SPE 80895
New Rheological Correlations For Guar Foam Fluids
Sudhakar D. Khade, SPE; Subhash N. Shah, SPE; University of Oklahoma; Norman, Oklahoma
Copyright 2003, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Production and Operations Symposium.
held in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, U.S.A., 22–25 March 2003.
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Abstract
Foams provide highly attractive alternative over conventional non-
Newtonian fluids for various oil and gas industry applications
because of their high viscosity and low liquid content. Foams have
long history of proven performance in well stimulations, drilling,
acidizing, cleanout operations, and enhanced oil recovery. Foam
apparent viscosity is used in hydraulic (pressure drop) calculations
for various pumping operations. Thus, accurate rheological
characterization is very important to predict viscosity of foam.
In this investigation, rheological experiments are carried out with
guar gel and guar foam fluids rheology using a ½-in. pipe viscometer
at 1000 psi and temperature ranging from 100 to 200 oF. Guar,
surfactant and nitrogen are used as the gelling agent, foaming agent
and gas phase respectively. Foam formulations were prepared and
tested for qualities ranging from 0 to 80 % at several flow rates.
The present study has shown that both guar gel and guar foam fluids
exhibit a behavior analogous to the Power law model fluid. The
experimental data are used to develop new rheological correlations to
predict Power law fluid flow parameters and thus, apparent viscosity
of the foam fluids. These new correlations are functions of
temperature, foam quality, shear rate, and fluid concentrations. The
correlations were compared with various published correlations. The
available correlations in the literature have assumed that the flow
behavior index of the foam is similar to that of the liquid phase. This
assumption does not support the basic physics that the increase in
viscosity decreases flow behavior index. Our results show that the
above assumption is not valid and leads to a prediction of extremely
low apparent viscosity of foam fluids. In contrast to the previous
studies, we report high apparent viscosities of foam fluids at high
qualities.
Introduction
Foam has long been an important subject for scientific study either
because of its applicability or due to its impairing effects in a variety
of industrial oil and gas applications and chemical processes. The use
of foam fluids is a highly attractive alternative over conventional
non-Newtonian fluids. Foams possess many desirable properties that
make them highly applicable as drilling fluids. They also find wide
application in stimulation, well-bore cleanout, workover & remedial
operations, gas-mobility control in improved oil recovery, acid
diversion in well stimulation, in water shut-off and gas-blocking in
water coning prevention and gas storage. In recent years, the use of
foam as fracturing and an under-balanced drilling fluid has enjoyed
rapid growth and recognition. On the other hand formation of foams
in chemical processes, such as oil-water separation, oil flotation or
distillation, cause problems by reducing process efficiency and
operating controllability.
Foams are a special kind of colloidal dispersions, in which a gas (air,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc.) is dispersed in a continuous liquid
phase. Most of the foams used in oil and gas industry contain over
70% of dispersed phase. The volume fraction of dispersed phase in
foams is normally known as foam quality. The liquid in the foam
always contains surface-active agent (surfactant) that preferentially
accumulates at the gas-liquid interfaces and imparts stability to the
films1. The surfactant may be anionic, non-ionic or amphoteric.
Foams are classified as non-Newtonian fluids, because they exhibit
shear rate dependent viscosity in laminar flow regime.
Characteristically, viscosity of foam is greater than those of the liquid
and gas phases.
However, it is difficult to control foam behavior to achieve the
desired advantages mentioned above because the full understanding
of the mechanism governing foam behavior still remains a challenge.
Bearing this in mind an attempt has been made towards achieving the
following objectives in this work.
1. To study the rheological characterization of guar foam
using pipe viscometer.
2. To study the effects of quality, temperature and fluid
concentration on foam flow parameters.
3. To develop rheological correlations for guar foam to
predict the rheological parameters.
In order to achieve the aforementioned objectives this study was
conducted in the laminar flow regime at 1000 psi confining pressure,
through a ½-in. pipe over a temperature range of 100 to 200 oF. Gel
concentrations of 20, 30 and 40-lbm/Mgal guar were used for foam
qualities ranging from 0 to 80 %. This work discusses in detail the
fluids tested, experimental setup used, test procedure and data
analysis technique followed, and presents rheological results for guar
foams in straight tubings.
Literature Review
A number of authors have studied foam rheology using capillaries
and rotational viscometers. Mitchell2, studied aqueous foam in small
2 SPE 80895
capillary tubes and classified foam as a Bingham plastic type fluid
with strong dependence on quality. No wall slippage effect was
observed with increased shear stress and tube diameter. Furthermore,
the viscosity was dependent on shear rate at qualities greater than
54%, but dependent on quality only at very high shear rates.
Saintrepe et al3 investigated the rheological properties of aqueous
foams for underbalanced drilling. Gelled foams using polyacrylamide
(PAA) and xanthan were investigated at ambient conditions, using a
parallel plate geometry. It was found that the apparent viscosity of
