Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1456–1464

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Construction and Building Materials

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Effect of polyethylene on life of flexible pavements

A.I. Al-Hadidy *, Tan Yi-qiu
School of Transportation Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150090, PR. China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present study investigates the potential use of pyrolysis low density polyethylene (LDPE) as a mod-
Received 22 April 2008 ifier for asphalt paving materials. Five different blends including conventional mix were subjected to bin-
Received in revised form 26 June 2008 der testing such as rheological tests, as well as to some other tests related to the homogeneity of the
Accepted 1 July 2008
system. Further, its effect on the moisture sensitivity and low temperature performance of stone matrix
Available online 21 August 2008
asphalt (SMA) mixtures was studied. Research results indicate that modified binders showed higher soft-
ening point, keeping the values of ductility at minimum range of specification of (100+ cm), and caused a
Keywords:
reduction in percentage loss of weight due to heat and air (i.e. increase durability of original asphalt). The
Low density polyethylene
Modifiers
results indicated that the inclusion of LDPE in SMA mixtures can satisfy the performance requirement of
Asphalt cement high-temperature, low temperature and much rain zone. In addition, the horizontal tensile strain at the
Durability bottom of asphalt concrete layer (Tt) and the vertical compressive strain at the top of subgrade layer (Tc)
Stone matrix asphalt were calculated using multi-layer elastic analysis program, BISAR under 50KN set of dual tires with
Multi-layer elastic analysis 106.5 mm contact radius. These responses were used for estimating the improvement in service life of
the pavement or reduction in thickness of SMA and base layer for the same service life due to modifica-
tion the SMA mixtures.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction or otherwise alter its properties. Various additives, polymers, etc.,

Asphalt is a viscous material that is derived from crude petro-
leum and is used in paving roads. Asphalt is generally understood
to include asphaltenes, resins, and oils. While asphalt is primarily
composed of hydrocarbon molecules (hydrogen and carbon), it also
contains elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Asphalt has
an extremely diverse molecular structure depending on the crude
source. Asphalts are thermoplastic materials – that is, they gradu-
ally liquefy when heated. Asphalts are characterized by their stiff-
ness, consistency, or ability to flow at different temperatures.
Asphalt that has been specially prepared for use in pavement by
controlling its quality and consistency is called asphalt cement. As-
phalt cement is ordinarily used in a ‘‘hot mix” pavement composi-
tion that also contains coarse and fine aggregate. This composition,
also called asphalt concrete, is blended at specified temperature,
applied to the roadbed, and compacted with rollers to produce a
smooth driving surface.
A problem with all applications that involve asphalt is the ten-
dency for the asphalt to become brittle at low temperatures and to
become soft at high temperatures. This change due to temperature
is called ‘‘temperature susceptibility”. Some asphalts, depending
on crude oil source and refining practice are more temperature
susceptible than others. Asphalt cement may be modified by the
addition of components that increase the strength of the material
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 413946033276.
E-mail address: abd_et76@yahoo.com (A.I. Al-Hadidy).
have been utilized for the purpose of improving the high and low
temperature characteristics of asphalt compositions, as well as to
improve their toughness and durability. Additives such as styrene
based polymers, polyethylene based polymers, polychloroprene,
gilsonite, various oils, and many other modifiers including tall oil
have been added to asphalt to enhance various engineering prop-
erties of asphalt.
Asphalts with polymers from multiphase systems, which usu-
ally contain a phase rich in polymer and a phase rich in asphaltenes
not absorbed by the polymer. The properties of asphalt-polymer
blends depend on the concentrations and the type of polymer used.
The polymer is usually loaded in concentrations of about 4–6% by
weight with respect to the asphalt [1]. Higher concentrations of
polymers are considered to be economically less viable and also
may cause other problems related to the material properties.
Polymers used for asphalt modification can be grouped into
three main categories: thermoplastic elastomers, plastomers, and
reactive polymers. Thermoplastic elastomers are obviously able
to confer good elastic properties on the modified binder; while
plastomers and reactive polymers are added to improve rigidity
and reduce deformations under load. Examples of the plastomeric
types of polymers studied for asphalt modification are polyethyl-
ene (PE), ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), and ethylene-butyl acrylate
(EBA) random copolymers [1].
The literature on asphalt modification with plastomeric poly-
mers is quite scarce, especially with respect to rheological proper-
ties. Some preliminary data were reported in [2–9]. Al-Dubabe

