51 climate. This enables the transfer of standard values and However, estimates can be up to 50% more accurate for
52 curves for Kc between locations and climates. This transfer any particular day, as compared with the single Kc
53 has led to the widespread acceptance and usefulness of the approach, especially for the first few days following soil
54 Kc approach. Kc has been primarily developed and applied wetting during initial and development periods. The dual

Encyclopedia of Water Science 1

DOI: 10.1081/E-EWS 120010037
Copyright q 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All rights reserved.
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2 Crop Coefficients

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Fig. 3 Typical styles of crop coefficient curves.
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Fig. 1 General Kc curve showing relationship between stage of
70 growth and Kc. (After Ref. 1.)
71 Styles of Crop Coefficient Curves
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½F3 Fig. 3 illustrates two common shapes used to represent Kc
procedure is applied on a daily timestep and is readily curves for growing seasons. Smooth curves as in Ref. 3
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adapted to spreadsheet programs. exhibit a smoothed change in Kc with time, whereas
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Time-averaged (single) Kc is used for planning studies linearly shaped Kc curves as in Ref. 1 are constructed using
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and irrigation or water resources systems design where four line segments. Both shapes are useful and valid for
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averaged effects of soil wetting are appropriate. The dual predicting Kc.
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Kc approach, is better for irrigation scheduling, soil water
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balance computations, and research where specific effects
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of day-to-day variation in soil wetness are important. Definition of Growing Periods Within the
82 Kc (or Kcb) changes during a growing season, reflecting Growing Season
83 changes in the vegetation and ground cover. Initially, Kc is
84 small, generally between 0.1 and 0.4, and Kcb is between A growing season can be divided into four basic
85 0.0 and 0.2. Kc increases during the period of rapid plant periods as shown in Fig. 1. The initial period represents
86 growth until it reaches a maximum value at the time of the period following planting of annuals until about
87 near maximum ground cover. Towards the end of the 10% ground cover or following initiation of leaves for
88 growing cycle, Kc decreases as plants age, ripen, or die due perennials. The development period extends from the
89 to natural or cultural practices. end of the initial period until the crop reaches
90 “effective full cover.” Mid-season extends from
91 effective full cover to when plant vigors or greenness
92 begin to decrease. The late-season period extends from
93 end of mid-season until harvest or crop death.
94 Information on relative lengths of growing periods of
95 crops is found in Ref. 1.
96 Effective full cover for row crops occurs when leaves
97 between rows of plants begin to intermingle, or when
98 plants reach nearly full size, if no intermingling occurs.
99 For crops taller than 0.5 m, effective full cover is reached
100 when the average fraction of ground surface shaded by
101 vegetation at solar noon is about 0.7 – 0.8. Effective full
102 cover for many crops begins at flowering. Plants may
103 continue to grow in both height and leaf area after the
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Fig. 2 Basal Kcb, soil evaporation coefficient Ke, and time-
attainment of effective full cover. Effective full cover can
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averaged (single) Kc (dotted line) curves for a crop of sweet corn be predicted when the crop reaches an LAI of 3, where
106 grown near Kimberly, Idaho during 1976. Also shown are actual LAI is defined as the total area of leaves (one side only) per
107 measurements of Kc (dots) determined from weighing lysimeters. unit area of ground. The beginning of the late season is
108 (Data from Dr. J.L. Wright, USDA-ARS, Kimberly.) generally signaled by the beginning of yellowing or
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Crop Coefficients 3

109 senescence of leaves for annual crops, leaf drop, or There is close similarity in Kc among crops having
browning of fruit. similar characteristics, e.g. among crops in the vegetable
C
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111 groups, since plant height, leaf area, ground coverage, and
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Construction of a Linear Kc Curve water management are similar. Kc ini values in Table 1 are
113 approximate. Graphs and equations in Ref. 1 provide
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Only three defined values for Kc are required to construct better estimates for Kc ini that account for frequency of
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the linear Kc curve: Kc during the initial period (Kc ini), Kc wetting and soil type.
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during the mid-season period (Kc mid), and Kc at the time of Alfalfa-based Kcs. Wright[3,4] established crop coeffi-
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harvest or crop death (Kc end). In addition, lengths of the cients for crops common to central and northern latitudes
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four growing season periods, in days, are needed. of the Western United States. These coefficients are based
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Grass-based Kcs. General values for Kc ini, Kc mid, on the alfalfa reference ETr represented by the 1982
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and Kc end and basal Kcb ini, Kcb mid, and Kcb end for Kimberly Penman Equation.[3] Alfalfa is sometimes
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primary types of crops and conditions are listed in preferred as the reference crop rather than clipped grass
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½T1 Table 1 from Ref. 1. These values are Kco based on because it is taller than grass and has ET that is more
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grass reference ETo as defined by the FAO-56 similar to maximum ET from many agricultural crops.[3]
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Penman – Monteith equation. Details on calculating Therefore, Kcrs based on ETr generally peak at values of
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ETo are given under the entry on Evapotranspiration 1.0. Values for Kcr cannot be interchanged with values for
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Formulas and in Ref. 1. The Penman – Monteith method Kco and vice versa. Values for Kco average about 15% –
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was selected by FAO-56 as the best method for 30% higher than Kcr.
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standardized calculation of reference ET from a clipped
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cool-season grass. Cool-season grass is a standard for Crop Coefficients Applied to Hourly Time
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ETo worldwide because it can be grown over a wide Periods
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range of climates and is relatively easy to maintain.
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Generally, ETo is computed by ET equation rather than For many crops the ratio of ETc to ETo or ETr is relatively
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measured. Kc and Kcb are listed for specific crops in constant during the day. Therefore, Kc is relatively
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Refs. 1 –4. ½F4 constant during the day, also, as shown in Fig. 4 for a sugar
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Table 1 Time-averaged single crop coefficients, and basal crop coefficients for well-managed crops in subhumid
climates, for use with ETo
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141 Single Kc Basal Kcb
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Crop Kc ini Kc mid Kc end Kcb ini Kcb mid Kcb end
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144 Small vegetables 0.7 1.05 0.95 0.15 0.95 0.85
145 Vegetables—roots 0.5 1.10 0.95 0.15 1.00 0.85
146 Vegetables—legumes 0.4 1.15 0.55 0.15 1.10 0.50
147 Vegetables—solanum family 0.4 1.15 0.80 0.15 1.10 0.70
148 Vegetables—cucumber family 0.4 1.00 0.80 0.15 0.95 0.70
149 Fiber crops 0.35 1.15 0.70 0.15 1.10 0.60
150 Oil crops 0.35 1.15 0.30 0.15 1.10 0.25
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Cereals 0.3 1.15 0.4 0.15 1.10 0.25
Forages 0.60 1.15 1.10 0.60 1.10 1.05
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Sugar cane 0.40 1.25 0.75 0.15 1.20 0.70
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Grapes and berries 0.30 1.00 0.50 0.20 0.95 0.45
154 Fruit trees 0.60 0.95 0.75 0.50 0.90 0.70
155 Bare soil
156 Wet 1.00 1.20 1.20 — — —
157 Dry 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00
158 Wetlands 0.60 1.20 0.60 0.50 1.15 0.50
159 Open water
160 , 2 m depth or in subhumid clim. or tropics — 1.05 1.05 — — —
161 . 5 m depth, clear — 0.75 1.25 — — —
162 (After Ref. 1.)
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4 Crop Coefficients