foam is not only a function of its quality but also of its texture and
presence of polymers in the liquid phase. Their results confirmed that
foam is a yield-pseudoplastic and can be represented by a Herschel-
Bulkley model.
Patton et al4 found foams to be pseudoplastic and several orders of
magnitude more viscous than the liquid phase, with drier foams
having higher apparent viscosities than wet ones. As the capillary
tube dimensions decreased (both the length and the diameter), the
measured apparent viscosities increased.
Reidenbach et al5 used a recirculating loop to perform experimental
tests with aqueous and gelled water foams using nitrogen and carbon
dioxide as an internal phase. A Herschel-Bulkely model was used to
describe gelled foams and aqueous foams were characterized using
classical Bingham Plastic model. They concluded that the flow
behavior index, n, of foam fluids was the same as that of the liquid
phase, while consistency index of foam fluids is a function of the
liquid phase consistency index and foam quality.
Harris et al6 used a recirculating flow loop to investigate the rheology
of nitrogen foam at various temperatures up to 300oF and 1000 psi.
Hydroxypropyl guar (HPG) was used as the liquid phase. They found
that the foam behaved as yield-pseudoplastic and could be described
by the Herschel–Bulkley model. They assumed that the flow behavior
index, n, of foam fluids is same as that of the liquid phase and
consistency index of foam fluids is a function of liquid phase
consistency index and foam quality.
Bonilla7 carried out an experimental investigation similar to that of
Harris6 with aqueous foams and guar gelled foams employing a pipe
type viscometer. He concluded that foam fluids behave like Herschel-
Bulkley model. Empirical correlations were developed to predict
foam flow properties assuming flow behavior index, n, of foam fluids
is same as that of liquid phase.
8
Harris investigated rheological properties of mixed-gas foams and
the effect of cross-linker concentration on flow properties of the
cross-linked foams. The rheological properties of mixed foams are
very similar to the rheologies of Nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide
(CO2) foams. He found that the Herschel–Bulkley model defined the
rheological behavior of cross-linked foams. Crosslinked foams are
generally one to two times more viscous than linear gel foams.
Empirical correlations were developed for borate-cross-linked foam
viscosity.
Philips et al9 investigated the rheology of carbon dioxide foam at
high temperatures, 100 to 250oF, and 1000 psi using a single pass
viscometer. The foaming agent concentration provided little
corresponding increase in stability of foam above the certain
concentration. It was also found that increase in the gelling agent
concentration improved the stability of the foam.
Enzendofer et al10 used a single pass pipe viscometer with different
diameters. They used a volume-equalized Power Law model that
incorporates the foam-liquid density ratio to describe the rheology of
polymer-based foams. Film thickness decreased with increased pipe
diameter. The flow curve showed power-law behavior with no clear
indication of yield stress.
The problem of modeling foam flows is complicated due to the
structure of foam and lack of understanding of the characteristics of
such flows. Foam fluids exhibit shear rate dependent viscosites and
their apparent viscosities are functions of quality, texture, and liquid
phase properties. Increases in foam quality results in increases in
apparent viscosity of foam fluids. Viscosities play a major role in
defining frictional losses of fluids in any form of geometry. Thus,
accurate measurements of flow behavior index and consistency index
are necessary to define viscosity. It is evident from the above
literature review that authors have assumed the flow behavior index
of foam flow to be similar to that of the liquid phase. However, this
assumption does not support the physics of fluid flow because flow
behavior index decreases with increases in viscosity of the fluid. This
assumption could lead wrong calculations of apparent viscosity for
foams at high qualities. Thus, to study this phenomenon an
experimental investigation on foam flow properties is carried out and
results are discussed in this paper.
Experimental Setup and Test Procedure
A recirculating foam flow loop at the University of Oklahoma, Well
Construction Technology Center (WCTC), was used for the
rheological investigation of the gelled foam. Figure 1 shows a
schematic of the experimental setup. The loop can be used to
characterize the rheological behavior of foam fluids of different
chemical compositions at different qualities under various
experimental conditions.
The foam flow loop includes a 20-gallon capacity liquid phase
mixing tank, Triplex pump, Nitrogen gas tank, and Static mixer.
• Three straight pipe sizes: ½- in., 3/8-in., and ¼-in. with 0.4348-
in. 0.3055-in., and 0.1824-in. internal diameters respectively are
available. However, only ½ in. pipe was used to gather data. The
pipes are made of stainless steel and are smooth. Honeywell
differential pressure sensor measured the differential pressure
across a 10-ft long section of the pipes. The maximum working
pressure of the foam loop is 1200 psia. Two backpressure
regulators act as relief valves and also maintain the absolute
pressure according to the test condition.
• Micropump Series 10k gear pump recirculated the fluid inside
the loop.
• Micromotion® flow meter measured flow rate, density, and
temperature of the flowing fluid.
• The heating system is made up of medium temperature heating
tapes, temperature controller, and a fiberglass tapes as isolation
system.
• Wireless data acquisition system was used to read the data.
Test Procedure
Liquid phase of desired composition was prepared using a