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.07.004
 A.I. Al-Hadidy, T. Yi-qiu / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1456–1464
et al. [4] were tried to evaluate the effectiveness of the PE-modified
Arab asphalt. They collected asphalt binders from four refineries in
Gulf countries. It was found that the softening point tend to in-
crease with the addition of PE, which indicates improvement in
resistance to deformation.
Punith and Veeraragavan [9] used reclaimed PE as an additive in
asphalt concrete mixtures. They found that the performance of
PE-modified asphalt mixtures are better when compared to conven-
tional mixtures. The rutting potential and temperature susceptibil-
ity can be reduced by the inclusion of PE in the asphalt mixture.
Sinan and Emine [10] tried to investigate the possibility of using
various plastic wastes containing High Density Polyethylene
(HDPE) as polymer additives to asphalt concrete. It was investi-
gated that the influence of HDPE-modified binder obtained by var-
ious mixing time, mixing temperature and HDPE content on the
Marshall Stability, flow and Marshall Quotient (Stability to flow ra-
tio). The binders used in Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) were prepared by
mixing the HDPE in 4–6% and 8% (by the weight of optimum bitu-
men content) and AC-20 at temperatures of 145–155 and 165 °C
and 5–15 and 30 min of mixing time. They concluded that the
HDPE-modified asphalt concrete results in a considerable increase
in the Marshall Stability (strength) value and a Marshall Quotient
value (resistance to deformation). Four percent HDPE, 165 °C of
mixing temperature and 30 min of mixing time were determined
as optimum conditions for Marshall Stability, flow and Marshall
Quotient (MQ). MQ increased 50% compared to control mix. It
can be said that waste HDPE-modified bituminous binders provide
better resistance against permanent deformations due to their high
stability and high MQ and it contributes to recirculation of plastic
wastes as well as to protection of the environment.
Mahabir and Mayajit [11] used LDPE as a modifier for asphalt
paving materials. The basic properties of modified binder and mixes
containing such binders were studied and compared with those of
asphalt cement. It was observed that the optimum requirement of
PE is 2.5%. Marshall stability, resilient modulus, fatigue life, and
moisture susceptibility of mixes were improved as a result of mod-
ification of asphalt cement by reclaimed polyethylene.
Zoorob and Suparma [12] discussed the laboratory design of
continuously graded Asphaltic concrete (AC) mixtures containing
recycled plastics aggregate replacement (Plastiphalt). Recycled
waste plastics, predominantly composed of LDPE in pellet form,
were used in dense graded bituminous mixes to replace (by vol-
ume) a portion of the mineral aggregates of an equal size, i.e.,
5.00–2.36 mm. They indicated that at the same air-void content,
the compacted Plastiphalt mix has lower bulk density than that
of the conventional control mix. A 30% aggregate replacement by
volume with the LDPE, results in a reduction in bulk compacted
mix density of 16%. This reduction in density is advantageous in
terms of haulage costs. LDPE partial aggregate replacement also re-
sults in a 250% times increase in the Marshall stability (strength)
value and an improved MQ value. The value of creep stiffness of
the Plastiphalt mix after 1 h loading at 60 °C is found to be slightly
lower than the control mix; however, the Plastiphalt gives 14%
recovery after 1 h unloading time compared to 0.6% for the control
mix. The indirect tensile stiffness modulus values of the Plastiphalt
compacted mix were found to be lower than that of the control
mix, whereas the static indirect tensile strength values were found
to be much higher. They also investigated the future recyclability
of the Plastiphalt. It was found that the mechanical properties of
the recycled mix to be equal to that of the original Plastiphalt
and better than the control mix.
On the other hand, and based on many research reports and
engineering case studies [13,14]; it has been shown that the use
of stone mastic asphalt (SMA) on road surfaces can achieve better
rut-resistance and durability. The SMA mixtures are designed to
have high aggregate content, high asphalt content typically 5.5–
1457
7% and high filler content. For ordinary SMA, the use of regular as-
phalt cement together with fibrous material as a drainage inhibitor
is sufficient. Under high temperatures and heavy loading, a harder
asphalt grade will also suffice. A polymer (such as pyrolysis poly-
propylene (PP), PE or styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS)) modified
binder may be used to substitute the fibrous material. It is possible
to increase the capability of resistance to permanent deformation
at the expense of a higher price and greater instability. The demand
for higher pavement quality from users is ever-increasing. The cost
of a pavement failure is also mounting higher .Hence; there is a
strong desire to have better asphalt mixture from highway agen-
cies. Recently, the Ministry of Housing and Construction in Iraq
decided to introduce SMA in its road specification to control or lim-
it the distress failure in most provinces such as rutting, shoving,
stripping etc. through polymer modification.
However, this study is an attempt to satisfy the following
objectives:
1. Possibility of using the South Carolina Department of Transpor-
tation (SCDOT) 13 mm SMA gradation on the Iraqi paving
materials.
2. Using the pyrolysis LDPE as a modifier for asphalt paving mate-
rials to produce paving mixtures that resist the action of tem-
perature and temperature changes, the action of air and water
and the action of traffic.
3. Evaluation the benefits of LDPE modifying the SMA layer in flex-
ible pavement using a mechanistic–empirical design approach.
A mechanistic–empirical design approach has been used in the
present study to evaluate the benefits of modifying the SMA mix-
tures in terms of reduction in layer thickness and extension in ser-
vice life of the pavement. The proposed methodology has a better
capability of characterizing different material properties and load-
ing conditions, and has the ability to evaluate different design
alternatives on an economic basis.
Two design alternatives considered in the present study are as
follows:
1. The same service life for the modified and unmodified pave-
ment sections. It would lead to reduction in base, or SMA thick-
ness and has been expressed in terms of Layer Thickness
Reduction (LTR).
2. The same pavement sections for unmodified and modified SMA.
It would result in more service life of the pavement due to the
LDPE modification and has been expressed in terms of Traffic
Benefit Ratio (TBR).
As input values, SMA modulus was determined based on the
properties of binder and the volume concentration of the aggregate
using Eqs. (1) and (2) mentioned by [15,16], and typical moduli of
asphalt concrete (AC), base, subbase and subgrade in China were
selected as shown in Fig. 1.
Eb ¼ 1:157  107  s0:368  2:718P:I: ðT R&B  T asp Þ5 ð1Þ
where Eb is the elastic modulus of the bituminous binder (MPa),
TR&B is the recovered bitumen ‘Ring and Ball’ softening temperature
(°C), Tasp is the temperature of the asphalt layer (°C), P.I. is the
recovered bitumen ‘Penetration Index’ and t is the loading time
(secs).
Eq. (1) is only applicable when:
0:01 s < t < 0:1 s;
1:0 < P:I: < 1:0;
20  C < ðT R&B  T asp Þ < 60  C:
1458 A.I. Al-Hadidy, T. Yi-qiu / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1456–1464