163 surface and amount of vegetation or mulched cover

164 remaining. When the soil surface is mostly bare, Kc can be
165 set equal to Kc ini, and figures and equations for Kc ini from
166 Ref. 1 can be applied. When dead and dry vegetation or
167 mulch covers the soil surface, Kc will be less than Kc ini. Kc
168 following harvest can be estimated using guidelines in
169 Chapters 9 and 11 of Ref. 1.
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173 COEFFICIENTS FOR LIMITED WATER
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175 The value for Kc is reduced when soil water content of the
Fig. 4 Measured ETc (by precision lysimeter) and calculated
176 plant root zone is too low to sustain transpiration at the
ETo and Kc for a sugar beet crop near Kimberly, Idaho for hourly
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periods during August 5, 1989. (Data from Dr. J.L. Wright,
level predicted by Eq. 1. The reduction is accomplished by
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USDA-ARS, Kimberly.) multiplying Kcb (in Eq. 2) or the single Kc (in Eq. 1) by the
179 water stress coefficient, Ks, predicted for effects of limited
180 water as
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beet crop near Kimberly, Idaho. ETo was calculated using u 2 uWP
182 Ks ¼ ð3Þ
the FAO Penman – Monteith ETo method.
183 ut 2 uWP
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where u is mean volumetric soil water content in the root
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ADJUSTMENT OF KCO TO ACCOUNT FOR zone (m3 m23), ut is the threshold u for the root zone,
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EFFECTS OF CLIMATE below which transpiration is decreased (m3 m2 3), and uWP
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is the soil water content at the wilting point (m3 m2 3).
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Kcs based on grass ETo (Kco) are somewhat impacted by Equation 3 is applied when u , ut, and K s ¼ 1:0 for u’ut :
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general climate. Under humid conditions, Kco does not
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exceed about 1.05 – 1.10 because the vapor pressure deficit
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(VPD) driving ET is small and Kco becomes less
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dependent on the differences between the aerodynamic REFERENCES
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characteristics of crop and reference. Under arid
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conditions, the effect of differences in aerodynamic 1. Allen, R.G.; Pereira, L.S.; Raes, D.; Smith, M. Evapotran-
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characteristics between crop and grass reference become spiration and Crop Water Requirements; Irrigation and
196 Drainage Paper No. 56; FAO: Rome, 1998.
more pronounced because the VPD of the air is relatively
197 2. Allen, R.G.; Pruitt, W.O.; Businger, J.A.; Fritschen, L.J.;
large. Hence, Kco for tall crops under arid conditions can
198 Jensen, M.E.; Quinn, F.H. Evaporation and Transpiration.
be as high as 1.2 or more. Because alfalfa ETr is more
199 Hydrology Handbook, 2nd Ed.; ASCE: New York, 1996;
aerodynamically rough, values for Kcr generally do not
200 125– 252.
vary with climate.
201 3. Wright, J.L. New Evapotranspiration Crop Coefficients.
202 J. Irrig. Drain. Div., ASCE 1982, 108, 57 –74.
203 4. Wright, J.L. Crop coefficients for estimates of daily crop
KC DURING NONGROWING PERIODS evapotranspiration. In Irrigation Scheduling for Water and
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Energy Conservation in the 80’s, Proceedings of the
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The value for Kc for periods following crop harvest or National Irrigation and Drainage Conference of ASCE,
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death will depend on the average water content of the soil Albuquerque, NM, July 14 – 16, 1981; 18 – 26.
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