recirculating pump to eliminate lump formation and sufficient time (1
hour) was given for complete gel hydration. The rheological
parameters of the liquid phase were evaluated using a model 35 Fann
viscometer. This served as a check of the gel concentration before
starting the experiment.
Using a triplex pump the liquid phase was then pumped from the 20-
gal tank into the loop. After satisfactory flushing, the recirculating
gear pump was started, the triplex pump was turned off and the drain
valve was shut-off. The temperature controller was then set to the
SPE 80895
desired temperature. The liquid phase was recirculated until the
desired temperature was achieved, and 1000 psia pressure was
applied using the nitrogen through the gas supply line. The
backpressure regulator controlled this gauge pressure. At this point,
the data gathering process began.
The rheological behavior of the liquid phase served as the reference
point and was taken as the baseline for the analysis of the rheological
behavior of the foam systems. Flow rate, fluid density, differential
pressure, temperature, and absolute pressure data were recorded on
the computer through the wireless logger.
The next step was the foam generation process and testing. As an
example, to obtain a foam fluid with 20% quality, liquid phase was
drained gradually and meticulously using the drain valve. As the
liquid phase was drained from the loop, gas phase (nitrogen) was
introduced into the loop reducing the fluid density and generating the
foam system through the action of the gear pump.
The foam quality was determined by the density of the newly
combined fluid at the preset conditions of pressure and temperature.
Once the predetermined fluid density was reached, the draining
process was stopped. By closing the drain valve, the addition of
nitrogen was automatically stopped. Foamed fluid was recirculated
for a period of time necessary to obtain stable readings of fluid
density, differential pressure, and flow rate. Friction pressure losses
were obtained by gradually reducing the flow rate in a step-wise
fashion from the maximum to minimum possible.
Once the test for a given quality was finished, the process continued
for higher quality foams. Foams at qualities ranging from 20 to 80%
were recirculated at several flow rates and the data for a wide range
of shear rates were gathered.
Data Reduction and Analysis
Care was taken not to include those readings corresponding to the
flow rates in the transition periods, where the flow rate and the
pressure readings were not stabilized. The data points corresponding
to the unstable flow rate region and pressure drop were deleted and
the points in the stabilized region were averaged out.
The following equations (in field units, see nomenclature) were used
in the data analysis.
The wall shear rate for pipe flow was calculated using the following
equation:
 q  (1)
γ w = 39 . 216  3 
 di 
where, γ w is the wall shear rate (sec-1), q is the flow rate (gpm), and
di is the internal diameter of the pipe (in.).
The wall shear stress for a fluid flowing through a pipe was computed
as follows:
 d ∆p  (2)
τw =3 i 
 l 
where, τw is the shear stress (lbf/ft2), ∆p is the pressure drop (psi), di is
the internal diameter of the pipe (in.), and l is the length between the
two pressure ports (ft).
The fluid’s apparent viscosity was determined from the following
equation:
µ a = 47880 k p (γ w ) n −1 (3)
where, µa = viscosity, cp
3
n = flow behavior index, dimensionless
kp = consistency index, lbfsecn/ft2
γ w = wall shear rate, sec-1
Results and Discussion
From the data analysis, the power law parameters (n and k) were
determined for guar fluids as well as different quality foams at
various temperatures.
The results are divided into two sections: guar fluid rheology and
guar foam fluid rheology. Finally, correlations are developed to
predict power law parameters for guar fluids as well as guar foam
fluids.
Liquid Phase (Guar fluids) Rheology
Figure 2 shows the log-log plot of shear stress versus shear rate for
fluid systems prepared with 40 lbm/Mgal guar fluid as the liquid
phase at various temperatures. It can be seen that shear stress
increases with increasing shear rate for a given temperature and fluid
concentration. However, for a given shear rate, as the temperature
increases the shear stress decreases. This decrease is significant for
low shear rates as compared to high shear rates. It is also observed
that the increase in concentration increases shear stress at a particular
shear rate. In liquids, an increase in temperature is associated with the
weakening of bonds between molecules; since these bonds contribute
to viscosity, the coefficient is decreased.
Figures 3 to 4 show the log-log plots of apparent viscosity versus
shear rate for fluids prepared with 20 and 40 lbm/Mgal guar as the
liquid phase at various temperatures respectively. It is observed that
apparent viscosity is a function of temperature, shear rate, and fluid
concentration. It is also seen that apparent viscosity decreases as the
temperature increases and concentration of fluid decreases.
Base Gel Correlations
Power law parameters obtained from the rheological analysis at
various temperatures were used to develop the empirical correlations.
Figure 5 shows the plot of relative flow behavior index, n, as a
function of change in temperature (∆T), with concentration as the
parameter. The flow behavior index at base temperature (100 oF) is
shown as n100, while nT is the flow behavior index at any temperature
greater than base temperature. From Fig. 5, it can be observed that
the relative flow behavior index increases with increasing
temperature and concentration.
The following empirical equation is used to fit the curves:
nT
= 1 + X (∆T )1.5 (4)
n100
where, X is a constant that depends on the gel concentration as shown