25KN 25KN 120

Lower limit
319.5 100 Upper limit
R=106.5mm Middle limit
702Kpa 80

% passing
60
SMA: =.3, E=var., t=50mm
40
AC: =.3, E=1500Mpa, t=50mm
20

Base: =.25, E=2000Mpa, t=200mm

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Seive size (mm)
Subbase: =.35, E=800Mpa, t=200mm
Fig. 2. SMA gradation limits.

2.2. Low density polyethylene (LDPE)

Subgrade: =.35, E=50Mpa, t=1000mm
The LDPE was obtained from the petrochemical company in
Fig. 1. Pavement design and considered loading: dual tires.
Basrah (200 km south of Baghdad capital). The results of the phys-
ical and chemical properties of LDPE before and after pyrolysis pro-
Em ¼ Eb ½1 þ ð257:5  2:5VMAÞ=ðn ðVMA  3ÞÞn cesses are shown in Table 3.
ð2Þ
n ¼ 0:83 log½4  104 =Eb 
2.3. Filler

where Em is the elastic modulus of the asphalt mixture (Mpa), VMA
percent voids in mixed aggregate.
Eq. (1) is only applicable when:
12% < VMA < 30%; Eb > 5 MPa:
The horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of AC layer (Tt) and the
vertical compressive strain at the top of subgrade layer (Tc) were
calculated under the left tire using multi-layer elastic analysis pro-
gram, BISAR using 50 KN set of dual tires with 106.5 mm contact ra-
dius. These responses were used for estimating the improvement in
service life of the pavement or reduction in thickness of SMA and
base layer for the same service life due to LDPE modified SMA mix-
ture. The parameters for calculation the elastic modulus of unmod-
ified and modified SMA mixtures were reported in Table 1.
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) was used as mineral filler. It was
passed through sieve No. 200 and had specific gravity of 2.731.
2.4. LDPE-asphalt formulation
At first LDPE was subjected to thermal degradation (pyrolysis)
process, mentioned by Al-Hadidy [3] and as shown in Fig. 3, after
grinding to powder by means of mechanical grinding, then the as-
phalt was mixed with different percentages of LDPE 2, 4%, 6% and
8% wt. at 160 ± 5 °C using high-speed stirrer rotating at a speed of
1750 rpm, and blending was done for a period of 3–5 min to obtain
a homogeneity binder [9]. Four modified binders were thus pro-
duced from this asphalt.
2.5. Optimization of the mixtures

Marshall mix design (ASTM D-1559) [18] procedure is normally

2. Materials and methods used to optimize the SMA mixtures in Iraq.
In SMA mix design, usually the Marshall method of mix design
2.1. Aggregate and asphalt cement is used to verify satisfactory voids in SMA mixtures. Laboratory
specimens were prepared using fifty blows of the Marshall ham-
Aggregate is from Al-Khazer located in the North Province of mer per side. Seventy-five compaction blows were not used since
Iraq. Fig. 2 shows the recommended gradation limits by the SC they would not result in a significant increase in density over that
DOT [17] for SMA mixtures and the selected gradation in this re- provided by 50 blows. SMA mixtures have been more easily com-
search was in the middle of the limits. pacted on the roadway to the desired density than the effort re-
The asphalt cement used in this investigation was obtained quired for conventional HMA mixtures [18,19]. The optimum
from Baiji oil refinery (200 km North of Baghdad). The asphalt asphalt content for SMA mixtures is usually selected to produce
was 50/60-penetration grade. Physicochemical properties of this 3–5% air voids and a drain down of less than 0.3%.
asphalt were presented in Table 2. In this research, compaction of all the SMA samples was per-
formed using fifty blows of the Marshall hammer per side. The
optimum asphalt content for the control SMA mixture was found
to be 5.82% at 4.2% air voids.
Table 1
Parameters for elastic modulus calculation of unmodified and modified SMA mixture
2.6. Preparation of Marshall and indirect tensile strength specimens of
Parameter Penetration (1/ TR&B t P.I. Eb VMA Em modified SMA mixtures
10 mm) (°C) (s) (Mpa) (%) (Mpa)
Unmodified 38 58 0.1 0.948 8.29 17.621 1764.48 An optimum asphalt content of 5.82% as found from Marshall
SMA control mix design (by wt. of total mix) was used in preparing all
Modified 21 68 0.1 0.580 22.22 17.90 3182.2
other LDPE modified mixes to maintain consistency through the
SMA
study.
 A.I. Al-Hadidy, T. Yi-qiu / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1456–1464 1459

Table 2 2. The modified binder was heated up to 160 °C in an electrically

Physicochemical properties of asphalt cement controlled oven.
Property ASTM Test conditions Result SCRB 3. The combination of aggregate, filler and modified binder was
Designation & units limits [19] mixed mechanically at a temperature of 165 ± 5 °C for 1.5 min.
No. 4. The specimens formulated were then compacted at 145 °C
Penetration D-5 25 °C,100 g, 5 s, dmm 51 50–60 using electrical Marshall apparatus specified by ASTM D1559
Softening point D-36 R&B, °C 52.5 50–60 [15].
Ductility D-113 25 °C, 5 cm/min, cm 150+ >100
Specific gravity D-70 25 °C/ 25 °C 1.051 –
Flash point D-92 COC, °C 259 – One hundred samples for all percentages of LDPE were fabri-
Loss on heat D-1754 5 h, l63 °C, % 0.253 – cated. For each percentage of LDPE, five specimens were used for
Asphaltenes D-2006 % 22.4 – Marshall stability at 60 °C for 35 min. 40 specimens were pre-
Saturates D-2006 % 27.6 –
pared to determine the tensile strength values. These 40 speci-
Naphthenes D-2006 % 35 –
aromatics mens were divided into two groups (20 specimens each). The
Polar aromatics D-2006 % 11 – two set of 101.6 mm diameter  63.5 mm tall specimens was
compacted to 6–8% air voids with a Marshall hammer. The first
group was tested at 25 °C for 2 h and the second set was tested
The following steps were performed for the formulation of com-
after immersion at 60 °C for 24 h followed by 2 h immersion at
pacted specimens:
25 °C with 50.8 mm/min deformation rates then the tensile
strength was determined using the equations described by Lott-
1. The mixture of aggregate and filler was heated to 160 °C in an
man [20,21].
electrically controlled oven.
2.7. Laboratory testing
Table 3
Physicochemical properties of LDPE A series of tests were carried out on modified binders according
to ASTM [18] methods to characterize the mixtures designed for
Property Result Specifications [25–28]
different percentages of LDPE as additive. The tests that were con-
Density 0.9205 gm/cm3 0.91–0.94 ducted include the following:
Tensile strength 10.11 MN/m2 –
Flexural modulus 0.203 GN/m2 –
Melting point 113.2 °C 115 – Rheological tests, such as penetration (ASTMD-5), ductility
Chemical unit (–CH2–CH2–)n (ASTM D-113), softening point (ASTM D-36). etc.
Thermal degradation temperature 406 °C 404 – Temperature susceptibility (using Eq. (3) mentioned by Yang
Price 0.05 $/kg –
[22]).