below.
X = 0.0003 C + 0.0001 (5)
where, C is the guar concentration in weight percent.
Substituting Eq. 5 into Eq. 4, we have:
nT
= 1 + (0.0003C + 0.0001)∆T 1.5 (6)
n100
4 SPE 80895
For the consistency index a similar approach is followed. A relative
consistency index is defined as kT/k100. Figure 6 shows the plot of
relative consistency index as a function of temperature change with
the concentration as the parameter. The figure shows practically no
dependence on concentration as compared to the temperature change.
The relative consistency index decreases with increasing temperature
change. The following empirical correlation fits the data very well.
kT (7)
= 1.00 − 0.0193 ( ∆T ) 0.818
k100
Guar Foam Fluids Rheology
The rheological investigation of guar foams at various qualities (0 to
80 %) and temperatures (100 to 200 oF) are presented in this section.
Guar Foam Rheograms
Figures 7 shows the rheograms for 40 lbm/Mgal guar foam fluid at
200 oF. The shear stress increases with increasing shear rates for all
fluids. Furthermore, as quality increases, shear stress at a given shear
rate also increases. The liquid phase concentration has a significant
effect on the flow properties. It is observed that the increase in
temperature decreases shear stress for given shear rate. Rheograms
for 20 and 30-lbm/Mgal guar foam fluid are not presented here,
however, similar behavior was observed for these foam fluids at
similar test conditions.
Foam Apparent Viscosity
Foam apparent viscosity is the term used in pressure drop
calculations. The variables affecting foam apparent viscosity are
foam quality, temperature, gelling-agent concentration, type of
foaming agent and its concentration, texture of foam, size of the
bubbles and interfacial tension. Amongst these only quality,
temperature and concentration of the gelling-agent effects can be
investigated using the foam flow loop (pipe viscometer). The effects
of these variables have been discussed in the following section.
Effect of Quality on Apparent Viscosity
Figures 8 and 9 show the log-log plots of apparent viscosity versus
shear rate for 30 lbm/Mgal guar foam fluids of various qualities at 100
and 150oF respectively. A linear type of behavior is observed in all
cases. The viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate for all
temperatures investigated. Increase in quality increases viscosity at a
particular shear rate for all temperatures. As the quality increased
from 0 to 80% at 500 s-1and 150 oF, the viscosity increased
significantly from about 12 to 200 cp. However, this increase in
viscosity at 500 s-1and 150 oF is from 10 to 180 cp. This shows that
the increase in temperature results in decrease in viscosity for a given
quality, shear rate, and temperature. Apparent viscosity decreases
with increase in temperature while increases with increase in fluid
concentration for a given quality and shear rate.
Effect of Temperature on Apparent Viscosity
Figures 10 to 11 show the log-log plots of apparent viscosity versus
shear rate for 20 lbm/Mgal at 40 % quality, and 40 lbm/Mgal at 80 %
quality. The graphs show that apparent viscosity decreases with
increase in temperature at a given shear rate. This phenomenon is
called a temperature-thinning effect. The drop in apparent viscosity at
200 oF is less for high quality foam fluids than low quality. It is also
observed that an increase in shear rate decreases apparent viscosity
for a given concentration and quality. This decrease is significantly
higher for high qualities. Therefore it can be seen that apparent
viscosity of high quality foams is more sensitive to change in shear
than low quality foams. Hence, both shear thinning and temperature
thinning are observed with gelled foam fluids.
Effect of Gelling-Agent Concentration on Apparent Viscosity
Gelling-agent concentration is another dominant variable that affects
the foam viscosity. The effect of liquid phase gelling-agent
concentration on the apparent viscosity of 40% quality at 100 oF can
be seen in Fig. 12. From this figure, it can be seen that the apparent
viscosity increased with increasing gel concentration at a given
temperature and shear rate. The liquid phase concentration has a
significant effect on the foam viscosity at lower shear rates. The
apparent viscosity of 20, 30, and 40 lbm/Mgal guar foams decreased
with increasing shear rate for all temperatures and qualities
investigated. As guar concentration increased from 20 to 40 lbm/Mgal
at 0 % quality, 200 oF and 500s-1, the viscosity increased from about
5 to 12 cp. At higher quality (80%) the change is from 90 to 150 cp at
the same 500 s-1 shear rate.
Foam Correlations
By curve fitting the rheograms the power law model parameters (n
and k) were obtained for each experiment with the results presented
in Tables 1 through 3 including the regression coefficients. Using
these model parameters correlations were developed to predict flow
behavior index and flow consistency index.
By dividing the flow behavior index of the foam with the flow
behavior index of base gel at 100 oF a relative flow behavior index
was obtained. Similarly, by dividing the foam consistency index with
that of the liquid gel a relative consistency index was obtained.
Figures 13 through 18 show the plots of the relative flow behavior
index and relative consistency index as a function of quality at
different temperatures for 20, 30, and 40 lb/Mgal guar foam fluids.
The relative flow behavior index decreases gradually for lower
qualities but it decreases exponentially for higher qualities. The
relative consistency index increases gradually at low qualities then
rise exponentially as the quality is increased beyond 60%. The data
are a little scattered at 80% quality for the high temperature
experiments.
The following correlations were obtained for 20, 30, and 40 lb/Mgal
guar foam fluids.
Correlations for 20 lbm/Mgal Guar Foam
For flow behavior index,
7.3003
nFoam
= 1 − 2.1006 Q (8)
nLiquid
where, Q is the foam quality.
For consistency index,
k Foam 2
= e ( −1.9913 Q + 8.9722 Q ) (9)
k Liquid
Correlations for 30 lbm/Mgal Guar Foam
For flow behavior index,
nFoam 6.5152
= 1 − 0.1535 Q (10)
nLiquid
SPE 80895
For consistency index,
k Foam 2
= e ( − 2.3761 Q + 8.8830 Q ) (11)
k Liquid
Correlations for 40 lbm/Mgal Guar Foam
For flow behavior index,
5.168
nFoam
= 1 − 0.6633 Q (12)
nLiquid
For consistency index,
k Foam 2 T
= e ( −0.4891 Q + 5.6203 Q ) (13)
k Liquid
Apparent Viscosity Comparison
New correlations have been developed to predict power law
parameters flow behavior index, n, and consistency index, k. These
correlations were used to predict apparent viscosity of various
qualities (0 to 80%). The apparent viscosity of various qualities
obtained from the experimental data, new correlation and correlations
available in the literature are compared with each other. Figures 19
and 20 show the comparison of apparent viscosity versus quality for
40 lbm/Mgal guar foams at 100 and 200 oF respectively and shear rate
of 511 s-1. It can be seen that as expected the apparent viscosity
obtained from the new correlation and experimental data are in good
agreement. However, the Reidenbach and Harris5, 6 method predicts
apparent viscosity well with the experimental data for low qualities
(approximately Q < 40) while it underpredicts viscosity for high
qualities. This is because Reidenbach et al model is based on the
assumption that flow behavior index of foam fluids is the same as
that of the liquid phase, which results in lower apparent viscosities
than the actual. However, the current investigation shows that the
flow behavior index is a function of quality. Increase in quality
increases apparent viscosity. Hence, results from this investigation
confirms the physics of apparent viscosity that the increase in
apparent viscosity results in decrease in flow behavior index and
increase in consistency parameter. The Mitchell correlation over
predicts the apparent viscosity for low quality foams while
underpredicts for high quality foams.
Conclusions
The work completed in this investigation supports the following
conclusions:
• Experimental correlations to predict the consistency index
and flow behavior index of guar foam fluids have been
developed. They are functions of the liquid phase
properties, temperature, and foam quality and are
applicable to guar based gelled foams.
• Foam fluid rheological behavior follows the power law
model for the shear rate range investigated.
• Empirical correlations developed for guar fluids show the
relative flow behavior index increases with increasing
temperature and concentration, while the relative
consistency index decreases with increasing temperature.
• The relative consistency index increases gradually at low
qualities then increases exponentially at higher qualities.
The flow behavior index for all foam fluids decreases
gradually for low qualities and decreases exponentially for
high qualities.
• Higher qualities produce higher shear stresses and higher
viscosities. At high foam qualities the apparent viscosity of
foam increases exponentially with foam quality.
5
Nomenclature
A = cross-sectional area of the tubing (in.2)
C = gel concentration, wt.%
di = internal diameter of tubing (in.)
f = Fanning friction factor, dimensionless
kp = pipe consistency index of the fluid
(lbf-secn/ft2)
l = length between the pressure ports (ft)
n = flow behavior index, (dimensionless)
∆p = pressure drop (psi)
q = flow rate (gpm)
Q = foam quality
= Temperature, °F
Greek Symbols
γ.w = wall shear rate (sec-1)
ρ = fluid density (lbm/gal)
τw = wall shear stress (lbf/ft2)
µa = apparent viscosity, cP
Reference
1. Wiggers, F. N., Deshpande, N. S., and Barigou, M.: “The
Flow of Foam Films in Vertical Tubes”, Transactions
IChemE, Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 78, A5, 773-778, (2000).
2. Mitchell B.J.: “Rheology of Foams”, Ph.D. Dissertation,
University Of Oklahoma, Norman, (1970)
3. Saintpere, S., Herzhaft, B., Toure, A., and Jollet, S.: ”
Rheological Properties of Aqueous Foams for Under
balanced Drilling”, Paper SPE 56633 Society of Petroleum
Engineers of AIME: Richardson, TX, (1999).
4. Patton, J. T., Holbrook, S. T., and Hsu, W.: “Rheology of
Mobility Control Foams,” SPE Journal, 456-460, June,
(1983).
5. Reidenbach, V. G., Harrris P. C., Lord, D. L. and Lee Y.
N., “Rheological Study of Foam Fracturing Fluids Using
Nitrogen and Carbon Dioxide”, Paper SPE 12026,
presented at the 58th Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, San Francisco, CA, October 5-8, (1983).
6. Harris, P. C. and Reidenvach, V. G.: "High-Temperature
Rheological Study of Foam Fracturing Fluids," Paper SPE
13177, Journal of Petroleum Technology, May,(1987).
7. Bonilla, L.F., “Experimental Investigation on The
Rheology of Foams”, M.S. Thesis, The University of
Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma (1999).
8. Harris, P. C.: “A Comparison of Mixed Gas Foams with N2
and CO2 Foam Fracturing Fluids on a Flow Loop
Viscometer,” SPE 20642 presented at the 65th Annual
Tech. Conf. and Exh. of the SPE, New Orleans, LA,
September, (1990).
9. Phillips, A.M. and Couchman, D.D.: “ Successful Field
Application of High-Temperature Rheology of CO2 Foam
Fracturing Fluids”, Paper SPE 16416 Society of Petroleum
Engineers of AIME, Richardson, TX, (1987).
10. Enzendofer, C., Harris, R. A., Valkó, P., Economides, M.
J., Fokker, P. A., Davies, D. D.: "Pipe Viscometry of
Foams," Journal of Rheology, 39, 345, March,( 1995).
11. Khade, S.D., and Shah, S. N., “New Empirical Friction
Loss Correlations for Foam Fluids in Coiled Tubing”,
Paper SPE/IcoTA, 74810, Presented at Coiled Tubing
Conference and Exhibition held in Houston, Texas, U.S.A.,
9–10 April 2002.
6 SPE 80895