Fig. 3. Schematic of the thermal degradation apparatus.

1460 A.I. Al-Hadidy, T. Yi-qiu / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1456–1464

Table 4 3.4.1. Passing the binder at 165 °C through an ASTM 100 sieve
Rheological properties of LDPE-asphalt binders It was found that the binder thus prepared can be stored for fu-
LDPE Penetration (25 °C, 100 g, 5 s, Ductility (25 °C, 5 cm/ Softening point ture use [9].
(%) dmm) min) (°C)
0 51 150+ 52.5 3.4.2. Light microscopy
2 40.8 148.5 57 Light microscopy was used to evaluate the compatibility be-
4 35.5 141.8 61.5 tween LDPE and asphalt. The microstructures of asphalt and mod-
6 28 137 66
8 23.5 91.0 68.5
ified asphalt with LDPE were observed on a light microscope and
shown in Fig. 6. Because of the identification photographs of three
LDPE percentages which are 2%, 4%, and 6%, one of them is listed
– Short-term aging using the thin film oven test (TFOT) (ASTM and discussed here. The photomicrographs demonstrated that
D-1754), which simulates the aging effect of the asphalt mix- LDPE is well dissolved in the asphalt matrix at a temperature of
tures production and construction. 165 °C for all contents, and the ductility values sited in Table 4 in-
– Compatibility test. sure these results.
– The tests conducted on SMA mixture modified with LDPE
include: 3.5. Effect of LDPE proportion on Marshall, moisture sensitivity and
– Marshall test (ASTM D1559). low-temperature performance of SMA mixtures
– Indirect tensile strength test (ASTM D4124).
3.5.1. Marshall test
3. Results and discussion The relationship between Marshall properties and LDPE content
was plotted at optimum binder content (i.e. 5.82 wt% of total mix)
3.1. Rheological tests as shown in Fig. 6.
Figs. 7a and 7b represent the effect of LDPE content on Marshall
The rheological properties of LDPE-asphalt binders were evalu- stability and flow. The Figures indicate that as LDPE content in-
ated and the results are presented in Table 4. The results indicate creases the stability increases and the flow decrease up to 6% LDPE.
that LDPE is effective in improving the rheological properties of as- This was attributed to the specific gravity of LDPE which is less
phalt cement. than that of virgin asphalt. This serves to penetrate between parti-
Examining Table 4, it can be seen that LDPE is keeping the duc- cles and enhanced interlock of aggregates, which increase stability
tility values of 100+ up to 6% which indicates that LDPE is com- and decrease flow. Beyond 6% LDPE content the stability decreases
pletely dissolved in asphalt cement. The softening point of virgin and the flow increases.
asphalt was raised by 26% at 6 wt%. LDPE indicates improvements Fig. 7c shows that air voids decreased up to 6% LDPE content
in resistance to deformation. After thermal degradation LDPE con- due to the filling property attributed by LDPE addition. After this
tains a larger number of activated groups which made the chemical percentage, the air voids increased.
reaction with asphalt molecules easier. This contributes to the in- Examining Table 5 indicates that 6% LDPE content satisfies the
crease in softening point of the virgin asphalt. specified limits of 3–5% air voids and a drain down less than the

3.2. Temperature susceptibility

The penetration index relationship was used to investigate the 1

influence of LDPE addition on temperature susceptibility of asphalt
cement using the following Eq. (3) mentioned by Yang [22]: 0.5

Penetration indexðP:I:Þ ¼ ½ð20  500AÞ=ð1 þ 50AÞ

P.I.