Acknowledgement Table 2-Power Law Model Parameters for 30 lbm/Mgal Guar Foam
Fluids at variousTemperatures11
The authors would like to express their appreciation to the University
Quality ( % )
of Oklahoma and the Mewbourne School of Petroleum and Temp. Fluid
Geological Engineering for the financial support and use of Parameters 0 20 40 50 60 70 80

equipment and facilities at the Well Construction Technology Center.

n 0.574 0.569 0.565 0.561 0.550 0.500 0.419
n 2
k p lbfs /ft ) 0.0046 0.0062 0.0101 0.0150 0.0270 0.0600 0.1950
2
100 R 1.0000 0.9998 0.9996 0.9984 0.9949 0.9984 0.9991
µa, cp 15.4 20.2 32.1 46.4 78.1 127.1 249.1
-1
at 511sec

Table 1-Power Law Model Parameters for 20 lbm/Mgal Guar Foam n 0.591 0.578 0.581 0.580 0.560 0.515 0.426
Fluids at various Temperatures11 k p lbfsn/ft2)
2
0.0035 0.0062 0.0075 0.0109 0.0198 0.0500 0.1511
125 R 0.9991 0.9987 0.9997 1.0000 0.9989 0.9880 0.9992

Quality ( % )
µa 13.1 21.4 26.4 38.0 61.0 116.6 201.6
Temp. Fluid
Parameters 0 20 40 50 60 70 80
n 0.617 0.606 0.606 0.603 0.590 0.530 0.438
n 2
k p lbfs /ft ) 0.0024 0.0037 0.0056 0.0082 0.0142 0.0370 0.1120
2
n 0.730 0.730 0.720 0.717 0.707 0.610 0.429 150 R 0.0167 0.0253 0.0382 0.0556 0.0909 0.2145 0.4658
k p lbfsn/ft2) 0.0009 0.0013 0.0022 0.0034 0.0066 0.0191 0.1315 µa, cp 10.5 15.2 22.9 33.0 52.7 94.5 161.2
2
100 R 0.9998 0.9995 0.9988 0.9982 0.9990 0.9953 0.9999 at 511sec
-1

µa, cp 8.0 11.6 18.4 27.9 50.9 80.3 179.2

at 511sec-1 n 0.643 0.638 0.630 0.627 0.614 0.573 0.473
k p lbfsn/ft2) 0.0016 0.0024 0.0038 0.0054 0.0090 0.0250 0.0730
n 0.750 0.740 0.736 0.731 0.715 0.640 0.443 175 R
2
1.0000 0.9992 0.9995 0.9996 0.9983 0.9971 1.0000
k p lbfsn/ft2) 0.0007 0.0010 0.0016 0.0026 0.0051 0.0145 0.1045
2
µa, cp 8.3 12.0 18.1 25.2 38.9 83.3 130.7
125 R 1.0000 1.0000 0.9995 0.9999 0.9991 0.9951 0.9981 at 511sec
-1

µa, cp 7.0 9.5 14.8 23.3 41.2 73.5 154.7

at 511sec-1 n 0.687 0.680 0.677 0.676 0.646 0.616 0.490
n 2
k p lbfs /ft ) 0.0011 0.0014 0.0025 0.0034 0.0063 0.0150 0.0500
n 0.778 0.770 0.760 0.750 0.730 0.660 0.457 200 R
2
1.0000 0.9956 1.0000 0.9995 0.9991 0.9853 0.9828
n 2
k p lbfs /ft ) 0.0005 0.0007 0.0012 0.0019 0.0034 0.0100 0.0790
µa, cp 7.5 9.1 16.0 21.5 33.1 65.3 99.5
150 R2 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9998 0.9996 0.9950 0.9997 -1
at 511sec
µa, cp 6.0 8.0 12.9 19.1 30.2 57.5 128.3
at 511sec-1

n 0.815 0.810 0.797 0.769 0.667 0.487

n 2
k p lbfs /ft ) 0.0003 0.0007 0.0010 0.0025 0.0065 0.0530
2
175 R 0.9975 0.9995 0.9999 0.9988 0.9997
µa, cp 5.0 10.2 13.5 28.3 38.9 103.6
-1
at 511sec

n 0.900 0.888 0.874 0.728 0.548

k p lbfsn/ft2) 0.0002 0.0005 0.0018 0.0045 0.0322
2
200 R 1.0000 0.9981 0.9956 0.9972
µa, cp 5.6 11.9 39.4 39.5 92.0
-1
at 511sec
Table 3-Power Law Model Parameters for 40 lbm/Mgal Guar
Foam Fluids at various Temperatures11
Quality ( % )
Temp. Fluid
Parameters 0 20 40 50 60 70 80

n 0.491 0.487 0.489 0.487 0.478 0.430 0.386

n 2
k p lbfs /ft ) 0.0120 0.0163 0.0229 0.0350 0.0660 0.1379 0.3021
2
100 R 0.9983 0.9996 0.9998 0.9956 0.9991 0.9975 0.9954
µa, cp 24.0 31.8 45.2 68.5 122.1 188.8 313.3
-1
at 511sec

n 0.516 0.512 0.509 0.506 0.500 0.453 0.404

n 2
k p lbfs /ft ) 0.0089 0.0117 0.0173 0.0241 0.0510 0.1020 0.2050
125 R2 1.0000 0.9996 1.0000 1.0000 0.9990 0.9974 0.9994
µa, cp 20.8 26.7 38.7 52.8 108.0 161.6 238.9
at 511sec-1

n 0.536 0.531 0.525 0.520 0.514 0.460 0.430

k p lbfsn/ft2) 0.0069 0.0090 0.0136 0.0199 0.0390 0.0800 0.1713
2
150 R 1.0000 0.9996 0.9997 1.0000 0.9979 0.9916 0.9997
µa, cp 18.2 23.2 33.7 47.7 90.0 132.0 234.5
at 511sec-1

n 0.570 0.560 0.557 0.552 0.549 0.505 0.460

n 2
k p lbfs /ft ) 0.0046 0.0062 0.0095 0.0135 0.0250 0.0520 0.1100
2
175 R 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9992 0.9979 0.9998 0.9988
µa, cp 15.1 19.1 28.7 39.6 72.0 113.6 181.6
-1
at 511sec

n 0.636 0.636 0.633 0.626 0.615 0.560 0.496

k p lbfsn/ft2) 0.0023 0.0029 0.0045 0.0071 0.0120 0.0260 0.0600
2
200 R 1.0000 1.0000 0.9988 0.9977 0.9999 0.9939 0.9961
µa, cp 11.4 14.3 21.8 32.9 52.1 80.1 123.8
-1
at 511sec
SPE 80895 7
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10 ft
PDI

Diff. Press. Sensor

1/2” OD

3/8” OD

1/4” OD

3 Inj. Port Mixer

Coiled Tubing
H

20 - gal Tank Triplex Pump

Pressure
Regulator

Nitrogen Tank

Gear Pump Choke

Press. Sensor
Micromotion ®
PI
Back Press. Regulator
SU
Sight Glass
Back Press. Regulator MP

Figure 1 –Experimental Setup of the Foam Loop

1
Temperature : 100

100 °F
Temperature :

125 °F
100 °F
125 °F
150 °F
Shear Stress (lbf/ft )

150 °F
2

Apparent Viscosity (cp)

175 °F
175 °F
200 °F
200 °F
0.1 10

1
0.01
100 1000 10000
100 1000 10000
-1 Shear Rate (sec -1)
Shear Rate (sec )

Figure 2 Rheogram for 40 lbm/Mgal Guar Fluid at Various Figure 3 Effect of Temperature on Apparent Viscosity
Temperatures for 20 lbm/Mgal Guar Fluid
8 SPE 80895

100 10
100 °F Quality:

125 °F 0%
150 °F 20%
40%
175 °F
50%
Apparent Viscosity (cp)

Shear Stress (lbf/ft2)

200 °F 60%
70%
10 80%

0.1

1 0.01
100 1000 10000 10 100 1000 10000
-1
Shear Rate (sec ) Shear Rate (sec-1)