ð3Þ 0
A ¼ ½ðlog pen:@T  log 800Þ=ðT  T R&B Þ
0 2 4 6 8 10
where T = Testing temperature, TR2B = Ring and Ball softening -0.5
point.
Fig. 4 illustrates the relationship between the penetration index -1
and LDPE contents. It can be seen that all modified binders are less % LDPE
susceptible to temperature changes than the virgin asphalt
Fig. 4. Relationship between LDPE content and P.I.
cement.

3.3. Durability test

Fig. 5 shows that the percentage loss of LDPE binders decreases 0.3
% Loss of heat and air

as the LDPE content increases. This is related to that LDPE occupied 0.25
a space of total mix and causes reduction in asphalt volume, which
0.2
leads to a decrease in loss by dehydrogenation and oxidation of as-
phalt in the mix (i.e. durability increased slightly with the addition 0.15
of LDPE content in the mix). 0.1
0.05
3.4. Compatibility test
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
The compatibility between LDPE and asphalt was studied using
the following techniques: % LDPE

Fig. 5. Relationship between LDPE content and % loss of heat and air.
 A.I. Al-Hadidy, T. Yi-qiu / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1456–1464 1461

Fig. 6. Photomicrographs of LDPE modified asphalt (a = 0%, b = 6% & c = 8%).

minimum allowable of 0.3% mentioned by SCDOT specification
[17] for SMA 13 mm.
3.5.2. Moisture sensitivity
Resistance to moisture- induced damage of SMA mixtures was
evaluated by using tensile strength ratio (TSR) (warm-water soak-
ing 24 h at 60 °C).The TSR of wet to dry group, was computed from
the results of the indirect strength test. The higher the TSR value,
the less the strength should be influenced by the water soaking
condition, or the more water-resistant it should be. The minimum
wet tensile strength and TSR necessary to ensure good pavement
performance has been identified in SCDOT [17] and found to be
448 kPa and 85%, respectively. Mixtures with TSR less than 85%
are moisture susceptible and mixtures with ratios grater than
85% are resistant to moisture damage. Indirect tensile strength test
14
12
Stability (kN)
results are given in Fig. 8. The results indicate that tensile strength,
and tensile strength ratio increased for both testing temperatures
(i.e. increase the adhesion between aggregate and asphalt, which
leads to a decrease in the stripping of SMA).
3.5.3. Low temperature performance
It is commonly accepted that at low temperature, bituminous
materials exhibit elastic behavior. For an elastic material, the mod-
ulus is defined as the ratio of stress/strain. For bituminous materi-
als, this is defined as stiffness modulus [23] which, in the case of
flexural testing, is called the flexural stiffness. The flexural stiffness
is determined as follows:
2
St ¼ ½ðP  LÞ=ðb  d Þ ð4Þ
where St = stiffness modulus, P = load at break, L = beam span,
b = av. beam width, d = av. beam depth and St is a measure of the
stiffness of the material. In addition, another parameter may be
determined, namely flexural modulus of the material is determined
by

10
2 2
8 Sr ¼ ½ðP  L3 Þ=ð6  b  d  DÞ ð5Þ
6 y= -0.1444x 2 + 1.5483x + 7.3307
4 R2 = 0.97 5
2
4
0
Air voids

0 2 4 6 8 10 3

% LDPE 2
1
Fig. 7a. Relationship between LDPE content and stability.
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
% LDPE
3.3
3.2 Fig. 7c. Relationship between LDPE content and air voids.
Flow (mm)

3.1
3 Table 5
Marshall results of LDPE asphalt mixes
2.9
LDPE Stability Flow Rigidity ratio (kN/ Air voids Drain down
2.8 (%) (kN) (mm) mm) (%) (%)
2.7 0 7.41 3.175 2.335 4.2 0.303
0 2 4 6 8 10 2 9.72 2.991 3.247 4.05 6.291
4 11.2 2.81 3.922 3.97 0.277
% LDPE 6 11.7 2.74 4.198 3.62 0.251
8 10.4 2.852 3.763 3.41 0.2406
Fig. 7b. Relationship between LDPE content and flow.
1462 A.I. Al-Hadidy, T. Yi-qiu / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1456–1464