Figure 4 Effect of Temperature on Apparent Viscosity Figure 7 Rheogram for 40 lbm/Mgal Guar Foam Fluid at 200 oF
for 40 lbm/Mgal Guar Fluid

1000
1.4
Quality :
20 lb/Mgal
30 lb/Mgal 0%
20 %
40 lb/Mgal
1.3 40 %

Apparent Viscosity (cp)

Curve Fit (20 lb/Mgal)
100 50 %
Curve Fit (30 lb/Mgal)
60 %
Curve Fit ( 40 lb/Mgal )
70%
nT/n100

1.2 80%

10

1.1

1
1
100 1000 10000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Shear Rate (sec-1)
o
∆Τ ( F )

Figure 5 Relative Flow Behavior Index of Guar Fluids as a Figure 8 Effect of Quality on Apparent viscosity for
Function of Change of Temperature (∆T) 30 lbm/Mgal Guar Fluid Foam at 100 oF

1000
Quality :
1
0%
20 lb/Mgal 20 %
30 lb/Mgal 40 %
0.8
40 lb/Mgal
Apparent Viscosity (cp)

50 %
100
Curve Fit 60 %
70%
0.6
k T / k 100

80%

0.4 10

0.2

1
0
100 1000 10000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Shear Rate (sec-1)
∆T ( oF )

Figure 6 Relative Flow Consistency Indices of Guar Fluids as

Figure 9 Effect of Quality on Apparent viscosity for
30 lbm/Mgal Guar Fluid Foam at 150 oF
a Function of Change of Temperature (∆T)
SPE 80895 9

1.2
1000
Temperature :

100 °F 1

125 °F
150 °F
100 0.8
Apparent Viscosity (cp)

175 °F

n foam / n liquid
200 °F

0.6

100 °F
10 125 °F
0.4
150 °F
175 °F
0.2 200 °F
Curve Fit
1
100 1000 10000 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Shear Rate (sec-1 )
Quality, Q, ( % )
Figure 10 Effect of Temperature on Apparent Viscosity for 20
lbm/Mgal Guar Fluid Foam at 40 % Quality
Figure 13 Flow Behavior Index Ratio for 20 lbm/Mgal Guar
foams at Various Temperatures

25

1000 100 °F
125 °F
20
150 °F
175 °F
200 °F
15
Apparent Viscosity (cp)

Curve Fit
kFoam /kLiquid

Temperature :
100 °F
100
125 °F 10
150 °F
175 °F
200 °F 5

0
10 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
10 100 1000 Quality, Q, ( Fraction)
Shear Rate (sec-1)
Figure 14 Consistency Index Ratio for 20 lbm/Mgal Guar
foams at Various Temperatures
Figure 11 Effect of Temperature on Apparent Viscosity for 40
lbm/Mgal Guar Fluid Foam at 80 % Quality

1.2

1000
1
Guar Concentration:
20 lb/Mgal
0.8
30 lb/Mgal
n foam / nliquid
Apparent Viscosity (cp)

100
40 lb/Mgal
0.6
100 °F
125 °F
0.4 150 °F
175 °F
10
200 °F
0.2
Curve Fit

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
1 Quality, Q, ( % )
100 1000 10000
-1
Shear Rate (sec )
Figure 15 Flow Behavior Index Ratio for 30 lbm/Mgal Guar
Figure 12 Effect of Guar Concentration on Apparent Viscosity for foams at Various Temperatures
40 % Quality and 100 oF
10 SPE 80895

50
100 °F 350
45
125 °F New Correlation
40 300 Reidenbach et al Method
150 °F
Mitchell
35 175 °F Experimental Data

Apparent Viscosity (cp)

250
200 °F
30
k Foam /k Liquid

Curve Fit
200
25
nfoam < nliquid
20
150

15
100
10

5 50
nfoam = nliquid
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Quality, Q, ( Fraction )
Quality (Fraction)

Figure 16 Consistency Index Ratio for 30 lbm/Mgal Guar

foams at Various Temperatures Figure 19 Comparison of Apparent Viscosity for 40
lbm/Mgal Guar Foams at 511 s-1 and 100 oF

1.2

140 New Correlation

1
Reidenbach et al Method
120 Mitchell
0.8 Experimental Data
Apparent Viscosity (cp)

100
n foam / n liquid

0.6 n foam < nliquid

100 °F 80

125 °F
60
0.4 150 °F
175 °F
40
200 °F
0.2
Curve Fit
20 nfoam = nliquid
0
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Quality, Q, ( % )
Quality (Fraction)
Figure 17 Flow Behavior Index Ratio for 40 lbm/Mgal Guar
foams at Various Temperatures
Figure 20 Comparison of Apparent Viscosity for 40 lbm/Mgal
Guar Foams at 511 s-1 and 200 oF
30

100 °F
25 125 °F
150 °F
175 °F
20
200 °F
kFoam/kLiquid

Curve Fit
15

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Quality, Q, ( Fraction )

Figure 18 Consistency Index Ratio for 40 lbm/Mgal Guar

foams at Various Temperatures