100

Indirect tensile strength

2
y25 = 0.075Ln(x) + 1.1514 25ºC
1.5 R2 = 0.8209 60ºC 80

% TSR
MPa 60
1
40
0.5 y60 = 0.1195Ln(x) + 0.9979
R2 = 0.9303 20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
% LDPE
% LDPE

Fig. 8. Relationship between LDPE content (a. Tensile strength, and b. %TSR).

where Sr = flexural modulus (modulus of rupture), D = deflection at izontal tensile strain (Tt) developed at the bottom of the bitumi-
the beam center; and the other variables as defined above. nous layer or the vertical compressive strains (Tc) developed at
Fig. 9 summarizes test results for the conventional and 6% the top of the subgrade, respectively, have been considered as indi-
LDPE-modified asphalt concrete mixtures. The testing was con- ces of fatigue and rutting of the pavement structure. Yang [22] con-
ducted at 10 °C. Stiffness and modulus of rupture for LDPE-mod- siders a rut depth of 12.7 mm to be a failure criterion for flexible
ified asphalt mixtures is slightly higher than for conventional pavement and the rutting in Eq. (4) is used
asphalt mixtures because the viscosity of LDPE-modified asphalt
is higher than that of conventional asphalt. Test results indicated Nd ¼ 1:365  109 ðEc Þ4:477 ð6Þ
that the inclusion of LDPE content in asphalt mixtures reduces
the cracking potential at low temperatures (10 °C). where Nd = number of cumulative standard axles to produce a rut-
ting of 12.7 mm.
3.5.4. Benefits of modification The horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of AC layer and the
Structural failures in a flexible pavement are of two types, vertical compressive strain at the top of subgrade of unmodified
namely surface cracking and rutting. Cracking is due to fatigue and modified pavement system were captured for different thick-
caused by repeated application of load in the bounded layer gener- nesses of the SMA, and base. For modified system, thickness of
ated by the traffic. Rutting is developed due to accumulation of the base course of 200 mm, subbase course of 200 mm, and AC
pavement deformation in various layers along the wheel path. Hor- thickness of 50 mm were maintained constant and the SMA thick-

400 6
Modulus of rupture kpa

5
300
4
Strain 10-3

200 3

2
100
1

0 0
6%LDPE

6%LDPE
Control

Control

Mixture Mixture

100
Stiffness Modulus
x103kpa

50

0
6%LDPE
Control

Mixture

Fig. 9. Flexural strength properties of unmodified and modified mixtures (a) modulus of rupture, (b) strain, and (c) stiffness modulus.
 A.I. Al-Hadidy, T. Yi-qiu / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1456–1464 1463

Table 6
Modification benefits in base and SMA thickness

SMA mix Constant subbase, AC and SMA Constant subbase, base and AC Constant subbase and AC, SMA thickness of
30 mm
Base LTR Tt Tc SMA thickness (mm) LTR Tt Tc Base LTR (%) Tt Tc
thickness (%) (%) thickness
(mm) (mm)
Unmodified 200 0 10.21 282.6 50 0 10.21 282.6 200 0 10.21 282.6
150 25 8.995 344.7 40 20 6.128 131.2 175 12.5 1.938 337.5
100 50 9.99 429.2 30 40 0.235 136.3 150 25 3.488 375.1
50 75 20.6 240.7
Modified 200 0 18.58 263.9 50 0 18.58 263.9 200 0 18.58 263.9
150 25 19.06 320.8 40 20 15.37 124.2 175 12.5 8.483 319.9
100 50 22.18 398.4 30 40 9.394 130 150 25 7.837 355
50 75 35.08 225.6 Constant subbase and AC, base thickness of 25 for base 10.38 141.6
150 mm and SMA thickness of 33 mm and 34 for
SMA

ness was varied. Similarly, base thickness was varied for a constant
subbase of 200 mm, AC thickness of 50 mm and SMA thickness of
50 mm. Again, keeping the SMA thickness of 30 mm, AC thickness
of 50 mm, and subbase thickness of 200 mm, the base thickness
was varied. The horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of AC and
the vertical compressive strain at the top of subgrade in unmodi-
fied and modified pavement sections were evaluated for all these
alternatives from linear elastic analysis. Table 6 shows this varia-
tion of horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of AC and vertical
compressive strain at the top of subgrade layer. These results were
used to study the benefits of modifying the SMA mixture in terms
of LTR and TBR. The TBR gives the extension in the service life of
pavement due to LDPE modification and can be written in the
equation form as
TBR ¼ NdM =NdU
where Nd = number of traffic passes required for producing a pave-
ment surface deformation (rutting) up to the allowable rut depth
and expressed in mm; and M and U denote modified and unmodi-
fied pavement sections.
Satish [24] evaluated the benefits of fiber reinforced subgrade
soil in terms of LTR for the equivalent service life of the pavement.
It can be defined as
LTR ¼ ½ðDU  DM Þ=DU 100
DU and DM = SMA thicknesses of unmodified and modified pave-
ment sections.
The results of multi-layer elastic analysis presented in Table 6
indicate that the horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of AC in
the pavement section designed with unmodified SMA is 10.21 l.
For a constant thickness of AC, and subbase, this strain level was
obtained for a base thickness of 150 mm and SMA thickness of
33 mm.
If the pavement section is kept the same for unmodified and
modified SMA mixture, the vertical compressive strain reduces
from 282.6 l in the case of unmodified SMA to 263.9 l for modi-
fied SMA, giving the TBR of 1.359. It means that modified pavement
will have a life 1.359 times that of unmodified pavement. These re-
sults show that for a constant thickness of AC and subbase, the
thickness of the SMA and base reduces by 34% and 25%, respec-
tively, for almost the same service life of modified and unmodified
pavements. Therefore, the flexible pavement can be designed by
adopting any of these alternatives.
The pavement can also be designed for any intermediate thick-
ness to reduce the thickness of the SMA or base layer as well as to
gain additional benefits in terms of extension in service life of the
pavement. For example, in the case of modified SMA, the thickness
of the base can be theoretically reduced to less than 50 mm (75%
LTR) for designed vertical compressive strain of 225.6 l.
4. Conclusions
Based on this limited study of the utilization of pyrolysis LDPE
in SMA mixtures, the following findings were made:
(A) A review of the standard binder testing and grading results
indicated the following:
1. Penetration at 25 °C will generally decrease as LDPE content
increases, which indicates an improved shear resistance in
medium to high temperatures.
2. The addition of LDPE kept the ductility values at a minimum
ð7Þ
range of ASTM and SCRB specifications of 100+ cm up to 6%
LDPE content.
3. Softening point tend to increase with the addition of LDPE,
which indicates improvement in resistance to deformation.
4. The percentage loss of air and heat decreases with the addition
of LDPE (i.e. the resistance of asphalt to the action of tempera-
ture and temperature changes and the action of heat increases).
5. The photomicrograph indicated that LDPE and asphalt are com-
patible to an extent.
ð8Þ
6. Penetration index values indicated that LDPE reduced the tem-
perature susceptibility of asphalt.
(B) A review of the Marshall, indirect tensile strength and flex-
ural strength results indicated the following:
1. The pyrolysis LDPE was effective in preventing excessive drain
down of the SMA mixtures (i.e. bleeding phenomenon).
2. The mixtures containing the LDPE greatly exceeded the indirect
tensile strength requirements set by the SC DOT.
3. The tensile strength ratios for the mixtures containing the LDPE
were greater than 85%. This indicates that this type of additive
does not cause the mixture to weaken when exposed to
moisture.
4. The inclusion of LDPE increases the stiffness and modulus of
rupture values of the asphalt mixtures at low temperature
(10 °C) which may reduce the cracking potential of pavements
at low temperatures. LDPE-modified asphalt mixtures were
found to have lesser strain values compared to conventional
asphalt concrete mixtures.
5. Results indicated that flexible pavement with high perfor-
mance, durability and more economic can be obtained with
6% pyrolysis LDPE.
1464 A.I. Al-Hadidy, T. Yi-qiu / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1456–1464
(C) Mechanistic–empirical design approach results indicated
the following:
1. If the pavement section is kept the same for unmodified and
modified SMA mixture, the pavement gives TBR value of 1.359.
2. For a constant thickness of subbase and AC (as for the standard
section), the thickness of the base and SMA reduces by 25% and
34%, respectively.
3. The pavement consisting of LDPE-modified SMA as a surface
layer is beneficial in reducing the construction materials. Actual
savings would depend upon the option exercised by the
designer for reducing the thickness of an individual layer.
4. The obtained results in this study may vary if bitumen from
other sources is used.
Acknowledgments
This research was part of a project (project No.50778057) sup-
ported by National Natural Science Foundation (NSFC) and the Re-
search Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education (RFDP)
of China.
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